https://bou.de/u/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=ZhangqiChina Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-04T14:30:38ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.35.14https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=11934120201228 trans2020-12-27T13:32:38Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhou Luoping 周罗平 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
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A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
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Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence. <br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
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''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br />
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我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br />
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''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
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''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
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The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br />
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A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
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“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br />
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”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br />
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Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
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Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
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我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br />
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分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
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The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
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2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
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3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
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1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
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如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
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Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
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政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br />
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政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
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非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br />
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上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br />
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Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
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Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br />
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Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br />
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Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br />
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Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
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Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
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Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br />
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''Martin Woesler''<br />
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In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
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《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br />
<br />
''吴漠汀''<br />
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在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
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本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
'''1. The unknown genre'''<br />
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The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br />
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'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
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二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
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20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
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Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
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“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br />
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在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br />
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尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
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除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays. <br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br />
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This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces". <br />
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Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br />
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Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
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Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br />
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Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
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- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
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- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
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-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br />
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- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
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-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
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- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br />
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“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br />
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3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br />
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
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20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
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Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
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在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br />
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关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br />
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br />
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I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
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We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
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'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br />
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How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br />
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下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br />
<br />
5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br />
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br />
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“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br />
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br />
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br />
<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
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目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br />
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
<br />
前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
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Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
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<br />
但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
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新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
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理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
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'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
<br />
This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br />
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以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay). <br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
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The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
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I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
<br />
除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br />
<br />
考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br />
<br />
一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br />
<br />
''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br />
<br />
In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays". <br />
<br />
In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
<br />
“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br />
<br />
为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
<br />
"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
<br />
Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
<br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br />
<br />
他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br />
<br />
- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br />
<br />
- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br />
<br />
-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''". <br />
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br />
<br />
Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br />
<br />
'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br />
<br />
红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br />
<br />
To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br />
<br />
However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
'''2. Compatibility<br />
'''<br />
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br />
<br />
First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel. <br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br />
<br />
'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br />
<br />
There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br />
<br />
然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br />
<br />
'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br />
<br />
'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br />
<br />
According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br />
<br />
The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br />
<br />
虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br />
<br />
'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br />
<br />
Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802). <br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br />
<br />
'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br />
<br />
Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br />
<br />
与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br />
<br />
According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br />
<br />
The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br />
<br />
In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br />
<br />
Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br />
<br />
在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br />
<br />
在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。<br />
<br />
"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br />
<br />
A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br />
<br />
封建社会和奴隶<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br />
<br />
另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br />
<br />
Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br />
<br />
One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br />
<br />
9. “非二进制小说”<br />
<br />
可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br />
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br />
<br />
Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br />
<br />
'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br />
<br />
Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br />
<br />
Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br />
'''<br />
<br />
A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br />
<br />
Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br />
<br />
这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br />
<br />
研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br />
<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br />
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br />
<br />
The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br />
<br />
当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"<br />
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br />
<br />
当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br />
<br />
这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br />
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br />
<br />
本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br />
<br />
虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br />
<br />
The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br />
<br />
但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br />
<br />
交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br />
<br />
传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br />
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br />
<br />
机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br />
<br />
'''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br />
<br />
1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br />
<br />
2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br />
<br />
3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br />
<br />
4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br />
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br />
<br />
"两种类型的交际行为"<br />
<br />
1.<br />
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br />
<br />
2.<br />
上网行为(浏览网站)<br />
<br />
3.<br />
消费者行为(购买)<br />
<br />
4.<br />
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.<br />
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.<br />
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br />
<br />
8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br />
<br />
9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br />
<br />
8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br />
<br />
9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''3 Types of analysis'''<br />
<br />
1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br />
<br />
2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br />
<br />
3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br />
<br />
4.Mobility profile/pattern<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br />
<br />
8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br />
<br />
9.Secrets (like adultery)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br />
<br />
1.the human switches from active to passive<br />
<br />
2.the human switches from subject to object<br />
<br />
3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br />
<br />
4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br />
<br />
5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br />
<br />
4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br />
<br />
1.人从主动到被动的转换<br />
<br />
2.人从主体到客体的转换<br />
<br />
3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br />
<br />
4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br />
<br />
5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br />
<br />
7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br />
<br />
8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br />
<br />
9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br />
<br />
6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br />
<br />
7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br />
<br />
8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br />
<br />
9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br />
<br />
'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br />
<br />
2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br />
<br />
到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br />
<br />
'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br />
<br />
1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br />
<br />
2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br />
<br />
4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br />
<br />
5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br />
<br />
6.Identity theft<br />
<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
<br />
4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br />
<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
'''6 Consequences'''<br />
<br />
1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6.后果<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br />
<br />
3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br />
<br />
4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br />
<br />
5.Polarization of Society<br />
<br />
6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br />
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7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会的两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br />
<br />
9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br />
'''<br />
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br />
<br />
1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br />
<br />
2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟迫近的未来<br />
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br />
<br />
Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br />
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''8 结论与展望''' <br />
<br />
数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br />
<br />
尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br />
<br />
'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br />
'''<br />
'''<br />
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br />
'''<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br />
<br />
人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br />
<br />
人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
'''9 Outlook'''<br />
<br />
We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br />
<br />
'''References<br />
'''<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br />
<br />
Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br />
<br />
Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br />
<br />
Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br />
<br />
Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br />
<br />
Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br />
<br />
Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br />
<br />
Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br />
<br />
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br />
<br />
Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br />
<br />
Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br />
<br />
Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br />
<br />
Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br />
<br />
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br />
<br />
Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br />
<br />
Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).<br />
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br />
<br />
Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br />
<br />
Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br />
<br />
Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br />
<br />
Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''Bio'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br />
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.<br />
<br />
个人简历<br />
<br />
自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=11933520201228 trans2020-12-27T13:24:17Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhang Qi 张琪 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence. <br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
<br />
''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br />
<br />
我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br />
<br />
''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
<br />
''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
<br />
The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br />
<br />
A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
<br />
“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br />
<br />
”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br />
<br />
Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
<br />
我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br />
<br />
分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
<br />
2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
<br />
3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
<br />
1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br />
<br />
1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br />
<br />
1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
<br />
Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
<br />
政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br />
<br />
政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br />
<br />
上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br />
<br />
Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
<br />
Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br />
<br />
''吴漠汀''<br />
<br />
在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
'''1. The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
<br />
“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
<br />
除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays. <br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces". <br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
<br />
- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br />
<br />
- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br />
<br />
3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br />
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br />
<br />
关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br />
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br />
<br />
I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br />
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How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br />
<br />
下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br />
<br />
5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br />
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br />
<br />
“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br />
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br />
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
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Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br />
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考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
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Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
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目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br />
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
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前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
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Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
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新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
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理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
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'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
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To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
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This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
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然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br />
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以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay). <br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
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The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
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I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
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除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
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Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br />
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20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br />
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考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br />
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一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
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I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br />
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''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br />
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In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays". <br />
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In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
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“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br />
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为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
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"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
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Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br />
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Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
<br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br />
<br />
他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br />
<br />
- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br />
<br />
- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br />
<br />
-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''". <br />
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br />
<br />
Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br />
<br />
'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br />
<br />
红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br />
<br />
To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br />
<br />
However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
'''2. Compatibility<br />
'''<br />
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br />
<br />
First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel. <br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br />
<br />
'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br />
<br />
There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br />
<br />
然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br />
<br />
'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br />
<br />
'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br />
<br />
According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br />
<br />
The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br />
<br />
虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br />
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'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br />
<br />
Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br />
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然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br />
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曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802). <br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br />
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'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br />
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Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br />
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According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br />
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The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br />
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In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br />
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Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。<br />
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"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br />
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While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br />
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A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br />
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封建社会和奴隶<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br />
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另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br />
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2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br />
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Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br />
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8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br />
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亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br />
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亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br />
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In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br />
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One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br />
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9. “非二进制小说”<br />
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可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br />
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br />
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Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br />
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'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
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Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br />
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Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br />
<br />
Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br />
'''<br />
<br />
A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br />
<br />
Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br />
<br />
这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br />
<br />
研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br />
<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br />
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br />
<br />
The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br />
<br />
当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"<br />
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br />
<br />
当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br />
<br />
这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br />
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br />
<br />
本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br />
<br />
虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br />
<br />
The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br />
<br />
但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br />
<br />
交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br />
<br />
传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br />
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br />
<br />
机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br />
<br />
'''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br />
<br />
1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br />
<br />
2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br />
<br />
3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br />
<br />
4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br />
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br />
<br />
"两种类型的交际行为"<br />
<br />
1.<br />
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br />
<br />
2.<br />
上网行为(浏览网站)<br />
<br />
3.<br />
消费者行为(购买)<br />
<br />
4.<br />
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.<br />
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.<br />
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br />
<br />
8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br />
<br />
9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br />
<br />
8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br />
<br />
9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''3 Types of analysis'''<br />
<br />
1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br />
<br />
2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br />
<br />
3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br />
<br />
4.Mobility profile/pattern<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br />
<br />
8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br />
<br />
9.Secrets (like adultery)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br />
<br />
1.the human switches from active to passive<br />
<br />
2.the human switches from subject to object<br />
<br />
3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br />
<br />
4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br />
<br />
5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br />
<br />
4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br />
<br />
1.人从主动到被动的转换<br />
<br />
2.人从主体到客体的转换<br />
<br />
3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br />
<br />
4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br />
<br />
5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br />
<br />
7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br />
<br />
8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br />
<br />
9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br />
<br />
6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br />
<br />
7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br />
<br />
8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br />
<br />
9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br />
<br />
'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br />
<br />
2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br />
<br />
到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br />
<br />
'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br />
<br />
1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br />
<br />
2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br />
<br />
4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br />
<br />
5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br />
<br />
6.Identity theft<br />
<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
<br />
4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br />
<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
'''6 Consequences'''<br />
<br />
1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6.后果<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br />
<br />
3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br />
<br />
4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br />
<br />
5.Polarization of Society<br />
<br />
6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br />
<br />
7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会的两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br />
<br />
9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br />
'''<br />
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br />
<br />
1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br />
<br />
2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation<br />
<br />
8.知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟迫近的未来<br />
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br />
<br />
Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br />
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''8 结论与展望''' <br />
<br />
数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br />
<br />
尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br />
<br />
'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br />
'''<br />
'''<br />
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br />
'''<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br />
<br />
人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br />
<br />
人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
'''9 Outlook'''<br />
<br />
We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br />
<br />
'''References<br />
'''<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br />
<br />
Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br />
<br />
Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br />
<br />
Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br />
<br />
Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br />
<br />
Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br />
<br />
Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br />
<br />
Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br />
<br />
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br />
<br />
Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br />
<br />
Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br />
<br />
Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br />
<br />
Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br />
<br />
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br />
<br />
Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br />
<br />
Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).<br />
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br />
<br />
Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br />
<br />
Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br />
<br />
Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br />
<br />
Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''Bio'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br />
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.<br />
<br />
个人简历<br />
<br />
自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118773History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T15:03:01Z<p>Zhangqi: /* A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". (Wang li, 1984) <br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
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It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
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Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
<br />
Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
<br />
People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
<br />
Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
<br />
Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
<br />
While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.<br />
<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
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*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
===1.1.1 Confucianism===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was born in a scholarly family. Influenced by his father, Liang Shiqiu was fond of reading classics, and among them, he has read many Confucian works. Confucianism is the mainstream of Chinese tradition. It is the first source which has influenced the formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views. The basic spirit of Confucianism is “mean”, which is regarded as the doctrine of all the confucianists. The Chinese characters of the “mean” is “中庸”. The first character means “appropriateness” or “moderation”, while the second one “庸” means “use” or “application”. Therefore, the combination of “中” and “庸” is the unity of cognition and practice. (Yan Xiaojiang,2009:29)<br />
<br />
The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme.Besides,humanism was the tradition of Confucianism. It has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples.Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young,and had a lasting influence to the the formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008:30)<br />
<br />
===1.1.2 Babbitt's new humanism===<br />
<br />
Confucianism was deeply rooted in Liang Shiqiu's heart since he was young, which formed the axis of his whole philosophy of life. His experience of studying in the United States made him accept Babbitt's new humanism thought, because to a large extent, the new humanism thought is similar to the traditional Confucian culture. In an interview with Ms. Qiu Yanming in his later years, Liang Shiqiu said: "Professor Babbitt of Harvard University made me change from romanticism to serious classicism, partly because of his excellent knowledge, and partly because he was proficient in Sanskrit and Confucian classics, and formed new humanism by integrating Chinese and Western thoughts. Babbitt's new humanism can be traced back to Aristotle. There are four basic points in his thought: The first is the dualism of human nature, which regards man as the combination of good and evil. Second, the doctrine of the mean is regarded as the highest moral philosophy in life. The third is to regard abstinence as the way to the perfection of human nature. The fourth is to regard a few sages as a positive force to guide people upward. Babbitt's new humanism had a profound influence on Liang Shiqiu's philosophy of life, which further influenced his translation views. (Yan Xiaojiang,2009:30)<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
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Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
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In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
<br />
The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
<br />
Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
<br />
More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
<br />
Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
<br />
Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling 202070080623 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>张玲 Zhang Ling 202070080623</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001). <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001) <br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!” (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator'sresponsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark Peter. (2001). Approaches to Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark Peter. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
<br />
Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
<br />
Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
<br />
Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
<br />
Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
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[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi，202020080667 English Language and Literature==<br />
<center>张琪 Zhang Qi，202020080667 English Language and Literature 英语语言文学</center> <br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
<br />
===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
<br />
For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of BIOTHERM is "碧欧泉", it is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The trademark translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb in Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
<br />
Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.<br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this chapter analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
<br />
［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［3］Fu Zhongxuan傅仲选（1993）.《实用翻译美学》[M].[Practical Translation Aesthetics].上海外语教育出版社. Foreign Language Education Press.(06）.<br />
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［4］Jiao Ling焦琳(2010). 当代中国翻译美学研究[J].[Research on Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics].辽宁教育行政学院学报.Journal of Liaoning Educational Administration Institute，(27).<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）. 化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）. 对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010). 化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009). 商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继，安冲伟(2006). 化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002). 英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
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［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
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［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009). 接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
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［23］Zhang Ling张凌(2007). 化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.（07）.<br />
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［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003). 从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
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［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
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The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
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It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
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On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
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On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
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On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
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On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118747History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T14:46:08Z<p>Zhangqi: /* A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". (Wang li, 1984) <br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
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It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
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Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
<br />
Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
<br />
People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
<br />
Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
<br />
Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
<br />
While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.<br />
<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
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*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
===1.1.1 Confucianism===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was born in a scholarly family. Influenced by his father, Liang Shiqiu was fond of reading classics, and among them, he has read many Confucian works. Confucianism is the mainstream of Chinese tradition. It is the first source which has influenced the formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views. The basic spirit of Confucianism is “mean”, which is regarded as the doctrine of all the confucianists. The Chinese characters of the “mean” is “中庸”. The first character means “appropriateness” or “moderation”, while the second one “庸” means “use” or “application”. Therefore, the combination of “中” and “庸” is the unity of cognition and practice. (Yan Xiaojiang,2009:29)<br />
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The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme.Besides,humanism was the tradition of Confucianism. It has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples.Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young,and had a lasting influence to the the formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008:30)<br />
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===1.1.2 Babbitt's new humanism===<br />
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Confucianism was deeply rooted in Liang Shiqiu's heart since he was young, which formed the axis of his whole philosophy of life. His experience of studying in the United States made him accept Babbitt's new humanism thought, because to a large extent, the new humanism thought is similar to the traditional Confucian culture. In an interview with Ms. Qiu Yanming in his later years, Liang Shiqiu said: "Professor Babbitt of Harvard University made me change from romanticism to serious classicism, partly because of his excellent knowledge, and partly because he was proficient in Sanskrit and Confucian classics, and formed new humanism by integrating Chinese and Western thoughts. Babbitt's new humanism can be traced back to Aristotle. There are four basic points in his thought: The first is the dualism of human nature, which regards man as the combination of good and evil. Second, the doctrine of the mean is regarded as the highest moral philosophy in life. The third is to regard abstinence as the way to the perfection of human nature. The fourth is to regard a few sages as a positive force to guide people upward. Babbitt's new humanism had a profound influence on Liang Shiqiu's philosophy of life, which further influenced his translation views. (Yan Xiaojiang,2009:30)<br />
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===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
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Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
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From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
<br />
The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
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Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:16, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
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Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
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KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
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The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
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His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
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And now I see only the river,<br />
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The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
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In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
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However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
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From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
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The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
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Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
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Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
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<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
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"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
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送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
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此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
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浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
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Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
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Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
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White river winding about them; <br />
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Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
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Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
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Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
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Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
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The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
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The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling 202070080623 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>张玲 Zhang Ling 202070080623</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001). <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001) <br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!” (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator'sresponsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark Peter. (2001). Approaches to Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark Peter. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
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Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
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The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
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Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
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Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
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Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
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Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
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Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
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A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
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The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
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Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
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The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
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=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
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Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
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A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
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Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
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(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
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Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
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一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
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All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
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=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
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In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
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1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
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Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
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2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
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Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
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Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
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Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
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The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
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Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
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The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
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3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
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There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
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Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
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Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
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In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
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This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
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From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
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Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
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Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
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<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
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But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
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(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
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(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
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The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
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Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
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As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
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These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
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As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
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<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi English Language and Literature(英语语言文学）<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
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For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of BIOTHERM is "碧欧泉", it is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
<br />
Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The trademark translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
<br />
For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb in Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
<br />
Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.<br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this chapter analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［3］Fu Zhongxuan傅仲选（1993）.《实用翻译美学》[M].[Practical Translation Aesthetics].上海外语教育出版社. Foreign Language Education Press.(06）.<br />
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［4］Jiao Ling焦琳(2010). 当代中国翻译美学研究[J].[Research on Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics].辽宁教育行政学院学报.Journal of Liaoning Educational Administration Institute，(27).<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）. 化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）. 对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010). 化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009). 商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继，安冲伟(2006). 化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002). 英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
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［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
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［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009). 接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
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［23］Zhang Ling张凌(2007). 化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.（07）.<br />
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［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003). 从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
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［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
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--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118617History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T13:59:12Z<p>Zhangqi: /* References */</p>
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<br />
=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
<br />
===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". (Wang li, 1984) <br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
<br />
The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
<br />
(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
<br />
(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
<br />
====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
<br />
The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
<br />
The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
<br />
However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
<br />
====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
<br />
As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
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As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
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At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
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===7. References===<br />
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*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
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*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
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*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
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*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
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*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
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===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
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===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
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Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
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First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
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Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
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===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
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Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
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Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
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Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
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And now I see only the river,<br />
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The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
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In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
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However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
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The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling 202070080623 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>张玲 Zhang Ling 202070080623</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001). <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001) <br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!” (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator'sresponsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
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In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
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The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
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====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
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According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
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Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
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The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
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It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
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So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
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===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
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The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
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Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
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When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
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In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
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As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
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Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
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Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
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This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
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Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
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Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
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In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
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Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
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The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
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===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
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Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
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“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
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===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
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As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
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If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
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The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
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Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
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===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
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===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
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Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
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Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
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The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
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===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
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===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
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Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
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猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
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To shed crocodile tears<br />
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Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
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===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
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In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
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瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
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Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
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The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
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===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
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Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
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云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
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The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
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卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
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If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
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The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
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In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
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To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
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The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
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What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
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*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
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*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
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--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
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===1 Introduction===<br />
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Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
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The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
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Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
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As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
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As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
<br />
Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
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[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
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For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
<br />
For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
<br />
Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
<br />
In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of BIOTHERM is "碧欧泉", it is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
<br />
Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The trademark translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
<br />
For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb in Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
<br />
Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.<br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this chapter analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［3］Fu Zhongxuan傅仲选（1993）.《实用翻译美学》[M].[Practical Translation Aesthetics].上海外语教育出版社. Foreign Language Education Press.(06）.<br />
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［4］Jiao Ling焦琳(2010). 当代中国翻译美学研究[J].[Research on Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics].辽宁教育行政学院学报.Journal of Liaoning Educational Administration Institute，(27).<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）. 化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）. 对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010). 化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009). 商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继，安冲伟(2006). 化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002). 英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
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--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:59, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118613History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T13:56:41Z<p>Zhangqi: /* References */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
<br />
===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". (Wang li, 1984) <br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
<br />
(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
<br />
(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
<br />
(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
<br />
====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
<br />
The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
<br />
The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
<br />
However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
<br />
As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
<br />
====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
<br />
As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
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As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
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At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
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===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
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*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
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*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
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*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
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*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
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===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
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===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
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Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
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First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
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Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
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===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
<br />
===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
<br />
"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
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Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
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*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
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Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
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Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
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Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling 202070080623 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>张玲 Zhang Ling 202070080623</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
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TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
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TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
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TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
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TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
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E.g.5<br />
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SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
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TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
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TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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===Referential Level===<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
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E.g. 6<br />
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SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
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TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
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TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
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From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
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E.g. 7<br />
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SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
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“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
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“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
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“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
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She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
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“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
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TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
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“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
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“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
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“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
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布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
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“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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===Cohesive Level===<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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E.g. 8<br />
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ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
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TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
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Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002)<br />
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E.g. 9<br />
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ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
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TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
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The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001). <br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001) <br />
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It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
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There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
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E.g. 10<br />
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SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
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TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
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English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!” (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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E.g. 11<br />
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SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
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TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
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TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
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Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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E.g. 12<br />
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SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
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TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
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In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
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In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
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In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator'sresponsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
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As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
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However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
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Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
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[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
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==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
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=== Introduction ===<br />
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Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
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This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
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The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
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American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
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=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
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“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
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The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
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Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
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Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
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Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
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Paranomasia <br />
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Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
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Antalaclasis <br />
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Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
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Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
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The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
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Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
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Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
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Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
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The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
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Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
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=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
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Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
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The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
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Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
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Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
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Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
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Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
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Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
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A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
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The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
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Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
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The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
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=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
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Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
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A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
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Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
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(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
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Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
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一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
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All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
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=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
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In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
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1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
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Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
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2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
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Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
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Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
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Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
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The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
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Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
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The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
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3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
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There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
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Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
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Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
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In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
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This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
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From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
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Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
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Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
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Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
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Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
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Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
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But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
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(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
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(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
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This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
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This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
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====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
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===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
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Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
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Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
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Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
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Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
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Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
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Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
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Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
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The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
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====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
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According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
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Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
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The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
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It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
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So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
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===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
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The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
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Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
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When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
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In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
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As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
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Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
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Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
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This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
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Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
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Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
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In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
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Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
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The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
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===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
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Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
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“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
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===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
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As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
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If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
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The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
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Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
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===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
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===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
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The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
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===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
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===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
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Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
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猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
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To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
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===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
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In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
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瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
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Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
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===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
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Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
<br />
冷冷清清<br />
<br />
凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
<br />
Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
<br />
Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
<br />
How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
<br />
Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
<br />
Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
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===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
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For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
<br />
===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
<br />
For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
<br />
Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
<br />
In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of BIOTHERM is "碧欧泉", it is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
<br />
Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The trademark translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
<br />
For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb in Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
<br />
Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.<br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this chapter analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
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====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
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====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118611History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T13:54:46Z<p>Zhangqi: /* 2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies */</p>
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". (Wang li, 1984) <br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
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It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
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Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
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This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
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===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
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本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
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===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
<br />
===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
<br />
"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
<br />
Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
<br />
More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
<br />
Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
<br />
Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
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<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
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<br />
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<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling 202070080623 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>张玲 Zhang Ling 202070080623</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001). <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001) <br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!” (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator'sresponsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
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Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
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Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
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Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
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Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
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Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
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Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
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Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
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Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
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<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
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But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
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(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
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(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
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====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
<br />
冷冷清清<br />
<br />
凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
<br />
Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
<br />
Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
<br />
How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
<br />
Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
<br />
Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
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[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of BIOTHERM is "碧欧泉", it is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The trademark translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb in Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this chapter analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
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Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
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The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
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====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
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====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118600History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T13:51:01Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Conclusion */</p>
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<br />
=Theories=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
<br />
===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". (Wang li, 1984) <br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
<br />
The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
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It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
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Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
<br />
===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
<br />
===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
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Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
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Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
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Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
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Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
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故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
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孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
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Separation on the River Kiang<br />
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By Ezra Pound<br />
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KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
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The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
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His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
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And now I see only the river,<br />
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The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
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In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
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However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
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From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
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The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
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Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
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Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
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"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
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送友人<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
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青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
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此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
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浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
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挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
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Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
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By Ezra Pound<br />
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Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
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White river winding about them; <br />
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Here we must make separation <br />
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And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
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Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
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Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
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Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
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Our horses neigh to each other<br />
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as we are departing. <br />
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The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
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Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
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The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
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Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
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Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
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However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
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What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
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Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
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"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
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送友人入蜀<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
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见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
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山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
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芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
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升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
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Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
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By Ezra Pound<br />
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THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
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Sheer as the mountains.<br />
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The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
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Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
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at his horse’s bridle.<br />
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Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
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Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
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And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
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in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
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Men’s fates are already set,<br />
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There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
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In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
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Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
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However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
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In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
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By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
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The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
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登金陵凤凰台<br />
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(唐)李白<br />
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凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
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吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
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三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
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总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
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The City of Choan<br />
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THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
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The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
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Flowers and grass<br />
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Cover over the dark path<br />
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Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
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The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
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Are now the base of old hills.<br />
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The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
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The isle of White Heron<br />
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splits the two streams apart. <br />
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Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
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And I can not see Choan afar<br />
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And I am sad.<br />
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In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
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Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
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In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
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Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
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When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
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In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
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Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
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They regard all things as offerings.<br />
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The sage is not kind.<br />
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He regards people as offerings.<br />
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Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
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It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
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The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
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A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
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Unlike remaining centered.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
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“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
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In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
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Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
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Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001). <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001) <br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!” (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator'sresponsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
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=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
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Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
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An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
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Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
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<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
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But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
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(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
<br />
冷冷清清<br />
<br />
凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
<br />
Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
<br />
Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
<br />
How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
<br />
Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
<br />
In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
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[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
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===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
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[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of BIOTHERM is "碧欧泉", it is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The trademark translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb in Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this chapter analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
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Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
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通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
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[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
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[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
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[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118585History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T13:46:49Z<p>Zhangqi: /* 3.2.4 Creative Translation */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
<br />
===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". (Wang li, 1984) <br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
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It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
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Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
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Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
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Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
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Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
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This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
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===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
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本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
<br />
===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
<br />
===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
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Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
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Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
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Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
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故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
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孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
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Separation on the River Kiang<br />
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By Ezra Pound<br />
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KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
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The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
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His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
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And now I see only the river,<br />
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The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
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In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
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However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
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From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
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The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
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Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
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Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
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"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
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送友人<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
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青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
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此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
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浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
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挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
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Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
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Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
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White river winding about them; <br />
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Here we must make separation <br />
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And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
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Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
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Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
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Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
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Our horses neigh to each other<br />
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as we are departing. <br />
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The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
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Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
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The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
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Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
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Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
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However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
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What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
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Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
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"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
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送友人入蜀<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
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见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
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山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
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芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
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升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
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Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
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By Ezra Pound<br />
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THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
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Sheer as the mountains.<br />
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The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
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Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
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at his horse’s bridle.<br />
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Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
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Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
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And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
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in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
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Men’s fates are already set,<br />
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There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
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In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
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Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
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However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
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In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
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By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
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The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
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登金陵凤凰台<br />
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(唐)李白<br />
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凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
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吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
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三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
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总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
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The City of Choan<br />
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THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
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The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
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Flowers and grass<br />
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Cover over the dark path<br />
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Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
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The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
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Are now the base of old hills.<br />
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The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
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The isle of White Heron<br />
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splits the two streams apart. <br />
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Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
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And I can not see Choan afar<br />
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And I am sad.<br />
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In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
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Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
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In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
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Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
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When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
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In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
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Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
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They regard all things as offerings.<br />
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The sage is not kind.<br />
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He regards people as offerings.<br />
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Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
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It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
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The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
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A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
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Unlike remaining centered.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001). <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001) <br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!” (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator'sresponsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
<br />
冷冷清清<br />
<br />
凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
<br />
Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
<br />
Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
<br />
How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
<br />
Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
<br />
Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
<br />
Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
<br />
Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
<br />
Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
<br />
Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
<br />
Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
<br />
Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
<br />
Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
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[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
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[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
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It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
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The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
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And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
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[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of BIOTHERM is "碧欧泉", it is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The trademark translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb in Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
<br />
［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
<br />
［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
<br />
［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
<br />
［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
<br />
［23］Zhang Ling张凌(2007).化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.（07）.<br />
<br />
［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
<br />
［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
<br />
Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
<br />
Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
<br />
Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
<br />
Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
<br />
One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
<br />
First, we will look at the original text:<br />
<br />
Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118577History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T13:43:30Z<p>Zhangqi: /* 3.2.3 Literal translation */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". (Wang li, 1984) <br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
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It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
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Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
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Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
<br />
===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
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Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
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Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
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Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
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Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
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Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
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Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
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Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
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Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
<br />
More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
<br />
Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
<br />
Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001). <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001) <br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!” (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator'sresponsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
<br />
冷冷清清<br />
<br />
凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
<br />
Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
<br />
Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
<br />
How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
<br />
Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
<br />
Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
<br />
Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
<br />
Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
<br />
Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
<br />
Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
<br />
Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
<br />
Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
<br />
Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
<br />
Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
<br />
Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
<br />
Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
<br />
Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
<br />
Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
<br />
Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
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[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
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[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
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[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
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===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
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By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
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Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
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From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
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Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
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Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
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It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
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The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
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In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
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And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
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===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
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[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of BIOTHERM is "碧欧泉", it is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The trademark translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb in Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［3］Fu Zhongxuan傅仲选（1993）.《实用翻译美学》[M].[Practical Translation Aesthetics].上海外语教育出版社. Foreign Language Education Press.(06）.<br />
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［4］Jiao Ling焦琳(2010). 当代中国翻译美学研究[J].[Research on Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics].辽宁教育行政学院学报.Journal of Liaoning Educational Administration Institute，(27).<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）.化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）.对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继(2006)，安冲伟.化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
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［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
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［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
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［23］Zhang Ling张凌(2007).化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.（07）.<br />
<br />
［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
<br />
［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
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The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
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It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
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On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
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On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
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On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
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On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
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Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118564History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T13:39:02Z<p>Zhangqi: /* 3.2.2 Transliteration */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". <br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
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It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
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Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
<br />
Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
<br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
<br />
People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
<br />
Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
<br />
Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
<br />
While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.<br />
<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
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*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
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*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
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*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
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*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
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*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
<br />
The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
<br />
Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
<br />
More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
<br />
Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
<br />
Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001). <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001) <br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!” (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent. <br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator'sresponsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories. It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
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<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
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[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
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[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
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[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
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[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
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==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
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===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
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The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
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The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
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Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
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The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
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By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
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===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
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Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
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===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
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From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
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Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
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Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
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It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
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The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
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In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
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And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
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===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
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===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of BIOTHERM is "碧欧泉", it is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The trademark translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb in Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）.化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）.对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继(2006)，安冲伟.化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
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［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
<br />
［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
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The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118553History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T13:33:35Z<p>Zhangqi: /* 3.2.1 Free Translation */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". <br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
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It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
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Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
<br />
====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
<br />
As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619, 英语笔译==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
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At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
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===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
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*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
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*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
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*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
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*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
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*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
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*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
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*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
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*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:31, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
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===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
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Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
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===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
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===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
<br />
===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
<br />
"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
<br />
The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
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Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
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KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
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The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
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His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
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And now I see only the river,<br />
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The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
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In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
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However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
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From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001). <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001) <br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!” (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent. <br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
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This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
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=== Definition of pun ===<br />
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The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
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American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
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=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
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“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
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The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
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Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
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Homophonic pun<br />
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Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
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Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
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Paranomasia <br />
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Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
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Antalaclasis <br />
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Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
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Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
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The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
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Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
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Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
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Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
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The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
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Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
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=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
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Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
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The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
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Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
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Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
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Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
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Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
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Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
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A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
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The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
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Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
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The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
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=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
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Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
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A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
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Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
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(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
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Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
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一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
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All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
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=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
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In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
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1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
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Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
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2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
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Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
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Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
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Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
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The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
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Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
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The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
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3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
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There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
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Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
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Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
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In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
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This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
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From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
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Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
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Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
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Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
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Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
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Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
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Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
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Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
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Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
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Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
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Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
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An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
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Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
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<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
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But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
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(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
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(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
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This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
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This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
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====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
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===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
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Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
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Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
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Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
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Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
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Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
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Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
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Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
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The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
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====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
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According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
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Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
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The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
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It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
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So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
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===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
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The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
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Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
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When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
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In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
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As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
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Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
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Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
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This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
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Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
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Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
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In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
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Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
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The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
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===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
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Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
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“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
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===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
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As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
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If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
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The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
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Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
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===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
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===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
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Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
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Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
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The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
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===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
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===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
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Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
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猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
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To shed crocodile tears<br />
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Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
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===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
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In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
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瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
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Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
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The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
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===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
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Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
<br />
冷冷清清<br />
<br />
凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
<br />
Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
<br />
Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
<br />
How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
<br />
Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
<br />
Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of BIOTHERM is "碧欧泉", it is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The trademark translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb in Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
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［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
<br />
［23］Zhang Ling张凌(2007).化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.（07）.<br />
<br />
［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
<br />
［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
<br />
Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
<br />
Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
<br />
Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
<br />
Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
<br />
One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
<br />
First, we will look at the original text:<br />
<br />
Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118535History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T13:26:50Z<p>Zhangqi: /* 3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
<br />
===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". <br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
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It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
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Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
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Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
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Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
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Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
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*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
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*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
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*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
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*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
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*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
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*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
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*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
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*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
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*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
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*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
<br />
The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
<br />
Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
<br />
More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
<br />
Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
<br />
Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
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In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
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In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
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Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
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When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
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In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
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Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
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It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
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The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
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A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
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<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
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Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
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Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
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==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
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===Textual Level===<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
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SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
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TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
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TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
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SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
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TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
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TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
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E.g.5<br />
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SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
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TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
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TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
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===Referential Level===<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
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E.g. 6<br />
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SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
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TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
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TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
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From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
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E.g. 7<br />
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SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
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“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
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“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
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TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
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“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
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布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
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TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it will make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It’s widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis. English belongs to hypotaxis language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
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The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
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Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
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Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
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Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
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Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
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Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
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A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
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The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
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Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
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The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
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=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
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Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
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A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
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Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
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(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
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Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
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一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
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All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
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=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
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In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
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1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
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Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
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2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
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Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
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Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
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Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
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The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
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Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
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The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
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3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
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There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
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Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
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Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
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In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
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This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
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From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
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Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
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Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
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<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
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But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
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(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
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(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
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The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
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Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
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As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
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These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
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As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
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<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of BIOTHERM is "碧欧泉", it is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
<br />
Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
<br />
Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
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====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
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====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118522History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T13:21:43Z<p>Zhangqi: /* 3.1.2 Image Beauty */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". <br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
<br />
(1)Passive voice<br />
<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
<br />
===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
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Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
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Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
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Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
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Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
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Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
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Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
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Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
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Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
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故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
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孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
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Separation on the River Kiang<br />
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By Ezra Pound<br />
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KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
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The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
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His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
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And now I see only the river,<br />
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The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
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In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
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However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
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From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
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The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
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Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
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Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
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"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
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送友人<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
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青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
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此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
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浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
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挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
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Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
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By Ezra Pound<br />
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Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
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White river winding about them; <br />
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Here we must make separation <br />
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And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
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Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
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Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
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Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
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Our horses neigh to each other<br />
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as we are departing. <br />
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The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
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Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
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The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
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Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
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Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
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However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
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What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
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Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
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"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
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送友人入蜀<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
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见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
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山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
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芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
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升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
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Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
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By Ezra Pound<br />
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THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
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Sheer as the mountains.<br />
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The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
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Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
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at his horse’s bridle.<br />
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Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
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Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
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And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
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in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
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Men’s fates are already set,<br />
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There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
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In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
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Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
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However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
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In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
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By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
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The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
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登金陵凤凰台<br />
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(唐)李白<br />
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凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
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吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
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三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
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总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
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The City of Choan<br />
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THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
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The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
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Flowers and grass<br />
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Cover over the dark path<br />
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Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
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The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
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Are now the base of old hills.<br />
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The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
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The isle of White Heron<br />
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splits the two streams apart. <br />
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Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
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And I can not see Choan afar<br />
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And I am sad.<br />
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In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
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Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
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In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
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Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
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When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
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This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
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This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
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====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
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===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
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<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
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===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
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====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
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Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
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The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
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The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
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Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
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As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
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These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
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As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
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<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
<br />
Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
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<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
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通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
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====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
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====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
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[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
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[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118500History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T13:16:08Z<p>Zhangqi: /* 3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". <br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
<br />
(1)Passive voice<br />
<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
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Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
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Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
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Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
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This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
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===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
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本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
<br />
===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
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Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
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Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
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Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
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Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
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Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
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Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
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Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
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Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
<br />
More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
<br />
Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
<br />
Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
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This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
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This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
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====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
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===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
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<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
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===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
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====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
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Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
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The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
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The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
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Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
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As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
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These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
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As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
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<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "伶俐", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
<br />
［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
<br />
［23］Zhang Ling张凌(2007).化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.（07）.<br />
<br />
［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
<br />
［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
<br />
Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
<br />
Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
<br />
Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
<br />
Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
<br />
One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
<br />
First, we will look at the original text:<br />
<br />
Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118486History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T13:11:37Z<p>Zhangqi: /* 2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and Hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC Translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616，MTI 英语笔译==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
<br />
===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". <br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. (Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.(Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.(Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. (Wang Jiayi, 2011) <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
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It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
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Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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====2.3 Comparison of Passive Meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
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Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
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Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
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Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
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*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
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*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
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*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
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*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
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*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
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*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
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*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
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*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
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*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
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*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
<br />
The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
<br />
Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
<br />
More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
<br />
Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
<br />
Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
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Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
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Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. <br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about. (Qian Gechuan, 2011)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation. (Zhang Peiji, 2009)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019:196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017: 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001: 161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007:194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007: 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965: 93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010: 71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013: 135)<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001: 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001: 31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007: 196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019: 196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009: 16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008: 99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
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*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
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--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
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===1 Introduction===<br />
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Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
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===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
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The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
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Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
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As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
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These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
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As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl at the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）.化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）.对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继(2006)，安冲伟.化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
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［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
<br />
Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
<br />
Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
<br />
Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
<br />
Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
<br />
One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
<br />
First, we will look at the original text:<br />
<br />
Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
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[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
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[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118413History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T12:46:00Z<p>Zhangqi: /* 2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, MTI 英语笔译，202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice and the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". <br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. <br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. <br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese.<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1 The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. <br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) .<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion.<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences.<br />
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====2.2 Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". <br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc.<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. <br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager.<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester.<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. <br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".<br />
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====2.3 Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. <br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese.<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese.<br />
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====2.4 The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. <br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. <br />
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====2.5 Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. <br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally.<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness.<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described.<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. <br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1 English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand.<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure.<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information.<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. <br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. <br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication.<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. <br />
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====3.2 Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " <br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. <br />
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====3.3 Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background.<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. <br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. <br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express.<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. <br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
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Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
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Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
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Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
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<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
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*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
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*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
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*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
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*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
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*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
<br />
The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
<br />
Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
<br />
More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
<br />
Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
<br />
Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, British translation theorist, once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007,194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001, 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001,31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99) Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
<br />
冷冷清清<br />
<br />
凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
<br />
Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
<br />
Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
<br />
How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
<br />
Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
<br />
In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
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[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
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===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
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[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object in Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130).<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful(Huang 1988,180).<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）.化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）.对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118386History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T12:31:20Z<p>Zhangqi: /* A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements". <br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. <br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. <br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer.<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation.<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. <br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese.<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. <br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) .<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion.<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences.<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". <br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc.<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. <br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager.<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester.<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. <br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. <br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese.<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese.<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.<br />
<br />
The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. <br />
<br />
However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. <br />
<br />
====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. <br />
<br />
The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally.<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness.<br />
<br />
The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described.<br />
<br />
The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. <br />
<br />
===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
<br />
====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
<br />
As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand.<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure.<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information.<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. <br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. <br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication.<br />
<br />
Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. <br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " <br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. <br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background.<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. <br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. <br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express.<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word ''bei''(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as ''zao''(遭), ''ai''(挨), ''gei''(给), ''shou''(受) and ''wei...suo'' (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. <br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
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This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
<br />
===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
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Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
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In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
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From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
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From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
<br />
"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
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Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
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Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
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Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
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传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
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===Textual Level===<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
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TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
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TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
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TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
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TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
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E.g.5<br />
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SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
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TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
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TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Referential Level===<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 6<br />
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SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
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TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
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TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
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From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
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From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 7<br />
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SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
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“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
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“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
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“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
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She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
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“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
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TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
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“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
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“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
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“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
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布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
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“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Cohesive Level===<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 8<br />
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ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
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TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
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Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
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E.g. 9<br />
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ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
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TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
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The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007,194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001, 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001,31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 5 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 6th, 12nd and 14th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 4 and 13 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
Eg.(13) 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！” (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99)（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
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===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
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<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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=== 1.Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== 2.Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
<br />
［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
<br />
［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继(2006)，安冲伟.化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
<br />
［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
<br />
［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
<br />
［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
<br />
［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
<br />
［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
<br />
［23］Zhang Ling张凌(2007).化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.（07）.<br />
<br />
［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
<br />
［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
<br />
Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
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The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
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It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
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On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
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On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
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On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
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On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
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Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
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[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
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[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
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[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
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[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
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[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
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[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118362History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T12:23:55Z<p>Zhangqi: /* A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
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Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
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Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
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*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
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*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
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*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
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*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
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*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
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*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
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*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
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*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
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*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
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*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
<br />
The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
<br />
Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
<br />
More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
<br />
Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
<br />
Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
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In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
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Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
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When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
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In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
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Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
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They regard all things as offerings.<br />
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The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
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Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
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It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
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The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
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A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
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<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
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==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
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SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
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TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
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SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
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TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
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TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
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SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
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TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
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TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
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TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
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TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
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SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
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“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
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TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007,194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001, 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001,31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
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Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
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<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
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But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
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(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
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(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
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This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
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This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
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====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
<br />
冷冷清清<br />
<br />
凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
<br />
Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
<br />
Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
<br />
How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
<br />
Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
<br />
Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
<br />
Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
<br />
In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
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[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi 英美文学<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this chaper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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===Part 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Part 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Part 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）.化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）.对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
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It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
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On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118348History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T12:19:58Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Abstract */</p>
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
<br />
===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
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Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
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In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
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From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
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From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
<br />
"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
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Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
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Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
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Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
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传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
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===Textual Level===<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
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TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
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TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
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TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
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TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
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E.g.5<br />
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SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
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TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
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TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Referential Level===<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 6<br />
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SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
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TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
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TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
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From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
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From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 7<br />
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SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
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“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
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“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
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“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
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She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
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“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
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TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
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“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
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“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
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“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
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布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
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“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Cohesive Level===<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 8<br />
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ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
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TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
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Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
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E.g. 9<br />
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ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
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TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
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The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007,194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001, 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001,31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
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===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
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<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This chaper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
<br />
The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
<br />
［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
<br />
［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继(2006)，安冲伟.化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
<br />
［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
<br />
［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
<br />
［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
<br />
［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
<br />
［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
<br />
［23］Zhang Ling张凌.化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.2007（07）.<br />
<br />
［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
<br />
［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
<br />
Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
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The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
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It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
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On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
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On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
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On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
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On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
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Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
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[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
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[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
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[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
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[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
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[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
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[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
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[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118343History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T12:18:39Z<p>Zhangqi: /* 1.3 Trademark Translation */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
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Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
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Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
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===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
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===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
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*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
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*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
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*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
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*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
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*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
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*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
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*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
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*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
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*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
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*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
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Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
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Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
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Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
<br />
The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
<br />
Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
<br />
More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
<br />
Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
<br />
Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
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In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
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Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
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When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
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In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
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Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
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They regard all things as offerings.<br />
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The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
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Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
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It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
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The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
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A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
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<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
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==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
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SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
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TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
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SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
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TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
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TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
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SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
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TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
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TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
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TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
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TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
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SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
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“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
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TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples. (Xu Min, 2007,194)<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.( Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.(Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001, 32) Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping, 2001,31)<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99)<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”(Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99)<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. (Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin, 2008,99) As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to express them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
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Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
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<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
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But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
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(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
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(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
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This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
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This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
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====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually means. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrates a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation===<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
<br />
冷冷清清<br />
<br />
凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
<br />
Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
<br />
Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
<br />
How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
<br />
Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
<br />
In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
<br />
Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
<br />
Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
<br />
In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
<br />
Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
<br />
This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
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[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）.化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）.对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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<br />
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<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=118024History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T10:11:17Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation */</p>
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
<br />
===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
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===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
<br />
===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
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Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
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===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
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In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
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From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
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From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
<br />
"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
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The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
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Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
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Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
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Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
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Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
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In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
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黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
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(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949:12-39<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915：28-30<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011:87-101.<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992:13-23<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969:24-30<br />
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Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏 Masterpieces Review(23): 140-142.<br />
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Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊 Hebei Academic Journal 30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛 Chinese Culture Forum (04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究 Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture 2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报 Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
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传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
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===Textual Level===<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
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TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
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TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
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TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
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TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
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E.g.5<br />
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SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
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TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
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TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Referential Level===<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 6<br />
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SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
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TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
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TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
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From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
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From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 7<br />
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SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
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“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
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“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
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“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
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She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
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“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
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TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
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“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
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“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
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“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
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布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
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“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Cohesive Level===<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
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In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 8<br />
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ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
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TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
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Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
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E.g. 9<br />
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ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
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TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
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The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
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English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
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As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
<br />
Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
<br />
Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
<br />
Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei翻译学（Translation Studies）==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic”(Qian 1993, 13).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
<br />
The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［3］Fu Zhongxuan傅仲选（1993）.《实用翻译美学》[M].[Practical Translation Aesthetics].上海外语教育出版社. Foreign Language Education Press.(06）.<br />
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［4］Jiao Ling焦琳(2010). 当代中国翻译美学研究[J].[Research on Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics].辽宁教育行政学院学报.Journal of Liaoning Educational Administration Institute，(27).<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）.化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）.对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继(2006)，安冲伟.化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
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［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
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［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
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［23］Zhang Ling张凌.化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.2007（07）.<br />
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［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
<br />
［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu <br />
<br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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good--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text. On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work. Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=117935History of Translation Studies 42020-12-21T09:23:15Z<p>Zhangqi: /* A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi */</p>
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
=Theories=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
<br />
===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
<br />
====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, which were to change people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which mean a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean translation view; new humanism; hard translation; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
===1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "mean", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:29)<br />
(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tells us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit.(Yan Xiao Jiang,2008:32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]]<br />
<br />
===1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)===<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927)=== <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
===1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)===<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. In fact, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but mainly political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views===<br />
<br />
===2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu,1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua,1900:22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan,1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles.<br />
<br />
===2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take trouble to look them up and annotate them so that the readers can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu,1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen,2002)<br />
<br />
===2.2 Lu Xun's translation views===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “Translation should rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new contents and new forms of expressions advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the readers. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, believing the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text.<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitated the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the contents of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang,2000:295)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000:291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu,2000:292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
===3.1 Liang Shiqiu's transaltions===<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
===3.2 Lu Xun's translations===<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Liang Shiqiu===<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thoughts, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang,2008:286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's "mean" translation view not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008:287)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Lu Xun===<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling,2009:38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:57, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
<br />
===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
<br />
"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. (He Chunhua 2018)<br />
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The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line.<br />
<br />
The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. <br />
<br />
Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here.<br />
<br />
Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the ways the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus are different. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
<br />
More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
<br />
Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
<br />
Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
<br />
The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
<br />
Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
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<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
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<br />
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<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究 Studies of Chinese Poetry(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索 Academic Exploration(06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013).许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学 Soochow University:23-38.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University:32-55.<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论 Foreign Literature Review(4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
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The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
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Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
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Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
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Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
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Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
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Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
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A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
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The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
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Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
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The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
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=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
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Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
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A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
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Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
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(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
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Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
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一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
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All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
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=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
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In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
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1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
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Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
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2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
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Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
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Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
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Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
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The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
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Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
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The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
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3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
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There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
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13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
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Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
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In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
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This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
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From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
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Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
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=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
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==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Poetry Translation, Untranslatability, Translatability, Translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated in imagery, "yijing", allusion and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and culture are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
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But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
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(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
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(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. （Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the spirit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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There are seven couples of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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It is still worser of the second translation that target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strengthen readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
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====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
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===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 07:48, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631 MTI 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
<center> Zhu Xu 朱 旭, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
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===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
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The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
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Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
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As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
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These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
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As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
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<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'',(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. ''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]''22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). ''Linguistics and Poetics''. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]'',31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''].''广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education]'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages]'' , (04):48.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of ''Cong Cong''==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. <br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
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[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
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[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic”(Qian 1993, 13).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［3］Fu Zhongxuan傅仲选（1993）.《实用翻译美学》[M].[Practical Translation Aesthetics].上海外语教育出版社. Foreign Language Education Press.(06）.<br />
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［4］Jiao Ling焦琳(2010). 当代中国翻译美学研究[J].[Research on Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics].辽宁教育行政学院学报.Journal of Liaoning Educational Administration Institute，(27).<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）.化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）.对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继(2006)，安冲伟.化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
<br />
［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
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［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
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［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
<br />
［23］Zhang Ling张凌.化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.2007（07）.<br />
<br />
［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
<br />
［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu <br />
<br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
<br />
Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
<br />
Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
<br />
Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
<br />
good--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
<br />
One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
<br />
First, we will look at the original text:<br />
<br />
Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
<br />
The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text. On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work. Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=116899History of Translation Studies 42020-12-20T15:49:26Z<p>Zhangqi: /* A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
<br />
===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
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Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
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Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
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This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
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===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
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本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
<br />
First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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3.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
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==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
<br />
===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
<br />
"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle 石迪文 Shi Diwen, 202020080638==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. <br />
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More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
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In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” <br />
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Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) <br />
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Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
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<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. <br />
<br />
In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. <br />
<br />
However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. <br />
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The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. <br />
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Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
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Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
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<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
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"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. <br />
<br />
However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. <br />
<br />
What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
(唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. <br />
<br />
Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . <br />
<br />
In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. <br />
<br />
Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.<br />
<br />
Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty in both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. <br />
<br />
In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension.<br />
<br />
“Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
<br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
<br />
Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
<br />
Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
<br />
Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
<br />
Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
<br />
Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
<br />
Guo Jianguo 郭建国.(2013). 浅论“温柔敦厚”.[A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”].[J]. 名作欣赏[Masterpieces Review](23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
<br />
Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的《华夏集》探源.[On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''].[J]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal](1): 56-59.<br />
<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao 焦亚葳,王贵宝.(2010).温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述.[Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony].[J]. 河北学刊[Hebei Academic Journal]30(04): 230-232.<br />
<br />
Li Yuanguo 李远国.(2004).至美无象——论道家的美学思想.[The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics].[J].中华文化论坛[Chinese Culture Forum](04):129-132.<br />
<br />
Ren Lirong 任俐蓉.(2018).由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受.[Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay''].[J]. 文化创新比较研究[Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture]2(8): 63-64.<br />
<br />
Wei Jiahai 魏家海.(2009).庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结.[Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry].[J]. 天津外国语学院学报[Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University]16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
<br />
Wai-lim Yip 叶维廉.(2004).道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗.[Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry].[J].中国诗歌研究(00):1-46+365.<br />
<br />
Zhao Limei 赵丽梅.(2011).李白的诗与道家思想.[Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism].[J].学术探索[Academic Exploration](06):106-109.<br />
<br />
Zhang Linlin 张林林.(2013). 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究.[An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle].[D].苏州大学[Soochow University].<br />
<br />
Zhang Yi 张毅.(2007).从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现.[ Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle].[D].哈尔滨工程大学[Harbin Engineering University].<br />
<br />
Zhang Ziyuan 张子源.(1998).战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题.[War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''].[J]. 外国文学评论[Foreign Literature Review](4):39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
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Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
These three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' (published by New World Express), with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, the author discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and “戚戚” is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into ‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of “寻寻觅觅” through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence “满地黄花堆积 憔悴损”，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people can feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, due to Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different as well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ''ci'' ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
<br />
Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair']'.''广东外语外贸大学学报''[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies],26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报''[Journal of Basic English Education],(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(04):48.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
202020080667 张琪 Zhang Qi<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic”(Qian 1993, 13).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）.化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）.对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继(2006)，安冲伟.化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
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［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
<br />
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<br />
［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
<br />
［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu <br />
<br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
<br />
good--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text. On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work. Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=116897History of Translation Studies 62020-12-20T15:47:47Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Conclusion */</p>
<hr />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br />
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
归化；异化；功能派理论<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br />
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In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br />
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From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br />
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According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br />
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Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br />
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To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br />
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Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br />
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The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br />
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While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br />
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Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br />
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Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br />
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While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br />
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The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br />
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According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Theory of Translational Action====<br />
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Text Typology====<br />
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br />
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br />
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br />
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There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br />
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Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br />
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br />
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br />
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br />
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br />
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br />
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br />
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br />
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br />
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br />
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br />
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The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br />
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br />
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As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br />
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In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br />
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Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br />
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Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br />
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余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br />
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br />
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br />
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其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br />
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br />
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The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br />
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br />
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br />
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Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br />
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On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br />
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The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br />
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Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br />
<br />
Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br />
<br />
In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
1.Bassnett, Susan&Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br />
<br />
3.Nida, E. A.&Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br />
<br />
5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br />
<br />
7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br />
<br />
8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br />
<br />
9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br />
<br />
11.Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br />
<br />
12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br />
<br />
13.Cao Xueqin&Gao E曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br />
<br />
17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br />
<br />
19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br />
<br />
For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br />
<br />
Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br />
=====1. Literature Review=====<br />
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the "Chinese Literature Today" magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br />
<br />
Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br />
<br />
Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that "Elegance" is more important than "Faithfulness" and "Expressiveness", and "Faithfulness" cannot be ignored by "Elegance".--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's "loyalty" and "infidelity" in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the "creative treason" in translation from Howard's "Big Breasts" and "Big Buttocks". Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's "loyalty" and "treason" when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as "The Legend of Hulan River", "Turbulence", "Six Chapters of My Life", "Red Sorghum" and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br />
<br />
Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br />
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br />
<br />
Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br />
<br />
Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br />
<br />
Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
<br />
What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
<br />
The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br />
<br />
Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work "Red Sorghum" was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br />
<br />
Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20). <br />
<br />
It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br />
<br />
This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br />
=====1. Domestication=====<br />
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br />
<br />
======1.1. Annotation======<br />
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br />
<br />
Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br />
<br />
In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br />
<br />
In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word "的" is usually added to the person's last name. "上官家的" refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses "lady" to explain "的" here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br />
<br />
Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br />
<br />
“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi". <br />
<br />
"八竿子拨拉不着" is equivalent to "Eight poles can’t be struck", which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of "Baganzi".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br />
<br />
======1.2. Addition======<br />
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom "信马由缰" refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
======1.3. Omission======<br />
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br />
<br />
E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
<br />
Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br />
<br />
Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of "The Ballad of Garlic", Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
======1.4. Substitution======<br />
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br />
<br />
The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br />
<br />
Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br />
<br />
The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates "亲娘" into "mother", this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with "Mistress" using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
=====2. Foreignization=====<br />
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br />
<br />
======2.1. Transliteration======<br />
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br />
<br />
However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
<br />
However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as "刘罗汉", and translate it into "Arhat Liu". Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of "Araht", so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br />
<br />
“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br />
<br />
======2.2. Literal Translation======<br />
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉" is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br />
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br />
<br />
Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br />
<br />
The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br />
<br />
However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work "Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks", believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br />
<br />
Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br />
<br />
Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br />
<br />
Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br />
<br />
However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br />
<br />
Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br />
<br />
Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br />
<br />
There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br />
<br />
There are "third readers" in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to "fair readers" who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br />
<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br />
<br />
The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br />
<br />
With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to "go out".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br />
<br />
*Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br />
<br />
*Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br />
<br />
*Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br />
<br />
*Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Cao Shunying&Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br />
<br />
*Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
<br />
*Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br />
<br />
*Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
<br />
*Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br />
<br />
*Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br />
<br />
*Liu Yunhong&Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br />
<br />
*Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br />
<br />
*Wen Jun&Wang Xiaochuan&Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping&Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br />
<br />
*Yan Yixun&Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br />
<br />
*Yin Lingwei&Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br />
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br />
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===摘要===<br />
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
目的论，归化，异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br />
<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br />
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br />
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The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
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In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br />
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Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br />
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In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br />
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====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br />
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As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Domestication====<br />
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br />
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Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br />
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Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br />
<br />
Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Foreignization====<br />
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br />
<br />
Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, ."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br />
<br />
The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br />
<br />
On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity". XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br />
<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br />
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)<br />
<br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br />
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br />
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“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br />
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)<br />
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<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br />
<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br />
<br />
*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br />
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*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br />
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*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br />
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*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br />
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*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br />
<br />
*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br />
<br />
==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br />
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; Hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br />
<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; Therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br />
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The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 11:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br />
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In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spreading of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 11:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24). <br />
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In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
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Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br />
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Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br />
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In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br />
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Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br />
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Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br />
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Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helping to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helping to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br />
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Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br />
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Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br />
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====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br />
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br />
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Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).<br />
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As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br />
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Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br />
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===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br />
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====2.1 The type of the text==== <br />
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br />
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Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br />
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Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br />
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Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br />
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These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br />
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These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; Therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
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Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br />
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Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text for achieving the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br />
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Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br />
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Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; On the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br />
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br />
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The translator choosing translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor for influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization, so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147). <br />
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However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).<br />
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Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br />
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Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; Therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br />
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In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br />
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br />
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As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br />
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Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br />
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====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br />
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br />
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Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br />
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For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br />
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Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br />
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Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br />
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====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br />
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br />
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Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br />
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For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
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However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
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Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br />
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Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br />
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For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br />
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On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br />
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On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion=== <br />
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br />
<br />
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and grasp the balance between them.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br />
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Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences. However, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br />
<br />
Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br />
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br />
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br />
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br />
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br />
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br />
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center> <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br />
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The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br />
<br />
===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
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====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br />
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Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".<br />
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Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term "Xiehouyu". --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
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The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ". He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br />
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In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br />
<br />
In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br />
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Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br />
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According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br />
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Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
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In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
<br />
The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
<br />
In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)" omits the latter part "一场空 (all is empty)". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br />
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br />
There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br />
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There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br />
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br />
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The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
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====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br />
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Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."<br />
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The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as "domesticationg transaltion", and the second strategy as "foreignizing transaltion". <br />
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In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of "foreignization", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br />
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Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br />
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There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br />
<br />
For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
<br />
This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
<br />
In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br />
<br />
（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
<br />
A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
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====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br />
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
<br />
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br />
In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br />
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In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
<br />
In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺"、"狗腿子"、"狗仗人势"、"狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br />
<br />
（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br />
<br />
（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
<br />
（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br />
<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br />
<br />
（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br />
<br />
（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
<br />
（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br />
While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br />
<br />
While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br />
<br />
Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning ". The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br />
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br />
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br />
<br />
When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br />
<br />
When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.4 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br />
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai,1986)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br />
<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Reference'''===<br />
<br />
1.Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br />
<br />
2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br />
<br />
3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br />
<br />
4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br />
<br />
5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br />
<br />
6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br />
<br />
7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br />
<br />
8. Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br />
<br />
9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br />
<br />
10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br />
<br />
11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br />
<br />
12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br />
<br />
13. Chen Hongwei & Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br />
<br />
14.Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br />
<br />
16.Gao Yun & Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br />
<br />
17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br />
<br />
18.Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
<br />
<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br />
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The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br />
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===摘要===<br />
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br />
<br />
对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
<br />
Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br />
<br />
As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).<br />
As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).<br />
<br />
As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118). <br />
<br />
The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br />
<br />
Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br />
<br />
People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br />
<br />
===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br />
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br />
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br />
<br />
In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908). <br />
<br />
As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal". <br />
<br />
These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br />
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br />
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br />
<br />
====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br />
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Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br />
<br />
The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br />
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她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br />
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Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br />
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The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br />
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运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
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Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br />
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The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br />
<br />
等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br />
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Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br />
<br />
Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br />
<br />
一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br />
<br />
This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br />
<br />
The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br />
<br />
English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br />
<br />
====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br />
<br />
Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him".<br />
<br />
咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br />
<br />
特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br />
<br />
Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br />
<br />
Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br />
<br />
匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br />
<br />
Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br />
<br />
主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br />
<br />
For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br />
<br />
Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br />
<br />
====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
<br />
Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"<br />
<br />
梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".<br />
<br />
耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
<br />
Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor". <br />
<br />
The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br />
<br />
蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".<br />
<br />
子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".<br />
<br />
The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br />
<br />
In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br />
<br />
Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning. <br />
<br />
Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). "Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). "On the Different Methods of Translating", in André Lefevere (ed. & trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen & Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br />
<br />
*Schulte, Rainer & Biguenet, John. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translaing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br />
<br />
*Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (01) 40-44.<br />
<br />
*Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 03-05.<br />
<br />
*Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br />
<br />
= '''Title Translation''' =<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br />
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br />
<br />
This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br />
<br />
And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br />
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br />
<br />
Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br />
<br />
===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br />
<br />
Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br />
<br />
Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br />
<br />
The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br />
<br />
It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br />
<br />
The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br />
<br />
The film can accurately "restore" the real world, "show" the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br />
<br />
(1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br />
<br />
(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br />
<br />
(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br />
<br />
People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br />
<br />
(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins "). <br />
<br />
According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br />
<br />
These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br />
<br />
In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br />
<br />
2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br />
<br />
3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br />
<br />
4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br />
<br />
5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br />
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br />
<br />
For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.<br />
<br />
Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br />
<br />
The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br />
<br />
Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br />
<br />
In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.<br />
<br />
The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br />
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br />
<br />
Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br />
<br />
And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.<br />
<br />
"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br />
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant ", but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br />
<br />
As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br />
<br />
Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br />
<br />
====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br />
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br />
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It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.<br />
<br />
Since then, the film has been widely accepted as "the sound of music" by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br />
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This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".<br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Literal Translation====<br />
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br />
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For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br />
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====4.2 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into "Face Off" or "Face Off". Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br />
<br />
When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into "If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into" cat and mouse game "or" free ", the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br />
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====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br />
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br />
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So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br />
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====4.5 Naturalization====<br />
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br />
<br />
Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br />
<br />
Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br />
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====4.6 Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br />
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The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br />
<br />
Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br />
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===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br />
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Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br />
<br />
[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br />
<br />
[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br />
<br />
[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br />
<br />
[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br />
<br />
[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br />
<br />
[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br />
<br />
[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br />
<br />
[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br />
<br />
[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br />
<br />
== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br />
<br />
<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br />
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==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br />
<br />
A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br />
<br />
This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br />
<br />
This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br />
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====2.1 Film Genres ====<br />
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br />
<br />
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
<br />
===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br />
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br />
<br />
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br />
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br />
Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
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=====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br />
The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br />
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The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br />
A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
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A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br />
====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br />
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Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br />
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Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place".Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br />
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Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)".<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br />
All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br />
A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br />
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A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br />
Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br />
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Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br />
Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br />
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Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br />
The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br />
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There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br />
As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br />
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The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br />
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''=== <br />
He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br />
<br />
Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br />
<br />
Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br />
<br />
Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&129.<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br />
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Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br />
<br />
He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br />
<br />
Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br />
<br />
Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br />
<br />
==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br />
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br />
<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===key words===<br />
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br />
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===商标翻译研究===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br />
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===关键字===<br />
商标翻译；原则；方法<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
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In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br />
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The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br />
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First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br />
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br />
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According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
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Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br />
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With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br />
have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br />
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To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br />
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
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The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br />
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br />
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In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br />
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Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br />
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People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br />
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br />
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As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br />
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For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett-packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br />
Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br />
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A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
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For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br />
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Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br />
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br />
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Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon". On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br />
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br />
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Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br />
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br />
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br />
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br />
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Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br />
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====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick", is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
<br />
It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br />
<br />
A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Free translation====<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br />
<br />
Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br />
<br />
However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br />
<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br />
<br />
“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.5 Non-translation====<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br />
<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br />
<br />
On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br />
<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br />
<br />
First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.<br />
<br />
First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br />
<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br />
<br />
[2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of "Three Beauty" in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br />
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[3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br />
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[4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br />
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[6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[7]Wang Hengen. "Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br />
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[8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br />
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[9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br />
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[10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br />
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[11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br />
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[12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br />
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[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br />
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[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). "Revlon" in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br />
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='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br />
<center>周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br />
<br />
===Key word===<br />
culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br />
====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br />
====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br />
<br />
Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
<br />
In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
<br />
In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br />
<br />
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br />
<br />
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br />
<br />
The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br />
<br />
Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br />
<br />
Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
<br />
Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br />
<br />
Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br />
<br />
I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br />
<br />
O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br />
<br />
Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br />
<br />
(2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br />
<br />
I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br />
<br />
I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br />
<br />
In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br />
<br />
In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br />
<br />
I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br />
<br />
I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br />
<br />
The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br />
<br />
(4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br />
<br />
My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br />
<br />
I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,& Chung Ling,1979:56)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br />
However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br />
<br />
The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br />
<br />
People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br />
<br />
Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br />
<br />
The Double Ninth comes now again.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br />
<br />
Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br />
<br />
I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br />
<br />
The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br />
<br />
Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss;<br />
<br />
I know not what it is.<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br />
<br />
Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br />
<br />
Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br />
<br />
Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
(10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br />
<br />
A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br />
<br />
Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br />
<br />
In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br />
<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
*Rexroth, K. & Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br />
<br />
*Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br />
<br />
*Fu Guiying 付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Three-Beauty Principle][D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
* Han Zhouwen 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究[A Study on the Translation of the Culture-loaded Terms of Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out:A perspective of Skopos Theory]——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Li Qing 郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhao 李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's "Our Country and Our People"]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br />
<br />
* Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Yang Jian 杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang 张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br />
<br />
==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br />
<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br />
<br />
By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br />
<br />
沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br />
<br />
通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br />
<br />
因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
<br />
With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used around the globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest to the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br />
<br />
====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br />
For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title "floating life" derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on a stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with a movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br />
In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and the unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that "the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' ". (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br />
<br />
This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carrying in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br />
<br />
In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as "culture-specific items" and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that "Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text". (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br />
<br />
From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br />
<br />
To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br />
Eugene Nida considers that "if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture". (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br />
<br />
In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br />
Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br />
Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br />
Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br />
When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br />
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====3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation====<br />
Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br />
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“未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br />
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====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br />
Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br />
Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br />
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3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br />
Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br />
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4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br />
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“Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br />
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“挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br />
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====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br />
In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br />
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7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br />
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7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br />
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In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br />
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======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br />
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This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br />
<br />
====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br />
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“San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br />
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10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br />
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10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br />
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“篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br />
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=====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br />
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11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br />
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The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br />
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=====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br />
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12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br />
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In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br />
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13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br />
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13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br />
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“月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br />
<br />
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<br />
==How to Keep "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
<br />
Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br />
<br />
This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br />
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idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===汉语习语英译如何保持"中国性"===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br />
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本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br />
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=== Introduction===<br />
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
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An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
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Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br />
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The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br />
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
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Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br />
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The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 The Importance of Keeping "Chineseness" in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br />
Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br />
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Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br />
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Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of "Chineseness" in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br />
Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br />
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Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br />
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Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate "三顾茅庐" into "repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or "have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly", foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Likewise, the idioms like "班门弄斧" and "卧薪尝胆" are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br />
As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br />
As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br />
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The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br />
As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br />
Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br />
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Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) <br />
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In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. "Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br />
"Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, "The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text", in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br />
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====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. <br />
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====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br />
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Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated as "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated into "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃"[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into "A toad hankering for a tatste of swan"(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the "Chineseness" in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
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Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
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For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br />
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The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
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However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
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In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br />
<br />
*He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br />
<br />
*Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br />
<br />
*Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br />
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*Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br />
<br />
*David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London & New York:Routledge,1995:20<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br />
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As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br />
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===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br />
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Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br />
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With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br />
<br />
Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization<br />
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===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br />
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====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br />
As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br />
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Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br />
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1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br />
Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most<br />
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Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br />
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In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br />
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Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.It is said that proverbs in China dated back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br />
Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br />
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1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br />
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Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br />
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What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br />
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Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br />
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From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br />
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====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br />
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It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br />
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Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br />
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As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br />
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Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br />
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===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br />
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====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br />
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As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br />
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====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br />
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====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br />
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Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br />
As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br />
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====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br />
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Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br />
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In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation.<br />
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===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br />
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Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br />
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The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br />
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====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br />
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As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br />
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In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br />
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====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br />
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In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br />
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Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
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Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br />
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Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br />
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Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br />
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In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 15:45, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. References===<br />
*Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br />
*Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br />
*Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br />
*Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br />
*Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br />
*Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br />
*Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br />
*Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br />
*Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br />
*Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br />
*Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br />
*Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br />
*Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br />
*You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br />
*Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br />
<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
<br />
一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
<br />
Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
<br />
Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br />
<br />
1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br />
<br />
Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br />
<br />
Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br />
<br />
Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br />
<br />
The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br />
<br />
1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br />
<br />
We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br />
<br />
The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br />
<br />
With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
<br />
As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br />
<br />
2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br />
<br />
2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
<br />
The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br />
<br />
Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br />
<br />
2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
<br />
To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br />
The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br />
<br />
Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br />
<br />
Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br />
<br />
Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
3.1 Transliteration<br />
<br />
Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br />
<br />
Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br />
<br />
For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br />
<br />
3.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br />
<br />
3.3 Free Translation<br />
<br />
Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br />
<br />
Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
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[4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br />
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[6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br />
[7] Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
[8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br />
[9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br />
[10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br />
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[12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br />
[13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br />
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<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
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跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
<br />
一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
<br />
Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
<br />
Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(<span style="color:red">the</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br />
<br />
To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(<span style="color:red">space</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br />
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====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
<br />
Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (<span style="color:red">delete that have been</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br />
<br />
With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(<span style="color:red">inappropriate</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br />
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Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (<span style="color:red">add the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br />
<br />
First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(<span style="color:red">abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics"哥哥"</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (<span style="color:red">through</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br />
<br />
Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (<span style="color:red">the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br />
<br />
With new things coming in(<span style="color:red">springing up</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br />
<br />
A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (<span style="color:red">updating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br />
<br />
The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(<span style="color:red">developing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
<br />
In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(<span style="color:red">one after another</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
<br />
In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(<span style="color:red">their</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br />
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Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(<span style="color:red">various ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br />
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We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(<span style="color:red">such</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br />
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The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (<span style="color:red">For example,</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br />
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With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(<span style="color:red">increasingly strong</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
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As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (<span style="color:red">them and their</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br />
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====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
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Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (<span style="color:red">transending</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br />
<br />
In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(<span style="color:red">construction</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br />
<br />
Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (<span style="color:red">during translating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(<span style="color:red">improved</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (<span style="color:red">also</span>)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br />
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=====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br />
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Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (<span style="color:red">following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br />
<br />
In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(<span style="color:red">expressions</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
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Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(<span style="color:red">with</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br />
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It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(<span style="color:red">delete above</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
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Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(<span style="color:red">contained</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
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For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (<span style="color:red">describes</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
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To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (<span style="color:red">employing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br />
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Nowadays, it is common to see(<span style="color:red">observe</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
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Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(<span style="color:red">long</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
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Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br />
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====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
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Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(<span style="color:red">readers</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br />
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For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and (<span style="color:red">has</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
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====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
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Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(<span style="color:red">delete a process</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
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The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (<span style="color:red">ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
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In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(<span style="color:red">manifest</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
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====3.3 Free Translation====<br />
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Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(<span style="color:red">conveys</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
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For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br />
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In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br />
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In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br />
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To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br />
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Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br />
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Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br />
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In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br />
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*Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br />
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*Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br />
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*Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br />
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*Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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*Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br />
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*Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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*Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br />
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*Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br />
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*Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br />
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*Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br />
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*Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br />
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*Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br />
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*Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
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*Zhang Jian & Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br />
<center>刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.</center><br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
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With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br />
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=== Keywords ===<br />
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Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br />
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=== 题目 ===<br />
从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
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中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br />
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=== 关键词 ===<br />
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中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br />
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=== Introduction ===<br />
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As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
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It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
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The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
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And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
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=== Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
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Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) <br />
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Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br />
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They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br />
<br />
=== Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
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(1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br />
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Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) <br />
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Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same "with" structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br />
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The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br />
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After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br />
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But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br />
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Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019，6）<br />
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(2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br />
<br />
The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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=== Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br />
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Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126）<br />
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Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br />
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Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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=== Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br />
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4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
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Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
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First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
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One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
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Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
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The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
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The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
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As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
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With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
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There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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*Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du & Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br />
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*Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br />
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*Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br />
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*Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br />
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*Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br />
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*Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br />
<br />
*车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br />
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*李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br />
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*莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of "re-creation" translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br />
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*屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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*邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br />
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*吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of "Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research"]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br />
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*张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of "China on the Tip of the Tongue" guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br />
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--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 13:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br />
<center> 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br />
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===题目===<br />
中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
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The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
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Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
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====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br />
Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to "the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language". This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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According to Catford, "Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text." (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br />
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First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches "private" meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br />
Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br />
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Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br />
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Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
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The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
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And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
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And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br />
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A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br />
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Informative Function<br />
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The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br />
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Aesthetic Function<br />
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If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
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If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cultural Function<br />
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Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br />
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====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br />
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br />
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There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br />
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Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br />
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator "deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures".(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br />
Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br />
The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br />
Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br />
Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br />
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Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox". (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br />
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Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox".(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br />
The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br />
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The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on "Ingredient and Main Ingredient" or "Main ingredient and Soup"====<br />
The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by with or in. e.g."冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br />
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The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by “with or in”, for example, "冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". The choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br />
When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of "seasoning+main ingredient" can use the structure of "main ingredient+with+seasoning", such as "芥末鸡条" can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as "Cumin Beef".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", e.g. "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", for example, "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br />
The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, "芙蓉鸡片" can be translated as "Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White" and "菊花鱿鱼"as "Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", e.g. "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", for example, "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names "--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape" can be translated as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient", such as "干煸牛肉丝". "干煸" is the cooking method, "牛肉" is the main ingredient and "丝" is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as "Dry-fried Shredded Beef".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from "Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient" to "Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient"====<br />
In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as "person's name+main ingredient" can be made directly. For example, in "组庵豆腐", "组庵" is the name of a person and "豆腐" is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as "Zu'an Tofuo".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+，+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", e.g. "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", for example, "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name of a dish can be translated in the form of "cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style", e.g. "毛氏红烧肉", which can be translated as "Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. "(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br />
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====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as "Utensil + Main Ingredient"====<br />
Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br />
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Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br />
Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br />
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Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br />
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Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br />
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A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br />
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[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan Cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br />
<center> 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用上述不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能扫除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In modern society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape. However, at present we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to cross-cultural communication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。中国菜名含有丰富的文化与艺术特征，其体现了中国文化图景。然而，目前中国菜名译本众多，这不利于跨文化交流。<br />
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It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。<br />
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However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies. Therefore, in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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然而，首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br />
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===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br />
Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some Chinese English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br />
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中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，中国英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br />
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====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br />
China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can't express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny.(Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。<br />
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For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it doesn't reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, he knocked off the mud shell. The aroma overflowed, and it became a delicious dish. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。<br />
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Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br />
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====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br />
At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is more vivid and can make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish.(Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。<br />
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There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotations of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br />
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====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br />
The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。<br />
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For example, "onion soup in French style"(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, a snake is compared to a dragon, and a chicken to a phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。<br />
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The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don't understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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“年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br />
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To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural connotations of dish names and using inappropriate translation methods. In this chapter I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduce the above two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br />
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以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br />
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===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br />
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====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book "Translator's Invisibility" according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30)<br />
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“归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30)<br />
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Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation.（Su Songlonghua 2011） <br />
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归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。<br />
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Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text, which means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, to preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br />
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异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br />
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====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of reader-oriented characteristics domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement.(Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) <br />
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谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。<br />
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On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communications, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br />
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另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。<br />
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Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br />
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因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br />
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Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, we should use habitual expressions of readers and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br />
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从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变）。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br />
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===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br />
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====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br />
Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br />
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Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br />
There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br />
slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br />
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====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br />
“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br />
Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br />
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Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br />
The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br />
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As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br />
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=====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br />
以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br />
There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br />
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There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. She casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br />
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=====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br />
带地名和人名的菜名<br />
There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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There are usually two translation methods for the dish name with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as“pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual“step by step” (步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br />
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====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br />
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Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br />
<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are opposite in theory, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this paper can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br />
*Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br />
*Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br />
*Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br />
*Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. "Baidu Encyclopedia". https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br />
*Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br />
*Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br />
*Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br />
*Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br />
*Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br />
*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of "Translation Strategies", "Translation Methods" and "Translation Skills"]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br />
*Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br />
*Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br />
*Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br />
*Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br />
*Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br />
*Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=116890History of Translation Studies 62020-12-20T15:41:53Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization */</p>
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='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br />
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==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br />
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
归化；异化；功能派理论<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br />
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In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br />
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From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br />
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According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br />
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Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br />
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To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br />
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Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br />
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The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br />
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While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br />
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Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br />
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Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br />
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While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br />
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The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br />
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According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Theory of Translational Action====<br />
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Text Typology====<br />
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br />
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br />
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br />
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There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br />
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Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br />
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br />
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br />
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br />
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br />
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br />
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br />
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br />
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br />
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br />
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br />
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The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br />
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br />
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As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br />
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In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br />
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Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br />
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Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br />
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余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br />
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br />
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br />
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其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br />
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br />
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The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br />
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br />
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br />
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Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br />
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On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br />
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The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br />
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Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br />
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Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br />
<br />
In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
1.Bassnett, Susan&Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br />
<br />
3.Nida, E. A.&Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br />
<br />
5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br />
<br />
7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br />
<br />
8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br />
<br />
9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br />
<br />
11.Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br />
<br />
12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br />
<br />
13.Cao Xueqin&Gao E曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br />
<br />
17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br />
<br />
19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br />
<br />
For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br />
<br />
Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br />
=====1. Literature Review=====<br />
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the "Chinese Literature Today" magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br />
<br />
Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br />
<br />
Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that "Elegance" is more important than "Faithfulness" and "Expressiveness", and "Faithfulness" cannot be ignored by "Elegance".--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's "loyalty" and "infidelity" in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the "creative treason" in translation from Howard's "Big Breasts" and "Big Buttocks". Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's "loyalty" and "treason" when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as "The Legend of Hulan River", "Turbulence", "Six Chapters of My Life", "Red Sorghum" and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br />
<br />
Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br />
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br />
<br />
Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br />
<br />
Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br />
<br />
Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
<br />
What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
<br />
The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br />
<br />
Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work "Red Sorghum" was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br />
<br />
Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20). <br />
<br />
It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br />
<br />
This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br />
=====1. Domestication=====<br />
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br />
<br />
======1.1. Annotation======<br />
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br />
<br />
Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br />
<br />
In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br />
<br />
In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word "的" is usually added to the person's last name. "上官家的" refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses "lady" to explain "的" here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br />
<br />
Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br />
<br />
“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi". <br />
<br />
"八竿子拨拉不着" is equivalent to "Eight poles can’t be struck", which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of "Baganzi".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br />
<br />
======1.2. Addition======<br />
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom "信马由缰" refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
======1.3. Omission======<br />
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br />
<br />
E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
<br />
Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br />
<br />
Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of "The Ballad of Garlic", Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
======1.4. Substitution======<br />
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br />
<br />
The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br />
<br />
Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br />
<br />
The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates "亲娘" into "mother", this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with "Mistress" using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
=====2. Foreignization=====<br />
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br />
<br />
======2.1. Transliteration======<br />
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br />
<br />
However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
<br />
However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as "刘罗汉", and translate it into "Arhat Liu". Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of "Araht", so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br />
<br />
“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br />
<br />
======2.2. Literal Translation======<br />
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉" is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br />
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br />
<br />
Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br />
<br />
The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br />
<br />
However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work "Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks", believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br />
<br />
Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br />
<br />
Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br />
<br />
Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br />
<br />
However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br />
<br />
Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br />
<br />
Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br />
<br />
There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br />
<br />
There are "third readers" in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to "fair readers" who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br />
<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br />
<br />
The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br />
<br />
With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to "go out".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br />
<br />
*Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br />
<br />
*Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br />
<br />
*Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br />
<br />
*Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Cao Shunying&Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br />
<br />
*Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
<br />
*Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br />
<br />
*Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
<br />
*Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br />
<br />
*Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br />
<br />
*Liu Yunhong&Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br />
<br />
*Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br />
<br />
*Wen Jun&Wang Xiaochuan&Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping&Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br />
<br />
*Yan Yixun&Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br />
<br />
*Yin Lingwei&Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br />
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br />
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===摘要===<br />
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
目的论，归化，异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br />
<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br />
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br />
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The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
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In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br />
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Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br />
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In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br />
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====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br />
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As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Domestication====<br />
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br />
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Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br />
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Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br />
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Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Foreignization====<br />
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br />
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Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br />
<br />
Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, ."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br />
<br />
The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br />
<br />
On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity". XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br />
<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br />
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)<br />
<br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br />
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br />
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“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br />
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)<br />
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<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br />
<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br />
<br />
*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br />
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*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br />
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*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br />
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*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br />
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*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br />
<br />
*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br />
<br />
==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br />
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; Hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br />
<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; Therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br />
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The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 11:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br />
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In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spreading of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 11:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24). <br />
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In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
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Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br />
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Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br />
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In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br />
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Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br />
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Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br />
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Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helping to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helping to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br />
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Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br />
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Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br />
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====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br />
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br />
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Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).<br />
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As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br />
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Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br />
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===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br />
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====2.1 The type of the text==== <br />
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br />
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Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br />
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Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br />
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Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br />
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These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br />
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These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; Therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
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Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br />
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Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text for achieving the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br />
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Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br />
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Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; On the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br />
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br />
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The translator choosing translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor for influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization, so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147). <br />
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However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).<br />
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Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br />
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Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; Therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br />
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In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language better understand, so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br />
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br />
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As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br />
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Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br />
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====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br />
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br />
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Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words for filling the gap in the readers’ culture and letting readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it into “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br />
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For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br />
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Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br />
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Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br />
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====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br />
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br />
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Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br />
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For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
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However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
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Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br />
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Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br />
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For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br />
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On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br />
<br />
On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to make readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion=== <br />
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br />
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Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br />
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Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br />
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Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br />
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br />
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br />
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br />
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br />
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br />
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center> <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br />
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The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br />
<br />
===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
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====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".<br />
<br />
Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term "Xiehouyu". --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
<br />
The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ". He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br />
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In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br />
<br />
In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
<br />
However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br />
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Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br />
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According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br />
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Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
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In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
<br />
The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
<br />
In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)" omits the latter part "一场空 (all is empty)". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br />
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br />
There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br />
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There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br />
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br />
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The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
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====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br />
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Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."<br />
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The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as "domesticationg transaltion", and the second strategy as "foreignizing transaltion". <br />
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In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of "foreignization", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br />
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Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br />
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There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br />
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For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
<br />
This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
<br />
In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br />
<br />
（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
<br />
A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
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====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br />
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
<br />
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br />
In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br />
<br />
In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
<br />
In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺"、"狗腿子"、"狗仗人势"、"狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br />
<br />
（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br />
<br />
（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
<br />
（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br />
<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br />
<br />
（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br />
<br />
（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
<br />
（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br />
While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br />
<br />
While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br />
<br />
Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning ". The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br />
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br />
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br />
<br />
When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br />
<br />
When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.4 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br />
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai,1986)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br />
<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Reference'''===<br />
<br />
1.Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br />
<br />
2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br />
<br />
3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br />
<br />
4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br />
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5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br />
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6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br />
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7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br />
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8. Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br />
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9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br />
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10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br />
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11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br />
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12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br />
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13. Chen Hongwei & Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br />
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14.Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br />
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15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br />
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16.Gao Yun & Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br />
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17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br />
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18.Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
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<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br />
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The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br />
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===题目===<br />
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br />
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===摘要===<br />
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br />
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归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br />
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对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br />
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===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
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Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br />
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As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).<br />
As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).<br />
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As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118). <br />
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The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br />
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Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br />
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Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br />
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People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br />
<br />
===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br />
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br />
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br />
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In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908). <br />
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As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal". <br />
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These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br />
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br />
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===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br />
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br />
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====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br />
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Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br />
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The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br />
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她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br />
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Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br />
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The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br />
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运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
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Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br />
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The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br />
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等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br />
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Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br />
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Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br />
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一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
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Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br />
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This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br />
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The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br />
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English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br />
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====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br />
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Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him".<br />
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咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
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Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br />
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特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br />
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Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br />
<br />
Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br />
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匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br />
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Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br />
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In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br />
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主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
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Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br />
<br />
For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br />
<br />
Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br />
<br />
====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
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Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"<br />
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梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
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Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".<br />
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耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
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Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor". <br />
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The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br />
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蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br />
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Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".<br />
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子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br />
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Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".<br />
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The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br />
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In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br />
<br />
Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br />
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Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning. <br />
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Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). "Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). "On the Different Methods of Translating", in André Lefevere (ed. & trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen & Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br />
<br />
*Schulte, Rainer & Biguenet, John. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translaing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br />
<br />
*Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (01) 40-44.<br />
<br />
*Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 03-05.<br />
<br />
*Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
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*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br />
<br />
= '''Title Translation''' =<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br />
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br />
<br />
This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br />
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===摘要===<br />
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br />
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And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br />
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br />
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Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br />
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===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br />
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====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br />
<br />
Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br />
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Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br />
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The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br />
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It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br />
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The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br />
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The film can accurately "restore" the real world, "show" the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br />
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====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br />
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(1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br />
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(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br />
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(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br />
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People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br />
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(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins "). <br />
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According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br />
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These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br />
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====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br />
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In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br />
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2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br />
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3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br />
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4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br />
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5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br />
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===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br />
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====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br />
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br />
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For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.<br />
<br />
Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br />
<br />
The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br />
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Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br />
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In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.<br />
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The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br />
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====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br />
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br />
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Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br />
<br />
And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.<br />
<br />
"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br />
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant ", but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br />
<br />
As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br />
<br />
Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br />
<br />
====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br />
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br />
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It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.<br />
<br />
Since then, the film has been widely accepted as "the sound of music" by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br />
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This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".<br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Literal Translation====<br />
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br />
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For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into "Face Off" or "Face Off". Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br />
<br />
When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into "If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into" cat and mouse game "or" free ", the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br />
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====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br />
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====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br />
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br />
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So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br />
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====4.5 Naturalization====<br />
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br />
<br />
Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br />
<br />
Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br />
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====4.6 Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br />
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The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br />
<br />
Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br />
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===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br />
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Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br />
<br />
[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br />
<br />
[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br />
<br />
[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br />
<br />
[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br />
<br />
[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br />
<br />
[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br />
<br />
[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br />
<br />
[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br />
<br />
[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br />
<br />
== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br />
<br />
<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
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English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
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随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
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英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br />
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==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br />
<br />
A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br />
<br />
This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br />
<br />
This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br />
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====2.1 Film Genres ====<br />
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br />
<br />
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
<br />
===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br />
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br />
<br />
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br />
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br />
Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
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=====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br />
The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br />
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The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br />
A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
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A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br />
====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br />
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Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br />
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Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place".Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br />
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Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)".<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br />
All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br />
A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br />
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A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br />
Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br />
<br />
Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br />
Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br />
<br />
Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br />
The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br />
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There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br />
As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br />
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The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br />
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''=== <br />
He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br />
<br />
Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br />
<br />
Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br />
<br />
Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&129.<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br />
<br />
Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br />
<br />
He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br />
<br />
Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br />
<br />
Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br />
<br />
==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br />
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br />
<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br />
<br />
===商标翻译研究===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br />
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===关键字===<br />
商标翻译；原则；方法<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
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In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br />
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The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br />
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First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br />
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br />
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According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
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Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br />
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With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br />
have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br />
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To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br />
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
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The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br />
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br />
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In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br />
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Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br />
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People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br />
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br />
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As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br />
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For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett-packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br />
Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br />
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A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
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For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br />
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Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br />
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br />
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Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon". On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br />
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br />
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Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br />
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br />
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br />
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br />
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Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br />
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====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick", is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
<br />
It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br />
<br />
A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Free translation====<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br />
<br />
Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br />
<br />
However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br />
<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br />
<br />
“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Non-translation====<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br />
<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br />
<br />
On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br />
<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br />
<br />
First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.<br />
<br />
First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br />
<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br />
<br />
[2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of "Three Beauty" in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br />
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[3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br />
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[4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br />
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[6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[7]Wang Hengen. "Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br />
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[8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br />
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[9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br />
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[10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br />
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[11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br />
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[12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br />
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[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br />
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[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). "Revlon" in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br />
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='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br />
<center>周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br />
<br />
===Key word===<br />
culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br />
====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
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Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
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To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br />
====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br />
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Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
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In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
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In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
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In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br />
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In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br />
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In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br />
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In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br />
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The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br />
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Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
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Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br />
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Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br />
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====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
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=====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
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Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
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For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
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Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
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Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
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Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
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The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
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Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br />
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Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br />
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Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br />
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===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
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Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br />
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Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br />
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(1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br />
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I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br />
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O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br />
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Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br />
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(2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br />
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I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br />
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I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br />
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In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br />
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In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br />
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(3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br />
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I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br />
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I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br />
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The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br />
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(4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br />
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My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br />
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I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,& Chung Ling,1979:56)<br />
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Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br />
However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br />
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====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br />
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(5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br />
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The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br />
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People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br />
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Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
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Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br />
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The Double Ninth comes now again.<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br />
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Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br />
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“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br />
<br />
I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br />
<br />
The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br />
<br />
Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss;<br />
<br />
I know not what it is.<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br />
<br />
Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br />
<br />
Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br />
<br />
Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
(10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br />
<br />
A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br />
<br />
Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br />
<br />
In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br />
<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
*Rexroth, K. & Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br />
<br />
*Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br />
<br />
*Fu Guiying 付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Three-Beauty Principle][D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
* Han Zhouwen 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究[A Study on the Translation of the Culture-loaded Terms of Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out:A perspective of Skopos Theory]——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Li Qing 郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhao 李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's "Our Country and Our People"]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br />
<br />
* Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Yang Jian 杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang 张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br />
<br />
==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br />
<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br />
<br />
By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br />
<br />
沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br />
<br />
通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br />
<br />
因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
<br />
With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used around the globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest to the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br />
<br />
====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br />
For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title "floating life" derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on a stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with a movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br />
In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and the unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that "the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' ". (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br />
<br />
This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carrying in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br />
<br />
In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as "culture-specific items" and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that "Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text". (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br />
<br />
From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br />
<br />
To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br />
Eugene Nida considers that "if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture". (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br />
<br />
In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br />
Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br />
Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br />
Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br />
When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br />
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====3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation====<br />
Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br />
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“未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br />
Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br />
Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br />
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3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br />
<br />
The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br />
Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br />
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4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br />
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“Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br />
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“挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br />
<br />
====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br />
In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br />
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7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br />
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7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br />
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In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br />
<br />
======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br />
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This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br />
<br />
====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br />
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“San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br />
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10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br />
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10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br />
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“篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br />
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11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br />
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The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br />
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12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br />
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In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br />
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13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br />
<br />
13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br />
<br />
“月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br />
<br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M] [Cultural Context and Language Translation]. ''北京：中国对外翻译出版公司'' Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company.<br />
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Feng Li 冯丽. (2013). 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J] [A Brief Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Culture]. ''漯河职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Luohe Vocational and Technical College (3) 116-117.<br />
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Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. (2017). 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J] [A Study on the Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' at home and abroad: Review and Prospect]. ''外语教育研究'' Research on Foreign Language Education (4) 53-59.<br />
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Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''浙江：浙江工商大学出版社'' Zhejiang: Zhejiang Gongshang University Press.<br />
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<br />
==How to Keep "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
<br />
Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br />
<br />
This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br />
<br />
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===汉语习语英译如何保持"中国性"===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br />
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本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br />
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=== Introduction===<br />
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
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An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
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Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br />
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The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br />
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
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Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br />
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The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 The Importance of Keeping "Chineseness" in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br />
Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br />
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Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br />
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Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of "Chineseness" in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br />
Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br />
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Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br />
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Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate "三顾茅庐" into "repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or "have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly", foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Likewise, the idioms like "班门弄斧" and "卧薪尝胆" are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br />
As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br />
As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br />
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The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br />
As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br />
Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br />
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Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) <br />
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In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. "Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br />
"Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, "The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text", in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br />
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====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. <br />
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====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br />
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Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated as "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated into "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃"[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into "A toad hankering for a tatste of swan"(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the "Chineseness" in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
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Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
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For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br />
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The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
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However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
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In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br />
<br />
*He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br />
<br />
*Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br />
<br />
*Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br />
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*Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br />
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*Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br />
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*Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br />
<br />
*David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London & New York:Routledge,1995:20<br />
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*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br />
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As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br />
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===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br />
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Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br />
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With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br />
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====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br />
As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br />
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"A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion."(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br />
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"A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation."--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br />
Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br />
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and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br />
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In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br />
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Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.It is said that proverbs in China dated back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br />
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It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br />
Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br />
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Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br />
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roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br />
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What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br />
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From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br />
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====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br />
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It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br />
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Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br />
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In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br />
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It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br />
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In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br />
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====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br />
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As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br />
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Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br />
As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br />
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====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br />
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The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br />
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Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br />
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In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br />
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Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br />
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The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br />
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====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br />
<br />
As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br />
he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br />
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====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br />
<br />
As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br />
<br />
The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br />
<br />
In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br />
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Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br />
<br />
Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br />
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Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br />
<br />
In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />
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Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. References===<br />
*Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br />
*Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br />
*Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br />
*Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br />
*Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br />
*Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br />
*Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br />
*Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br />
*Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br />
*Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br />
*Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br />
*Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br />
*Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br />
*You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br />
*Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br />
<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
<br />
一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
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Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
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Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br />
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1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br />
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Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br />
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Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br />
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Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br />
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The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br />
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1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br />
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In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br />
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Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br />
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We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br />
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The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br />
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With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
<br />
As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br />
<br />
2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br />
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2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
<br />
The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br />
<br />
Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br />
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2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
<br />
To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br />
The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br />
<br />
Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br />
<br />
Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br />
<br />
Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
3.1 Transliteration<br />
<br />
Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br />
<br />
Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br />
<br />
For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br />
<br />
3.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br />
<br />
3.3 Free Translation<br />
<br />
Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br />
<br />
Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
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[2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br />
[3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br />
[4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br />
[5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
[6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br />
[7] Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
[8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br />
[9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br />
[10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br />
[11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br />
[12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br />
[13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br />
[14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br />
[15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br />
[16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br />
[17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br />
[18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br />
[19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br />
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<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
<br />
一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
<br />
Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
<br />
Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(<span style="color:red">the</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br />
<br />
To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(<span style="color:red">space</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br />
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====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
<br />
Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (<span style="color:red">delete that have been</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br />
<br />
With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(<span style="color:red">inappropriate</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br />
<br />
Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (<span style="color:red">add the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br />
<br />
First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(<span style="color:red">abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics"哥哥"</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (<span style="color:red">through</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br />
<br />
Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (<span style="color:red">the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br />
<br />
With new things coming in(<span style="color:red">springing up</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br />
<br />
A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (<span style="color:red">updating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br />
<br />
The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(<span style="color:red">developing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
<br />
In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(<span style="color:red">one after another</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
<br />
In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(<span style="color:red">their</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(<span style="color:red">various ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br />
<br />
We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(<span style="color:red">such</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br />
<br />
The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (<span style="color:red">For example,</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br />
<br />
With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(<span style="color:red">increasingly strong</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
<br />
As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (<span style="color:red">them and their</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br />
<br />
====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (<span style="color:red">transending</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br />
<br />
In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(<span style="color:red">construction</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br />
<br />
Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (<span style="color:red">during translating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(<span style="color:red">improved</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (<span style="color:red">also</span>)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br />
<br />
Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (<span style="color:red">following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br />
<br />
In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(<span style="color:red">expressions</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(<span style="color:red">with</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br />
<br />
It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(<span style="color:red">delete above</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
<br />
Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(<span style="color:red">contained</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
<br />
For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (<span style="color:red">describes</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
<br />
To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (<span style="color:red">employing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, it is common to see(<span style="color:red">observe</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
<br />
Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(<span style="color:red">long</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
<br />
Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(<span style="color:red">readers</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br />
<br />
For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and (<span style="color:red">has</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(<span style="color:red">delete a process</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
<br />
The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (<span style="color:red">ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
<br />
In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(<span style="color:red">manifest</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(<span style="color:red">conveys</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
<br />
For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br />
<br />
In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br />
<br />
In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br />
<br />
To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br />
<br />
Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br />
<br />
Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br />
<br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br />
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*Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br />
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*Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br />
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*Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br />
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*Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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*Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br />
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*Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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*Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br />
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*Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br />
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*Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br />
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*Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br />
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*Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br />
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*Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br />
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*Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
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*Zhang Jian & Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br />
<center>刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br />
<br />
=== Keywords ===<br />
<br />
Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
<br />
中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
<br />
It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
<br />
The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
<br />
And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
<br />
=== Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
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Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) <br />
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Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br />
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Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br />
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They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br />
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=== Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
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(1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br />
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Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) <br />
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Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same "with" structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br />
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The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br />
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After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br />
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But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br />
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Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019，6）<br />
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(2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br />
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The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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=== Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br />
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Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126）<br />
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Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br />
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Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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=== Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br />
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4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
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Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
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First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
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One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
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Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
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The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
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The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
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As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
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With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
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There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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*Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du & Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br />
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*Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br />
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*Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br />
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*Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br />
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*Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br />
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*Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br />
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*车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br />
<br />
*李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br />
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*莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of "re-creation" translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br />
<br />
*屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
<br />
*邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br />
<br />
*吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of "Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research"]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br />
<br />
*张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of "China on the Tip of the Tongue" guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 13:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br />
<center> 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br />
Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to "the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language". This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, "Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text." (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br />
<br />
First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches "private" meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br />
Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br />
<br />
Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br />
<br />
Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br />
<br />
A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br />
<br />
Informative Function<br />
<br />
The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Function<br />
<br />
If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Cultural Function<br />
<br />
Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br />
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br />
<br />
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br />
<br />
Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br />
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
<br />
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br />
<br />
As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator "deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures".(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br />
Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br />
The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br />
Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br />
Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br />
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Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox". (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br />
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Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox".(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br />
The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br />
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The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on "Ingredient and Main Ingredient" or "Main ingredient and Soup"====<br />
The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by with or in. e.g."冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br />
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The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by “with or in”, for example, "冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". The choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br />
When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of "seasoning+main ingredient" can use the structure of "main ingredient+with+seasoning", such as "芥末鸡条" can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as "Cumin Beef".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", e.g. "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", for example, "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br />
The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, "芙蓉鸡片" can be translated as "Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White" and "菊花鱿鱼"as "Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", e.g. "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", for example, "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names "--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape" can be translated as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient", such as "干煸牛肉丝". "干煸" is the cooking method, "牛肉" is the main ingredient and "丝" is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as "Dry-fried Shredded Beef".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from "Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient" to "Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient"====<br />
In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as "person's name+main ingredient" can be made directly. For example, in "组庵豆腐", "组庵" is the name of a person and "豆腐" is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as "Zu'an Tofuo".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+，+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", e.g. "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", for example, "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name of a dish can be translated in the form of "cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style", e.g. "毛氏红烧肉", which can be translated as "Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. "(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br />
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====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as "Utensil + Main Ingredient"====<br />
Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br />
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Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br />
Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br />
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Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br />
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Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br />
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A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br />
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[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan Cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br />
<center> 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用上述不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能扫除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In modern society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape. However, at present we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to cross-cultural communication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。中国菜名含有丰富的文化与艺术特征，其体现了中国文化图景。然而，目前中国菜名译本众多，这不利于跨文化交流。<br />
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It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。<br />
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However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies. Therefore, in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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然而，首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br />
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===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br />
Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some Chinese English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br />
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中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，中国英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br />
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====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br />
China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can't express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny.(Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。<br />
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For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it doesn't reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, he knocked off the mud shell. The aroma overflowed, and it became a delicious dish. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。<br />
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Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br />
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====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br />
At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is more vivid and can make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish.(Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。<br />
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There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotations of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br />
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====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br />
The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。<br />
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For example, "onion soup in French style"(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, a snake is compared to a dragon, and a chicken to a phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。<br />
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The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don't understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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“年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br />
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To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural connotations of dish names and using inappropriate translation methods. In this chapter I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduce the above two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br />
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以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br />
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===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br />
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====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book "Translator's Invisibility" according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30)<br />
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“归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30)<br />
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Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation.（Su Songlonghua 2011） <br />
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归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。<br />
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Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text, which means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, to preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br />
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异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br />
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====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of reader-oriented characteristics domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement.(Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) <br />
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谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。<br />
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On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communications, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br />
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另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。<br />
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Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br />
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因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br />
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Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, we should use habitual expressions of readers and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br />
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从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变）。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br />
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===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br />
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====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br />
Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br />
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Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br />
There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br />
slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br />
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====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br />
“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br />
Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br />
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Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br />
The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br />
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As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br />
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=====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br />
以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br />
There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br />
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There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. She casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br />
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=====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br />
带地名和人名的菜名<br />
There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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There are usually two translation methods for the dish name with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as“pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual“step by step” (步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br />
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====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br />
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Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br />
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Although foreignization and domestication are opposite in theory, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this paper can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br />
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*Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. "Baidu Encyclopedia". https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br />
*Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br />
*Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br />
*Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br />
*Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br />
*Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br />
*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of "Translation Strategies", "Translation Methods" and "Translation Skills"]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br />
*Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br />
*Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br />
*Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br />
*Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br />
*Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br />
*Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=116873History of Translation Studies 62020-12-20T15:26:22Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization */</p>
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<br />
='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br />
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
归化；异化；功能派理论<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br />
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In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br />
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According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br />
<br />
Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br />
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To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br />
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Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br />
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The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br />
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While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br />
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Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br />
<br />
Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br />
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While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br />
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The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Theory of Translational Action====<br />
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Text Typology====<br />
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br />
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br />
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br />
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There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br />
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Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br />
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br />
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br />
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br />
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br />
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br />
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br />
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br />
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br />
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br />
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br />
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The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br />
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br />
<br />
As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br />
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In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br />
<br />
余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br />
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br />
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
<br />
In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br />
<br />
其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br />
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br />
<br />
The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br />
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br />
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br />
<br />
Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br />
<br />
On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br />
<br />
The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br />
<br />
Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br />
<br />
Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br />
<br />
In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
1.Bassnett, Susan&Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br />
<br />
3.Nida, E. A.&Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br />
<br />
5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br />
<br />
7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br />
<br />
8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br />
<br />
9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br />
<br />
11.Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br />
<br />
12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br />
<br />
13.Cao Xueqin&Gao E曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br />
<br />
17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br />
<br />
19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br />
<br />
For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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===Key words===<br />
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br />
<br />
Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br />
=====1. Literature Review=====<br />
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the "Chinese Literature Today" magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br />
<br />
Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br />
<br />
Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that "Elegance" is more important than "Faithfulness" and "Expressiveness", and "Faithfulness" cannot be ignored by "Elegance".--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's "loyalty" and "infidelity" in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the "creative treason" in translation from Howard's "Big Breasts" and "Big Buttocks". Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's "loyalty" and "treason" when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as "The Legend of Hulan River", "Turbulence", "Six Chapters of My Life", "Red Sorghum" and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br />
<br />
Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br />
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br />
<br />
Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br />
<br />
Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br />
<br />
Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
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What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
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The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br />
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Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work "Red Sorghum" was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br />
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Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20). <br />
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It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br />
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This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br />
=====1. Domestication=====<br />
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br />
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======1.1. Annotation======<br />
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br />
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Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br />
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In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br />
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In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word "的" is usually added to the person's last name. "上官家的" refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses "lady" to explain "的" here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br />
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Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br />
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“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi". <br />
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"八竿子拨拉不着" is equivalent to "Eight poles can’t be struck", which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of "Baganzi".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br />
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======1.2. Addition======<br />
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br />
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E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
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Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br />
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Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom "信马由缰" refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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======1.3. Omission======<br />
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br />
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E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
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Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
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Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br />
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Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of "The Ballad of Garlic", Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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======1.4. Substitution======<br />
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br />
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Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br />
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The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br />
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Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br />
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The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates "亲娘" into "mother", this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with "Mistress" using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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=====2. Foreignization=====<br />
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br />
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======2.1. Transliteration======<br />
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
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It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br />
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However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
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However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as "刘罗汉", and translate it into "Arhat Liu". Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of "Araht", so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br />
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Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br />
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“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br />
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======2.2. Literal Translation======<br />
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br />
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E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br />
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Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br />
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In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
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In this sentence, "癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉" is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br />
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===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br />
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br />
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Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br />
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The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br />
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However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br />
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However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work "Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks", believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br />
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Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br />
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Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br />
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Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br />
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However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br />
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Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br />
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Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br />
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There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br />
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There are "third readers" in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to "fair readers" who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br />
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For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br />
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The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br />
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With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to "go out".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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===References===<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br />
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*Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br />
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*Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br />
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*Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br />
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*Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br />
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*Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
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*Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Cao Shunying&Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br />
<br />
*Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
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*Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br />
<br />
*Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
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*Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br />
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*Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br />
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*Liu Yunhong&Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br />
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*Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br />
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*Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br />
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*Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br />
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*Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br />
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*Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br />
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*Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br />
<br />
*Wen Jun&Wang Xiaochuan&Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping&Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br />
<br />
*Yan Yixun&Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br />
<br />
*Yin Lingwei&Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br />
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论，归化，异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br />
<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br />
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br />
<br />
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br />
<br />
Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br />
<br />
In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Domestication====<br />
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br />
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Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Foreignization====<br />
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br />
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Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br />
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Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, ."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br />
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The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br />
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On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity". XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br />
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Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br />
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If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br />
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)<br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br />
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br />
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“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br />
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)<br />
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During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br />
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During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br />
<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
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*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br />
<br />
*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br />
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*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
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*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br />
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*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br />
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*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br />
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*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br />
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*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br />
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*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br />
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*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br />
<br />
==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br />
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; Hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br />
<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; Therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br />
<br />
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 11:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br />
<br />
In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spreading of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 11:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24). <br />
<br />
In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
<br />
Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br />
<br />
Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br />
<br />
In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br />
<br />
Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br />
<br />
Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br />
<br />
Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helping to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helping to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br />
<br />
Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br />
<br />
====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br />
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).<br />
<br />
As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br />
<br />
Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br />
<br />
====2.1 The type of the text==== <br />
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br />
<br />
Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br />
<br />
Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br />
<br />
Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br />
<br />
These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br />
<br />
These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; Therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
<br />
Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br />
<br />
Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text for achieving the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br />
<br />
Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br />
<br />
Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; On the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br />
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br />
<br />
The translator choosing translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor for influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization, so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level into consideration in the course of translation. --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147). <br />
<br />
However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; Therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br />
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br />
<br />
As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br />
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Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br />
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====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br />
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br />
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Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br />
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For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br />
<br />
Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br />
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Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br />
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====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br />
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br />
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Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br />
<br />
For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
<br />
However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
<br />
For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
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Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
<br />
For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br />
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Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
<br />
Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br />
<br />
For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br />
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On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion=== <br />
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br />
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Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br />
<br />
Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br />
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Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br />
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br />
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br />
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br />
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br />
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br />
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center> <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br />
<br />
The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br />
<br />
===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".<br />
<br />
Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term "Xiehouyu". --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The name "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
<br />
The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ". He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br />
<br />
In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br />
<br />
In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
<br />
However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br />
<br />
According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br />
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Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
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In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
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''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)" omits the latter part "一场空 (all is empty)". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br />
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br />
There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br />
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There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br />
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br />
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The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
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====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br />
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Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."<br />
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The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as "domesticationg transaltion", and the second strategy as "foreignizing transaltion". <br />
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In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of "foreignization", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br />
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Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br />
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There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br />
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For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br />
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In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
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In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br />
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（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
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A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
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====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br />
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
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Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br />
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For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
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The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br />
In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br />
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In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
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In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺"、"狗腿子"、"狗仗人势"、"狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
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For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br />
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For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
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====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
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For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br />
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（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br />
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（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
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（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br />
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Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
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For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br />
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（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br />
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（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
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（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br />
While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br />
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While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br />
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Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning ". The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
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Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br />
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For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
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Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br />
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br />
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br />
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When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br />
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When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2.4 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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For example,<br />
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br />
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br />
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The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai,1986)<br />
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The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br />
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To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br />
<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Reference'''===<br />
<br />
1.Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br />
<br />
2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br />
<br />
3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br />
<br />
4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br />
<br />
5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br />
<br />
6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br />
<br />
7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br />
<br />
8. Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br />
<br />
9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br />
<br />
10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br />
<br />
11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br />
<br />
12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br />
<br />
13. Chen Hongwei & Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br />
<br />
14.Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br />
<br />
16.Gao Yun & Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br />
<br />
17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br />
<br />
18.Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
<br />
<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br />
<br />
The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br />
<br />
对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
<br />
Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br />
<br />
As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).<br />
As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).<br />
<br />
As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118). <br />
<br />
The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br />
<br />
Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br />
<br />
People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br />
<br />
===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br />
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br />
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br />
<br />
In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908). <br />
<br />
As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal". <br />
<br />
These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br />
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br />
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br />
<br />
====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br />
<br />
Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br />
<br />
The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br />
<br />
她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br />
<br />
Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br />
<br />
The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br />
<br />
运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
<br />
Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br />
<br />
The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br />
<br />
等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br />
<br />
Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br />
<br />
Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br />
<br />
一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br />
<br />
This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br />
<br />
The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br />
<br />
English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br />
<br />
====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br />
<br />
Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him".<br />
<br />
咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br />
<br />
特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br />
<br />
Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br />
<br />
Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br />
<br />
匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br />
<br />
Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br />
<br />
主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br />
<br />
For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br />
<br />
Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br />
<br />
====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
<br />
Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"<br />
<br />
梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".<br />
<br />
耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
<br />
Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor". <br />
<br />
The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br />
<br />
蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".<br />
<br />
子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".<br />
<br />
The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br />
<br />
In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br />
<br />
Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning. <br />
<br />
Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). "Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). "On the Different Methods of Translating", in André Lefevere (ed. & trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen & Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br />
<br />
*Schulte, Rainer & Biguenet, John. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translaing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br />
<br />
*Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (01) 40-44.<br />
<br />
*Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 03-05.<br />
<br />
*Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br />
<br />
= '''Title Translation''' =<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br />
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br />
<br />
This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br />
<br />
And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br />
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br />
<br />
Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br />
<br />
===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br />
<br />
Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br />
<br />
Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br />
<br />
The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br />
<br />
It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br />
<br />
The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br />
<br />
The film can accurately "restore" the real world, "show" the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br />
<br />
(1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br />
<br />
(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br />
<br />
(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br />
<br />
People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br />
<br />
(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins "). <br />
<br />
According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br />
<br />
These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br />
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In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br />
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2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br />
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3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br />
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4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br />
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5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br />
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===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br />
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====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br />
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br />
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For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.<br />
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Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br />
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The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br />
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Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br />
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In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.<br />
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The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br />
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====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br />
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=====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br />
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br />
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Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br />
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And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.<br />
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"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br />
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=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br />
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant ", but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br />
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As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br />
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Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br />
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====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br />
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br />
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It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.<br />
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Since then, the film has been widely accepted as "the sound of music" by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br />
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This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".<br />
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===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br />
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====4.1 Literal Translation====<br />
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br />
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For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br />
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====4.2 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into "Face Off" or "Face Off". Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br />
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When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into "If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into" cat and mouse game "or" free ", the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br />
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====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br />
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====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br />
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br />
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So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br />
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====4.5 Naturalization====<br />
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br />
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Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br />
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Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br />
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====4.6 Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br />
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The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br />
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Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br />
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===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br />
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Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br />
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[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br />
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[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br />
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[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br />
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[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br />
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[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br />
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[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br />
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[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br />
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[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br />
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[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br />
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[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br />
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[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br />
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== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br />
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<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br />
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==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br />
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A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br />
<br />
A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br />
<br />
This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br />
<br />
This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br />
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====2.1 Film Genres ====<br />
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br />
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According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
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===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br />
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br />
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Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br />
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br />
Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
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=====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br />
The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br />
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The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br />
A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
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A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br />
====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br />
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Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br />
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Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place".Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br />
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Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)".<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br />
All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br />
<br />
=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br />
A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br />
<br />
A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br />
Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br />
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Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br />
Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br />
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Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br />
The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br />
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There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br />
As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br />
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The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br />
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''=== <br />
He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br />
<br />
Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br />
<br />
Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br />
<br />
Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&129.<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br />
<br />
Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br />
<br />
He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br />
<br />
Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br />
<br />
Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br />
<br />
==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br />
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br />
<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br />
<br />
===商标翻译研究===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
商标翻译；原则；方法<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
<br />
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br />
<br />
The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br />
<br />
First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br />
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br />
<br />
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
<br />
Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br />
<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br />
have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br />
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
<br />
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br />
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br />
<br />
In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br />
<br />
Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br />
<br />
People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br />
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br />
<br />
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br />
<br />
For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett-packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br />
Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br />
<br />
A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
<br />
For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br />
<br />
Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br />
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br />
<br />
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon". On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br />
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br />
<br />
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br />
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
<br />
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br />
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
<br />
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br />
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br />
<br />
Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick", is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
<br />
Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
<br />
It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br />
<br />
A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Free translation====<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br />
<br />
Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br />
<br />
However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br />
<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br />
<br />
“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.5 Non-translation====<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br />
<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br />
<br />
On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br />
<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br />
<br />
First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.<br />
<br />
First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br />
<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br />
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[2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of "Three Beauty" in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br />
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[3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br />
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[4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br />
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[6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[7]Wang Hengen. "Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br />
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[8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br />
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[9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br />
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[10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br />
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[12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br />
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[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br />
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[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). "Revlon" in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br />
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='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br />
<center>周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br />
<br />
===Key word===<br />
culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br />
====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
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She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br />
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As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
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As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
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To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br />
====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br />
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Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
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In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
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In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br />
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In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br />
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In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br />
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The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br />
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Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
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Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br />
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Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br />
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====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
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=====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
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Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
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For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
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Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
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Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
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Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
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The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
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Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br />
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Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br />
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Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br />
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===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
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Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br />
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Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br />
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(1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br />
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I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br />
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O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br />
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Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br />
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(2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br />
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I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br />
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I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br />
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In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br />
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In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br />
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(3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br />
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I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br />
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I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br />
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The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br />
<br />
(4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br />
<br />
My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br />
<br />
I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,& Chung Ling,1979:56)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br />
However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br />
<br />
The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br />
<br />
People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br />
<br />
Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br />
<br />
The Double Ninth comes now again.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br />
<br />
Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br />
<br />
I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br />
<br />
The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br />
<br />
Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss;<br />
<br />
I know not what it is.<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br />
<br />
Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br />
<br />
Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br />
<br />
Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
(10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br />
<br />
A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br />
<br />
Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br />
<br />
In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br />
<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
*Rexroth, K. & Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br />
<br />
*Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br />
<br />
*Fu Guiying 付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Three-Beauty Principle][D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
* Han Zhouwen 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究[A Study on the Translation of the Culture-loaded Terms of Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out:A perspective of Skopos Theory]——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Li Qing 郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhao 李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's "Our Country and Our People"]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br />
<br />
* Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Yang Jian 杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang 张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br />
<br />
==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br />
<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br />
<br />
By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br />
<br />
沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br />
<br />
通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br />
<br />
因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
<br />
With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used around the globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest to the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br />
<br />
====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br />
For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title "floating life" derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on a stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with a movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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=====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br />
In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and the unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
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=====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that "the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' ". (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br />
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This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carrying in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br />
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In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as "culture-specific items" and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that "Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text". (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br />
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From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br />
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To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br />
Eugene Nida considers that "if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture". (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br />
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In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br />
Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br />
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===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
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====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br />
Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br />
Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br />
When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br />
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====3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation====<br />
Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br />
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“未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br />
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====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br />
Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br />
Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br />
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3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br />
Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br />
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4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br />
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“Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br />
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“挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br />
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====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br />
In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
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====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br />
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7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br />
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7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br />
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In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br />
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======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br />
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This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br />
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====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br />
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“San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br />
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10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br />
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10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br />
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“篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br />
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=====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br />
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11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br />
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The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br />
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=====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br />
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12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br />
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In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br />
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13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br />
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13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br />
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“月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br />
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===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br />
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Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
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In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br />
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Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''浙江：浙江工商大学出版社'' Zhejiang: Zhejiang Gongshang University Press.<br />
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Wu Hualing 吴华玲. (2010). 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J] [The Aesthetic Representation of Lin Yutang's Doctrine of the Mean in his Translation -- A Case Study of Lin's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''云梦学刊'' Cloud Dream Journal (3) 113-116.<br />
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Wang Weiwei 王维维. (2012). 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J] [Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Hypotaxis and Parataxis]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (10) 46-47.<br />
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Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J] [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation (3) 82-88.<br />
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Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J] [Review on the Translation Strategies of Cultural Items by Akerasie]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation.<br />
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Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA] [Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' by Lin Yutang]. ''上海外国语大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
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==How to Keep "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
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Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br />
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This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br />
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idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===汉语习语英译如何保持"中国性"===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br />
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本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br />
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=== Introduction===<br />
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
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An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
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Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br />
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The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br />
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
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Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br />
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The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 The Importance of Keeping "Chineseness" in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br />
Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br />
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Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br />
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Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of "Chineseness" in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br />
Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br />
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Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br />
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Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate "三顾茅庐" into "repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or "have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly", foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Likewise, the idioms like "班门弄斧" and "卧薪尝胆" are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br />
As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br />
As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br />
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The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br />
As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br />
Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br />
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Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) <br />
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In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. "Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br />
"Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, "The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text", in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br />
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====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. <br />
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====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br />
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Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated as "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated into "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃"[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into "A toad hankering for a tatste of swan"(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the "Chineseness" in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
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Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
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For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br />
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The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
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However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
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In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br />
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*He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br />
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*Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br />
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*Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br />
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*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br />
<br />
*Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br />
<br />
*David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London & New York:Routledge,1995:20<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br />
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As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br />
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===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br />
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Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br />
<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br />
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====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br />
As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br />
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"A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion."(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br />
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"A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation."--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br />
Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br />
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and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br />
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In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br />
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Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.It is said that proverbs in China dated back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br />
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It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br />
Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br />
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Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br />
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roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br />
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What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br />
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From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br />
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====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br />
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It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br />
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Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br />
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In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br />
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It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br />
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In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br />
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====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br />
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As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br />
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Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br />
As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br />
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====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
<br />
They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
<br />
Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br />
<br />
The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br />
<br />
Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br />
<br />
In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br />
<br />
Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br />
<br />
Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br />
<br />
The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br />
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====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
<br />
Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br />
<br />
As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br />
he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br />
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====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br />
<br />
The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br />
<br />
In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
<br />
For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br />
<br />
Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
<br />
<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br />
<br />
Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br />
<br />
Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br />
<br />
In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />
<br />
Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. References===<br />
*Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br />
*Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br />
*Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br />
*Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br />
*Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br />
*Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br />
*Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br />
*Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br />
*Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br />
*Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br />
*Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br />
*Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br />
*Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br />
*You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br />
*Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br />
<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
<br />
一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
<br />
Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
<br />
Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br />
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1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br />
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Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br />
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Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br />
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Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br />
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The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br />
<br />
1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br />
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Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br />
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We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br />
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The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br />
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With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
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As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br />
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2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
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Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br />
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2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
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The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br />
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2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br />
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Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br />
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2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br />
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2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
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To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br />
The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br />
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Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br />
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Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br />
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Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Transliteration<br />
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Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br />
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Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br />
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For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br />
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3.2 Literal Translation<br />
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Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br />
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Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br />
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In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br />
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3.3 Free Translation<br />
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Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br />
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Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br />
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Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
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[2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br />
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[4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br />
[5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
[6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br />
[7] Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
[8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br />
[9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br />
[10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br />
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[12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br />
[13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br />
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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
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On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
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跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
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一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
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Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
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Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(<span style="color:red">the</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br />
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To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(<span style="color:red">space</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br />
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====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
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Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (<span style="color:red">delete that have been</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br />
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With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(<span style="color:red">inappropriate</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br />
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Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (<span style="color:red">add the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br />
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First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(<span style="color:red">abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics"哥哥"</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br />
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Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (<span style="color:red">through</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br />
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Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (<span style="color:red">the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br />
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With new things coming in(<span style="color:red">springing up</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br />
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A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (<span style="color:red">updating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br />
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The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(<span style="color:red">developing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
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In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(<span style="color:red">one after another</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
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In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(<span style="color:red">their</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br />
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Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(<span style="color:red">various ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br />
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We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(<span style="color:red">such</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br />
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The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (<span style="color:red">For example,</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br />
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With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(<span style="color:red">increasingly strong</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
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As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (<span style="color:red">them and their</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br />
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====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
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Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (<span style="color:red">transending</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br />
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In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(<span style="color:red">construction</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br />
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Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (<span style="color:red">during translating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(<span style="color:red">improved</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br />
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====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
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The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (<span style="color:red">also</span>)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br />
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=====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br />
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Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (<span style="color:red">following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br />
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In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(<span style="color:red">expressions</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
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Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(<span style="color:red">with</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br />
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It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(<span style="color:red">delete above</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
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Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(<span style="color:red">contained</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
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For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (<span style="color:red">describes</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
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To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (<span style="color:red">employing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br />
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Nowadays, it is common to see(<span style="color:red">observe</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
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Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(<span style="color:red">long</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
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Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br />
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====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
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Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(<span style="color:red">readers</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br />
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For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and (<span style="color:red">has</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
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====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
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Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(<span style="color:red">delete a process</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
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The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (<span style="color:red">ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
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In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(<span style="color:red">manifest</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
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====3.3 Free Translation====<br />
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Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(<span style="color:red">conveys</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
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For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br />
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In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br />
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In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br />
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To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br />
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Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br />
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Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br />
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In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br />
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*Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
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*Zhang Jian & Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br />
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<br />
==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br />
<center>刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.</center><br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
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With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br />
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=== Keywords ===<br />
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Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br />
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=== 题目 ===<br />
从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br />
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=== 摘要 ===<br />
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中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br />
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=== 关键词 ===<br />
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中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br />
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=== Introduction ===<br />
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As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
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It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
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The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
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And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
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=== Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
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Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) <br />
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Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br />
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Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br />
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They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br />
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=== Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
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(1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br />
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Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) <br />
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Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same "with" structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br />
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The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br />
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After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br />
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But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br />
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Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019，6）<br />
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(2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br />
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The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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=== Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br />
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Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126）<br />
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Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br />
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Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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=== Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br />
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4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
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Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
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First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
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One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
<br />
Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
<br />
The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
<br />
The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
<br />
As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
*Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du & Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br />
<br />
*Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br />
<br />
*Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br />
<br />
*Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br />
<br />
*Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br />
<br />
*Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br />
<br />
*车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br />
<br />
*李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br />
<br />
*莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of "re-creation" translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br />
<br />
*屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
<br />
*邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br />
<br />
*吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of "Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research"]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br />
<br />
*张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of "China on the Tip of the Tongue" guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 13:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br />
<center> 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br />
Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to "the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language". This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, "Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text." (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br />
<br />
First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches "private" meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br />
Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br />
<br />
Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br />
<br />
Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br />
<br />
A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br />
<br />
Informative Function<br />
<br />
The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Function<br />
<br />
If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Cultural Function<br />
<br />
Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br />
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br />
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There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br />
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Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br />
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator "deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures".(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br />
Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br />
The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br />
Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br />
Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br />
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Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox". (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br />
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Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox".(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br />
The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br />
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The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on "Ingredient and Main Ingredient" or "Main ingredient and Soup"====<br />
The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by with or in. e.g."冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br />
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The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by “with or in”, for example, "冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". The choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br />
When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of "seasoning+main ingredient" can use the structure of "main ingredient+with+seasoning", such as "芥末鸡条" can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as "Cumin Beef".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", e.g. "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", for example, "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br />
The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, "芙蓉鸡片" can be translated as "Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White" and "菊花鱿鱼"as "Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", e.g. "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", for example, "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names "--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape" can be translated as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient", such as "干煸牛肉丝". "干煸" is the cooking method, "牛肉" is the main ingredient and "丝" is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as "Dry-fried Shredded Beef".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from "Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient" to "Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient"====<br />
In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as "person's name+main ingredient" can be made directly. For example, in "组庵豆腐", "组庵" is the name of a person and "豆腐" is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as "Zu'an Tofuo".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+，+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", e.g. "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", for example, "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name of a dish can be translated in the form of "cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style", e.g. "毛氏红烧肉", which can be translated as "Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. "(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br />
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====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as "Utensil + Main Ingredient"====<br />
Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br />
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Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br />
Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br />
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Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br />
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Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br />
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A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br />
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[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan Cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br />
<center> 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用上述不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能扫除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In modern society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape. However, at present we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to cross-cultural communication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。中国菜名含有丰富的文化与艺术特征，其体现了中国文化图景。然而，目前中国菜名译本众多，这不利于跨文化交流。<br />
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It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。<br />
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However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies. Therefore, in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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然而，首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br />
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===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br />
Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some Chinese English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br />
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中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，中国英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br />
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====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br />
China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can't express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny.(Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。<br />
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For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it doesn't reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, he knocked off the mud shell. The aroma overflowed, and it became a delicious dish. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。<br />
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Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br />
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====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br />
At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is more vivid and can make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish.(Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。<br />
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There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotations of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br />
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====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br />
The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。<br />
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For example, "onion soup in French style"(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, a snake is compared to a dragon, and a chicken to a phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。<br />
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The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don't understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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“年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br />
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To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural connotations of dish names and using inappropriate translation methods. In this chapter I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduce the above two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br />
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以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br />
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===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br />
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====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book "Translator's Invisibility" according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30)<br />
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“归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30)<br />
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Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation.（Su Songlonghua 2011） <br />
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归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。<br />
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Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text, which means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, to preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br />
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异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br />
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====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of reader-oriented characteristics domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement.(Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) <br />
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谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。<br />
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On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communications, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br />
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另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。<br />
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Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br />
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因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br />
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Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, we should use habitual expressions of readers and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br />
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从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变）。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br />
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===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br />
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====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br />
Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br />
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Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br />
There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br />
slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br />
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====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br />
“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br />
Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br />
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Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br />
The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br />
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As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br />
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=====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br />
以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br />
There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br />
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There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. She casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br />
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=====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br />
带地名和人名的菜名<br />
There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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There are usually two translation methods for the dish name with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as“pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual“step by step” (步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br />
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====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br />
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Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br />
<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are opposite in theory, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this paper can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br />
*Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br />
*Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br />
*Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br />
*Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. "Baidu Encyclopedia". https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br />
*Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br />
*Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br />
*Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br />
*Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br />
*Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br />
*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of "Translation Strategies", "Translation Methods" and "Translation Skills"]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br />
*Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br />
*Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br />
*Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br />
*Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br />
*Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br />
*Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=116852History of Translation Studies 62020-12-20T15:06:18Z<p>Zhangqi: /* 1.2 Introduction of Foreignization */</p>
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<br />
='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br />
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
归化；异化；功能派理论<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br />
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In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br />
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From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br />
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According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br />
<br />
Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br />
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To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br />
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Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br />
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The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br />
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While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br />
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Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br />
<br />
Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br />
<br />
While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br />
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The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Theory of Translational Action====<br />
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Text Typology====<br />
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br />
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br />
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br />
<br />
There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br />
<br />
Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br />
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br />
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br />
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br />
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br />
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br />
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br />
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br />
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br />
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br />
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br />
<br />
The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br />
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br />
<br />
As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br />
<br />
In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br />
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Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br />
<br />
余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br />
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br />
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br />
<br />
其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br />
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br />
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The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br />
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br />
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br />
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Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br />
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On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br />
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The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br />
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Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br />
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Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br />
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From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br />
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In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
1.Bassnett, Susan&Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br />
<br />
3.Nida, E. A.&Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br />
<br />
5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br />
<br />
7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br />
<br />
8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br />
<br />
9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br />
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11.Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br />
<br />
12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br />
<br />
13.Cao Xueqin&Gao E曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
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16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br />
<br />
17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
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18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br />
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19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br />
<br />
For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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===Key words===<br />
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />
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===题目===<br />
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br />
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===摘要===<br />
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br />
<br />
Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br />
=====1. Literature Review=====<br />
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br />
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Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br />
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Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the "Chinese Literature Today" magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br />
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Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br />
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Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br />
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Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that "Elegance" is more important than "Faithfulness" and "Expressiveness", and "Faithfulness" cannot be ignored by "Elegance".--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br />
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Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's "loyalty" and "infidelity" in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the "creative treason" in translation from Howard's "Big Breasts" and "Big Buttocks". Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's "loyalty" and "treason" when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as "The Legend of Hulan River", "Turbulence", "Six Chapters of My Life", "Red Sorghum" and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br />
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Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br />
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br />
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Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br />
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Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br />
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Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
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What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
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The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br />
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Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work "Red Sorghum" was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br />
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Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20). <br />
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It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br />
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This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br />
=====1. Domestication=====<br />
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br />
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======1.1. Annotation======<br />
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br />
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Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br />
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In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br />
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In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word "的" is usually added to the person's last name. "上官家的" refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses "lady" to explain "的" here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br />
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Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br />
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“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi". <br />
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"八竿子拨拉不着" is equivalent to "Eight poles can’t be struck", which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of "Baganzi".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br />
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======1.2. Addition======<br />
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br />
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E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
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Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br />
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Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom "信马由缰" refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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======1.3. Omission======<br />
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br />
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E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
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Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
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Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br />
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Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of "The Ballad of Garlic", Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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======1.4. Substitution======<br />
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br />
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Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br />
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The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br />
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Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br />
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The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates "亲娘" into "mother", this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with "Mistress" using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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=====2. Foreignization=====<br />
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br />
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======2.1. Transliteration======<br />
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
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It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br />
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However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
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However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as "刘罗汉", and translate it into "Arhat Liu". Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of "Araht", so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br />
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Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br />
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“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br />
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======2.2. Literal Translation======<br />
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br />
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E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br />
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Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br />
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In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
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In this sentence, "癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉" is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br />
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===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br />
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br />
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Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br />
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The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br />
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However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work "Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks", believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br />
<br />
Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br />
<br />
Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br />
<br />
Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br />
<br />
However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br />
<br />
Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br />
<br />
Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br />
<br />
There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br />
<br />
There are "third readers" in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to "fair readers" who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br />
<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br />
<br />
The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br />
<br />
With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to "go out".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br />
<br />
*Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br />
<br />
*Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br />
<br />
*Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br />
<br />
*Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Cao Shunying&Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br />
<br />
*Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
<br />
*Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br />
<br />
*Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
<br />
*Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br />
<br />
*Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br />
<br />
*Liu Yunhong&Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br />
<br />
*Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br />
<br />
*Wen Jun&Wang Xiaochuan&Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping&Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br />
<br />
*Yan Yixun&Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br />
<br />
*Yin Lingwei&Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br />
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论，归化，异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br />
<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br />
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br />
<br />
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br />
<br />
Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br />
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In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br />
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====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br />
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The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br />
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As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Domestication====<br />
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br />
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Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br />
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Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br />
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Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Foreignization====<br />
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br />
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Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br />
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Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, ."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br />
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The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br />
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On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity". XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br />
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Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br />
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If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br />
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)<br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br />
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br />
<br />
<br />
“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br />
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)<br />
<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br />
<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br />
<br />
*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br />
<br />
*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br />
<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br />
<br />
*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br />
<br />
==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br />
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; Hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br />
<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; Therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br />
<br />
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 11:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br />
<br />
In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spreading of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 11:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24). <br />
<br />
In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
<br />
Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br />
<br />
Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated into “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br />
<br />
In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br />
<br />
Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br />
<br />
Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br />
<br />
Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helping to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helping to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br />
<br />
Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covers up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br />
<br />
====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br />
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).<br />
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As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br />
<br />
Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br />
<br />
====2.1 The type of the text==== <br />
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br />
<br />
Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br />
<br />
Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br />
<br />
Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br />
<br />
These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br />
<br />
Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
<br />
Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br />
<br />
Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br />
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br />
<br />
The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147). <br />
<br />
However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br />
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br />
<br />
As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br />
<br />
Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br />
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br />
<br />
Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
<br />
For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
<br />
In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br />
<br />
For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br />
<br />
Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br />
<br />
Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br />
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br />
<br />
Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br />
<br />
For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
<br />
However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
<br />
For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
<br />
For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br />
<br />
Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
<br />
Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br />
<br />
For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br />
<br />
On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion=== <br />
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br />
<br />
Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br />
<br />
Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br />
<br />
Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br />
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br />
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br />
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br />
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br />
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br />
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center> <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br />
<br />
The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br />
<br />
===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".<br />
<br />
Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term "Xiehouyu". --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
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The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ". He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.<br />
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At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br />
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In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br />
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In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br />
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Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br />
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According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br />
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Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
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In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
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''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)" omits the latter part "一场空 (all is empty)". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br />
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br />
There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br />
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There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br />
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br />
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The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
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====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br />
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Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."<br />
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The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as "domesticationg transaltion", and the second strategy as "foreignizing transaltion". <br />
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In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of "foreignization", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br />
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Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br />
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There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br />
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For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br />
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In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
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In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br />
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（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
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A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
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====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br />
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
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Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br />
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For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
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The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br />
In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br />
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In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
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In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺"、"狗腿子"、"狗仗人势"、"狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
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For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br />
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For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
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====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
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For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br />
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（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br />
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（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
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（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br />
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Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
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For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br />
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（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br />
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（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
<br />
（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br />
While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br />
<br />
While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br />
<br />
Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning ". The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br />
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br />
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br />
<br />
When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br />
<br />
When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.4 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br />
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai,1986)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br />
<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Reference'''===<br />
<br />
1.Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br />
<br />
2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br />
<br />
3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br />
<br />
4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br />
<br />
5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br />
<br />
6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br />
<br />
7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br />
<br />
8. Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br />
<br />
9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br />
<br />
10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br />
<br />
11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br />
<br />
12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br />
<br />
13. Chen Hongwei & Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br />
<br />
14.Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br />
<br />
16.Gao Yun & Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br />
<br />
17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br />
<br />
18.Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
<br />
<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br />
<br />
The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br />
<br />
对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
<br />
Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br />
<br />
As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).<br />
As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).<br />
<br />
As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118). <br />
<br />
The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br />
<br />
Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br />
<br />
People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br />
<br />
===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br />
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br />
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br />
<br />
In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908). <br />
<br />
As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal". <br />
<br />
These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br />
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br />
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br />
<br />
====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br />
<br />
Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br />
<br />
The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br />
<br />
她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br />
<br />
Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br />
<br />
The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br />
<br />
运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
<br />
Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br />
<br />
The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br />
<br />
等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br />
<br />
Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br />
<br />
Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br />
<br />
一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br />
<br />
This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br />
<br />
The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br />
<br />
English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br />
<br />
====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br />
<br />
Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him".<br />
<br />
咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br />
<br />
特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br />
<br />
Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br />
<br />
Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br />
<br />
匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br />
<br />
Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br />
<br />
主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br />
<br />
For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br />
<br />
Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br />
<br />
====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
<br />
Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"<br />
<br />
梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".<br />
<br />
耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
<br />
Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor". <br />
<br />
The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br />
<br />
蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".<br />
<br />
子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".<br />
<br />
The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br />
<br />
In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br />
<br />
Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning. <br />
<br />
Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). "Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). "On the Different Methods of Translating", in André Lefevere (ed. & trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen & Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br />
<br />
*Schulte, Rainer & Biguenet, John. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translaing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br />
<br />
*Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (01) 40-44.<br />
<br />
*Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 03-05.<br />
<br />
*Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br />
<br />
= '''Title Translation''' =<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br />
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br />
<br />
This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br />
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And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br />
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br />
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Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br />
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===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br />
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====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br />
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Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br />
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Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br />
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The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br />
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It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br />
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The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br />
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The film can accurately "restore" the real world, "show" the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br />
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====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br />
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(1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br />
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(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br />
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(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br />
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People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br />
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(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins "). <br />
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According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br />
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These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br />
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====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br />
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In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br />
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2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br />
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3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br />
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4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br />
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5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br />
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===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br />
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====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br />
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br />
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For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.<br />
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Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br />
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The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br />
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Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br />
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In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.<br />
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The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br />
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====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br />
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=====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br />
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br />
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Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br />
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And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.<br />
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"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br />
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=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br />
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant ", but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br />
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As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br />
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Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br />
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====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br />
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br />
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It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.<br />
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Since then, the film has been widely accepted as "the sound of music" by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br />
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This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".<br />
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===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br />
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====4.1 Literal Translation====<br />
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br />
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For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br />
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====4.2 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into "Face Off" or "Face Off". Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br />
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When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into "If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into" cat and mouse game "or" free ", the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br />
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====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br />
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====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br />
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br />
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So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br />
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====4.5 Naturalization====<br />
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br />
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Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br />
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Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br />
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====4.6 Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br />
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The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br />
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Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br />
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===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br />
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Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br />
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[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br />
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[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br />
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[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br />
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[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br />
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[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br />
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[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br />
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[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br />
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[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br />
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[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br />
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[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br />
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[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br />
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== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br />
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<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br />
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==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br />
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A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br />
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A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br />
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This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br />
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====2.1 Film Genres ====<br />
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br />
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According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
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===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br />
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br />
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Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br />
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br />
Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
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=====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br />
The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br />
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The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br />
A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
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A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br />
====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br />
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Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br />
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Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place".Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br />
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Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)".<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br />
All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br />
A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br />
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A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br />
Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br />
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Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br />
Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br />
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Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br />
The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br />
<br />
There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br />
As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br />
<br />
The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br />
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''=== <br />
He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br />
<br />
Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br />
<br />
Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br />
<br />
Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&129.<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br />
<br />
Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br />
<br />
He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br />
<br />
Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br />
<br />
Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br />
<br />
==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br />
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br />
<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br />
<br />
===商标翻译研究===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
商标翻译；原则；方法<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
<br />
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br />
<br />
The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br />
<br />
First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br />
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br />
<br />
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
<br />
Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br />
<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br />
have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br />
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
<br />
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br />
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br />
<br />
In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br />
<br />
Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br />
<br />
People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br />
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br />
<br />
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br />
<br />
For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett-packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br />
Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br />
<br />
A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
<br />
For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br />
<br />
Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br />
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br />
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Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon". On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br />
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br />
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Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br />
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br />
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br />
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br />
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Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br />
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====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick", is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
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It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br />
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A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 Free translation====<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br />
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Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br />
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However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br />
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Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br />
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“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.5 Non-translation====<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br />
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Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br />
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On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br />
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In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br />
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First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.<br />
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First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br />
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Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br />
<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br />
<br />
[2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of "Three Beauty" in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br />
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[3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br />
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[4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br />
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[6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[7]Wang Hengen. "Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br />
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[8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br />
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[9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br />
<br />
[10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br />
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[11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br />
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[12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br />
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[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br />
<br />
[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). "Revlon" in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br />
<center>周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br />
<br />
===Key word===<br />
culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br />
====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br />
====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br />
<br />
Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
<br />
In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
<br />
In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br />
<br />
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br />
<br />
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br />
<br />
The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br />
<br />
Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br />
<br />
Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
<br />
Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br />
<br />
Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br />
<br />
I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br />
<br />
O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br />
<br />
Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br />
<br />
(2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br />
<br />
I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br />
<br />
I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br />
<br />
In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br />
<br />
In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br />
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(3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br />
<br />
I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br />
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I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br />
<br />
The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br />
<br />
(4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br />
<br />
My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br />
<br />
I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,& Chung Ling,1979:56)<br />
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Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br />
However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br />
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(5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br />
<br />
The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br />
<br />
People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br />
<br />
Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br />
<br />
The Double Ninth comes now again.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br />
<br />
Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br />
<br />
I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br />
<br />
The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br />
<br />
Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br />
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(9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss;<br />
<br />
I know not what it is.<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br />
<br />
Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br />
<br />
Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br />
<br />
Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
(10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br />
<br />
A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br />
<br />
Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br />
<br />
In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br />
<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
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*Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
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*Rexroth, K. & Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br />
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*Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br />
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*Fu Guiying 付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Three-Beauty Principle][D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
* Han Zhouwen 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究[A Study on the Translation of the Culture-loaded Terms of Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out:A perspective of Skopos Theory]——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br />
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*Li Qing 郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br />
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*Li Zhao 李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's "Our Country and Our People"]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br />
<br />
* Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.<br />
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*Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br />
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*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
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*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br />
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*Yang Jian 杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br />
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*Zhang Chenxiang 张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
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*Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br />
<br />
==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br />
<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br />
<br />
By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br />
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沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br />
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通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br />
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因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br />
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===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
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With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used around the globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest to the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br />
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====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br />
For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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=====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title "floating life" derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on a stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with a movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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=====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br />
In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and the unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
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=====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that "the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' ". (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br />
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This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carrying in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br />
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In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as "culture-specific items" and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that "Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text". (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br />
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From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br />
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To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br />
Eugene Nida considers that "if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture". (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br />
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In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br />
Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br />
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===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
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====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br />
Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br />
Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br />
When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br />
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====3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation====<br />
Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br />
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“未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br />
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====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br />
Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br />
Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br />
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3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br />
Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br />
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4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br />
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“Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br />
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“挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br />
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====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br />
In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
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====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br />
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7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br />
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7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br />
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In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br />
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======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br />
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This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br />
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====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br />
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“San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br />
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10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br />
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10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br />
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“篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br />
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=====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br />
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11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br />
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The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br />
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=====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br />
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12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br />
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In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br />
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13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br />
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13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br />
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“月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different countries have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 14:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br />
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Eugene, A. Nida. (2001). Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br />
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Eugene, A. Nida. (2004). Toward a Science of Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br />
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Mona, Baker. (2000). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. ''Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press''.<br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M] [Cultural Context and Language Translation]. ''北京：中国对外翻译出版公司'' Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company.<br />
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Feng Li 冯丽. (2013). 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J] [A Brief Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Culture]. ''漯河职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Luohe Vocational and Technical College (3) 116-117.<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi 胡壮麟，姜望琪. (2002). 语言学高级教程[M] [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. ''北京：北京大学出版社'' Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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Liu Aili 刘艾莉. (2015). 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA] [A Study on the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Fortress Besieged'' from the Perspective of Cognitive Translation]. ''广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies.<br />
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Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. (2017). 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J] [A Study on the Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' at home and abroad: Review and Prospect]. ''外语教育研究'' Research on Foreign Language Education (4) 53-59.<br />
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Li Yi 李懿. (2013). 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J] [Translation of cultural Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (11) 43-44.<br />
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Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (Biligual Edition)]. ''湖南：湖南文艺出版社'' Hunan: Hunan Literature and Art Publishing House.<br />
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Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''浙江：浙江工商大学出版社'' Zhejiang: Zhejiang Gongshang University Press.<br />
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Wu Hualing 吴华玲. (2010). 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J] [The Aesthetic Representation of Lin Yutang's Doctrine of the Mean in his Translation -- A Case Study of Lin's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''云梦学刊'' Cloud Dream Journal (3) 113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Weiwei 王维维. (2012). 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J] [Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Hypotaxis and Parataxis]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (10) 46-47.<br />
<br />
Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J] [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation (3) 82-88.<br />
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Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J] [Review on the Translation Strategies of Cultural Items by Akerasie]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation.<br />
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Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA] [Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' by Lin Yutang]. ''上海外国语大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
==How to Keep "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
<br />
Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br />
<br />
This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br />
<br />
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===汉语习语英译如何保持"中国性"===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br />
<br />
本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br />
<br />
=== Introduction===<br />
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
<br />
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
<br />
Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br />
<br />
The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
<br />
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br />
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
<br />
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
<br />
The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br />
<br />
The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 The Importance of Keeping "Chineseness" in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br />
Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br />
<br />
Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br />
<br />
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of "Chineseness" in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br />
Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br />
<br />
Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br />
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Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate "三顾茅庐" into "repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or "have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly", foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Likewise, the idioms like "班门弄斧" and "卧薪尝胆" are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br />
As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br />
As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br />
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The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br />
As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br />
Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br />
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Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) <br />
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In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. "Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br />
"Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, "The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text", in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br />
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====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. <br />
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====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br />
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Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated as "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated into "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃"[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into "A toad hankering for a tatste of swan"(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the "Chineseness" in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
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Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
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For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
<br />
One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br />
<br />
The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
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However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
<br />
In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br />
<br />
*He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br />
<br />
*Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br />
<br />
*Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br />
<br />
*Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br />
<br />
*David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London & New York:Routledge,1995:20<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br />
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As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br />
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===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br />
<br />
Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br />
<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br />
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====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br />
As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br />
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"A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion."(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br />
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"A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation."--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br />
Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br />
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and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br />
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In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br />
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Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.It is said that proverbs in China dated back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br />
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It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br />
Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br />
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Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br />
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roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br />
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What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br />
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From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br />
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====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br />
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It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br />
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Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br />
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In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br />
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It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br />
<br />
In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br />
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====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br />
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As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br />
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Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br />
As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br />
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====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br />
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The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br />
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Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br />
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In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br />
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Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br />
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The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br />
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====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br />
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As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br />
he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br />
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====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br />
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The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br />
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In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br />
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Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
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Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br />
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Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br />
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Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br />
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In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />
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Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. References===<br />
*Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br />
*Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br />
*Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br />
*Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br />
*Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br />
*Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br />
*Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br />
*Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br />
*Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br />
*Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br />
*Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br />
*Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br />
*Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br />
*You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br />
*Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br />
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==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br />
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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
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On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
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On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
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一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
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Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
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Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br />
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1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br />
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Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br />
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Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br />
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Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br />
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The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br />
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1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br />
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In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br />
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Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br />
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We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br />
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The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br />
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With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
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As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br />
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2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
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Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br />
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2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
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The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br />
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2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br />
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Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br />
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2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br />
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2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
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To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br />
The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br />
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Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br />
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Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br />
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Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Transliteration<br />
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Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br />
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Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br />
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For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br />
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3.2 Literal Translation<br />
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Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br />
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Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br />
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In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br />
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3.3 Free Translation<br />
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Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br />
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Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br />
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Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br />
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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
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On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
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跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
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一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
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Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
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Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(<span style="color:red">the</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br />
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To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(<span style="color:red">space</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br />
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====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
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Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (<span style="color:red">delete that have been</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br />
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With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(<span style="color:red">inappropriate</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br />
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Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (<span style="color:red">add the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br />
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First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(<span style="color:red">abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics"哥哥"</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br />
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Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (<span style="color:red">through</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br />
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Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (<span style="color:red">the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br />
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With new things coming in(<span style="color:red">springing up</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br />
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A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (<span style="color:red">updating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br />
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The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(<span style="color:red">developing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
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In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(<span style="color:red">one after another</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
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In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(<span style="color:red">their</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br />
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Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(<span style="color:red">various ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br />
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We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(<span style="color:red">such</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br />
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The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (<span style="color:red">For example,</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br />
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With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(<span style="color:red">increasingly strong</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
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As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (<span style="color:red">them and their</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br />
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====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
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Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (<span style="color:red">transending</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br />
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In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(<span style="color:red">construction</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br />
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Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (<span style="color:red">during translating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(<span style="color:red">improved</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br />
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====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
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The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (<span style="color:red">also</span>)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br />
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=====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br />
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Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (<span style="color:red">following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br />
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In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(<span style="color:red">expressions</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
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Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(<span style="color:red">with</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br />
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It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(<span style="color:red">delete above</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
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Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(<span style="color:red">contained</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
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For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (<span style="color:red">describes</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
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To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (<span style="color:red">employing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br />
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Nowadays, it is common to see(<span style="color:red">observe</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
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Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(<span style="color:red">long</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
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Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br />
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====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
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Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(<span style="color:red">readers</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br />
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For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and (<span style="color:red">has</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
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====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
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Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(<span style="color:red">delete a process</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
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The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (<span style="color:red">ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
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In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(<span style="color:red">manifest</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(<span style="color:red">conveys</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
<br />
For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br />
<br />
In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br />
<br />
In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br />
<br />
To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br />
<br />
Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br />
<br />
Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br />
<br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br />
<br />
*Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br />
<br />
*Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br />
<br />
*Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br />
<br />
*Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
*Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br />
<br />
*Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br />
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*Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br />
<br />
*Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br />
<br />
*Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br />
<br />
*Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jian & Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br />
<center>刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br />
<br />
=== Keywords ===<br />
<br />
Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
<br />
中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
<br />
It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
<br />
The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
<br />
And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
<br />
=== Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
<br />
Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) <br />
<br />
Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br />
<br />
They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br />
<br />
=== Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
<br />
(1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br />
<br />
Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) <br />
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Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same "with" structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br />
<br />
The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br />
<br />
After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br />
<br />
But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br />
<br />
Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019，6）<br />
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(2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br />
<br />
The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
<br />
This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
<br />
Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
<br />
Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
<br />
夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
<br />
=== Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br />
<br />
Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)<br />
<br />
Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)<br />
<br />
The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)<br />
<br />
Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
<br />
In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126）<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
<br />
Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
<br />
=== Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br />
<br />
4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
<br />
Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
<br />
Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
<br />
4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
<br />
First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
<br />
The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
<br />
But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
<br />
Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
<br />
Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
<br />
One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
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Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
<br />
The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
<br />
The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
<br />
As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
*Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du & Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br />
<br />
*Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br />
<br />
*Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br />
<br />
*Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br />
<br />
*Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br />
<br />
*Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br />
<br />
*车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br />
<br />
*李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br />
<br />
*莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of "re-creation" translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br />
<br />
*屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
<br />
*邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br />
<br />
*吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of "Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research"]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br />
<br />
*张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of "China on the Tip of the Tongue" guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br />
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--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 13:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br />
<center> 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br />
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===题目===<br />
中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br />
Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to "the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language". This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, "Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text." (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br />
<br />
First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches "private" meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br />
Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br />
<br />
Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br />
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Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
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The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
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And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
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And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br />
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A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br />
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Informative Function<br />
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The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br />
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Aesthetic Function<br />
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If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
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If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cultural Function<br />
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Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br />
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====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br />
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br />
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There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br />
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Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br />
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator "deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures".(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br />
Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br />
The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br />
Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br />
Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br />
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Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox". (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br />
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Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox".(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br />
The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br />
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The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on "Ingredient and Main Ingredient" or "Main ingredient and Soup"====<br />
The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by with or in. e.g."冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br />
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The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by “with or in”, for example, "冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". The choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br />
When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of "seasoning+main ingredient" can use the structure of "main ingredient+with+seasoning", such as "芥末鸡条" can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as "Cumin Beef".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", e.g. "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", for example, "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br />
The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, "芙蓉鸡片" can be translated as "Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White" and "菊花鱿鱼"as "Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", e.g. "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", for example, "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names "--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape" can be translated as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient", such as "干煸牛肉丝". "干煸" is the cooking method, "牛肉" is the main ingredient and "丝" is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as "Dry-fried Shredded Beef".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from "Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient" to "Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient"====<br />
In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as "person's name+main ingredient" can be made directly. For example, in "组庵豆腐", "组庵" is the name of a person and "豆腐" is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as "Zu'an Tofuo".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+，+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", e.g. "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", for example, "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name of a dish can be translated in the form of "cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style", e.g. "毛氏红烧肉", which can be translated as "Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. "(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br />
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====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as "Utensil + Main Ingredient"====<br />
Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br />
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Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br />
Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br />
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Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br />
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Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br />
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A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br />
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[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan Cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br />
<center> 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用上述不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能扫除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In modern society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape. However, at present we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to cross-cultural communication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。中国菜名含有丰富的文化与艺术特征，其体现了中国文化图景。然而，目前中国菜名译本众多，这不利于跨文化交流。<br />
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It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication.(Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。<br />
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However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies. Therefore, in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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然而，首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br />
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===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br />
Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some Chinese English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br />
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中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，中国英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br />
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====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br />
China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can't express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny.(Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。<br />
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For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it doesn't reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, he knocked off the mud shell. The aroma overflowed, and it became a delicious dish. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。<br />
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Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fungus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br />
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====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br />
At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is more vivid and can make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish.(Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。<br />
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There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotations of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br />
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====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br />
The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。<br />
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For example, "onion soup in French style"(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, a snake is compared to a dragon, and a chicken to a phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。<br />
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The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don't understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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“年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br />
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To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural connotations of dish names and using inappropriate translation methods. In this chapter I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduce the above two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br />
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以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br />
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===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br />
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====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book "Translator's Invisibility" according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30)<br />
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“归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30)<br />
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Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation.（Su Songlonghua 2011） <br />
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归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。<br />
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Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text, which means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, to preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br />
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异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br />
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====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of reader-oriented characteristics domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement.(Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) <br />
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谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。<br />
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On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communications, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br />
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另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。<br />
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Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br />
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因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br />
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Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, we should use habitual expressions of readers and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br />
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从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变）。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br />
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===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br />
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====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br />
Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br />
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Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br />
There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br />
slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br />
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====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br />
“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br />
Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br />
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Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br />
The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br />
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As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br />
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=====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br />
以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br />
There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br />
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There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. She casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br />
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=====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br />
带地名和人名的菜名<br />
There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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There are usually two translation methods for the dish name with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as“pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual“step by step” (步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br />
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====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br />
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Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br />
<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are opposite in theory, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this paper can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br />
*Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br />
*Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br />
*Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br />
*Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. "Baidu Encyclopedia". https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br />
*Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br />
*Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br />
*Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br />
*Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br />
*Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br />
*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of "Translation Strategies", "Translation Methods" and "Translation Skills"]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br />
*Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br />
*Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br />
*Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br />
*Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br />
*Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br />
*Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=116829History of Translation Studies 42020-12-20T14:54:46Z<p>Zhangqi: /* References */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
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This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
<br />
First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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3.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
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Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2 Lu Xun<br />
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In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 MTI英语笔译==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
====Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
<br />
====Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
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--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan 202070080579 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meaning: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
=== Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（Cong Laiting, Xu Luya, 2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
<br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Another possibility is that the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also been changed.<br />
<br />
=== Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 )<br />
<br />
The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily life. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. (Li Hanji, 2013,135)<br />
<br />
Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries, and makes it easier to understand other languages. (An Wenjing, 2010,71)<br />
<br />
Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing to admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
=== Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. (Xumin, 2007,196)Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
=== Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. Translators should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, the originality of the author can’t be understood. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（Ma Hongjun, 2000:34）<br />
<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
<br />
The translation may be a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation.<br />
<br />
In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns, and take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt various methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. <br />
<br />
Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yao Cheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that a translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
Translation is an activity of expressing the information carried by one language into another language. Each language has its own characteristics, connotation and extension that are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, there is a natural connection between Chinese translation and aesthetics. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in the Chinese translation circle. New theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers. Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thought calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
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Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs a further development and perfection, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, or comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp "spirit" and "tone" of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: "Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum." (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that "translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style." Here, "meaning" is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: "In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years."(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition, appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. Compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay more attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism, while through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one who introduced Li Qingzhao and her works to the English-speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, his another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' was published by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period. In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions are including Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed their research on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
<br />
冷冷清清<br />
<br />
凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
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<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
<br />
Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
<br />
Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
<br />
How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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This part is discussed the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality. The translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators taking the challenge to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something, “凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and "戚戚" is the feeling in the deep inner heart. This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into 'I look for what I miss', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of "寻寻觅觅" through the description of environment that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,"冷冷清清", is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into 'I know not what it is', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into 'I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in "so+adj" structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful images, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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Xu chooses “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind. At the same time he uses the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, Here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingering. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image who is frail, sad, vulnerable, and unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” don't have such meaning. To convey this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In the sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the main part. To Express this very desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that can convey the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense. The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people feel the same about the up and down of all things in the natural world. So, Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to express it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered but beautiful. In short, for Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, their phonology is very differentas well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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Therefore, to translate Chinese poems(''ci'') into English is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text. The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also excelled at showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole words are translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of shaping the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or the same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved. (Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987, 63, 69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Roman Jakobson 1973, 62) (Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69) (Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation. (Roman Jakobson 1981, 19) (Roman Jakobson 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics. (Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8) (Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional. The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions. (Zhang Keding 2001, 19) (Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006, 30)<br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(Yang Bi 1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(Yang Bi 1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings. In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(Yang Bi 1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(Yang Bi 1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(Peng Changjiang 2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied. (Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature'',Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). ''Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov''.In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). ''Art as technique''. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed).Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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[6] Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair']'.''广东外语外贸大学学报''[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies],26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''].''山东师大外国语学院学报''[Journal of Basic English Education],(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray, William. (2003). ''Vanity Fair''. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). ''《名利场》''[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社[China Drama Press].<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2009). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective.''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(04):48.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:05, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is successful advertising should have four concerns: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy;this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic”(Qian 1993, 13).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time, it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
For the Chinese language view, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty. Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It can be seen that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of the transfer of Taoist aesthetics to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language, and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information（Jiao 2010，104). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes.One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality". In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotion of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars have different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. Additionally, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty , fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis(Liu 2005,130). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are combined organically can translation, as an aesthetic reproduction process, produce aesthetic effect and translation is beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:13, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress and men would not regret seeing a beautiful girlat the cost of hitting a tree. Humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation, the aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example:--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, translators separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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On one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, so their preferences for certain characters are also very different.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "舒肤佳", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when consumers use the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, and be easy to remember as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated.The sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning for and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan is one of the three major European skin care brands. The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France, which has special effects on the human body, especially on the skin. BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:48, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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For instance, the cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful. As Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers that you can get soft, beautiful and young skin by using this product(Zhu 2008,367). --[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product.The translation of “倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩” means beautiful and“碧”means turquoise, light and clear color. By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, and who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 10:56, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is meaningless of the original trademark. The pronunciation of the original trademark is expressed in the target language and the text symbols of the target language.Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation. Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation of "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:06, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand "Cover Girl" is literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. With Literal translation, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark and make skin and body become more beautiful.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "little nurses"("小护士") as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of "little nurses" are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieves promotional purpose.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:11, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning, and adopt a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of creating natural effects. When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and had good function on cleansing the skin. It was known as the precious soap from Belgium. "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires us to take specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words into consideration. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, ortherwise;it will make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 11:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario（1997）.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International，209-222.<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg（1988）.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold，55-71.<br />
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［4］Jiao Ling焦琳(2010). 当代中国翻译美学研究[J].[Research on Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics].辽宁教育行政学院学报.Journal of Liaoning Educational Administration Institute，(27).<br />
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［5] Huang Long黄龙（1988）.翻译的美学观[J].[The Aesthetic View of Translation].外语研究，Foreign Language Studies,（02）.<br />
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［6］Liu Miqin刘宓庆（1986）.翻译美学概述[J].[An Overview of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学院学报),Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University),(02).<br />
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［7］Liu Miqing刘宓庆（2005）.翻译美学导论[M].[Introduction to Translation Aesthetics].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation.<br />
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［8］Li Shuqing李淑琴（2000）. 英语商标词的选择及翻译 [J].[The choice and translation of English trademark words ]. 南京理工大学学报，Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology,(04).<br />
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［9］Mao Ronggui毛荣贵（2003）.翻译与美学［J］.[Translation and Aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（03）.<br />
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［10］Qian Guanlian钱冠连（1993）. 《美学语言学》[ M ].Aesthetic Linguistics. 海天出版社,Haitian Publishing House .<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君（2011）.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,（02）.<br />
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［12］Wang Xinchi王新驰（1997）.《商标监督管理 》[ M ].Trademark Supervision and Administration.河海大学出版社, Hohai University Press.<br />
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［13］Wang Xinxin王欣欣（2011）.化妆品商标名称的翻译策略[J].[ The translation strategy of cosmetics brand names].中国商贸,China Business,(11).<br />
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［14］Wang Yan王燕（2011）.对刘宓庆翻译美学理论的思考[J].[Thoughts on Liu Miqing’s Translation Aesthetics Theory].文学界(理论版),Literary Circle (Theory Edition),(06).<br />
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［15］Ye Hui叶辉(2010).化妆品品牌翻译的美学体现[J].[The aesthetic embodiment of cosmetic brand translation].和田师范学校学报，Journal of Hetian Normal School,（01）.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊(2009).商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［17］Yu Xiaoji,An Chongwei喻小继(2006)，安冲伟.化妆品商标翻译的语言社会特征之解读[J].[Interpretation of the language and social characteristics of cosmetics trademark translation].长春师范学院学报，Journal of Changchun Normal University,（10）<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡(2002).英汉商标词翻译研究述评[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会(2009) ．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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［20］Editorial Department of Encyclopedia of China.中国大百科全书编辑部(2011)． 中国大百科全书( 第二版简明版) ［I］．[Encyclopedia of China (Second Edition Concise Edition)]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社.Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, ( 10) : 6－453．<br />
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［21］ZhuGe qiaoyuan诸葛巧媛(2008).化妆品商标的翻译原则及方法[J].[The translation principles and methods of cosmetics trademarks]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,(06).<br />
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［22］Zhang Jing张婧(2009).接受美学视角下女性化妆品商标的翻译[J].[The translation of female cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of acceptance aesthetics]安徽文学，Anhui Literature,（06）.<br />
<br />
［23］Zhang Ling张凌.化妆品商标的英译方法[J].[The English translation method of cosmetics trademarks].商场现代化,Market Modernization.2007（07）.<br />
<br />
［24］Zhou Suwen周素文(2003).从翻译美学角度谈汉语商标词的英译[J].[On the English translation of Chinese trademark words from the perspective of translation aesthetics].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation.（03）.<br />
<br />
［25］Zeng Yan曾艳(2010). 从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].[A look at trademark translation from the perspective of translation aesthetics].太原城市职业技术学院学报.Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College.(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu <br />
<br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
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good--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text. On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work. Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
<br />
[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
<br />
[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=116455History of Translation Studies 62020-12-20T11:29:13Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第六部分(Part 6)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei 英语笔译==<br />
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
归化；异化；功能派理论<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br />
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In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br />
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From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br />
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According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br />
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Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br />
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To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br />
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Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br />
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The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br />
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While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br />
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Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies<br />
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Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.<br />
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While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br />
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The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br />
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According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Theory of Translational Action====<br />
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Text Typology====<br />
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br />
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br />
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br />
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There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br />
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Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br />
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br />
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br />
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br />
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br />
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br />
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br />
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br />
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br />
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br />
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br />
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The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br />
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction.<br />
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As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br />
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In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br />
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Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br />
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Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br />
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余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br />
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br />
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br />
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其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br />
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br />
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The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br />
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br />
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br />
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Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br />
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On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br />
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The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br />
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Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br />
<br />
Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br />
<br />
In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
1.Bassnett, Susan&Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br />
<br />
3.Nida, E. A.&Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br />
<br />
5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br />
<br />
7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br />
<br />
8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br />
<br />
9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br />
<br />
11.Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br />
<br />
12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br />
<br />
13.Cao Xueqin&Gao E曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br />
<br />
17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br />
<br />
19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br />
<br />
For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br />
<br />
Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br />
=====1. Literature Review=====<br />
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the "Chinese Literature Today" magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br />
<br />
Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br />
<br />
Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that "Elegance" is more important than "Faithfulness" and "Expressiveness", and "Faithfulness" cannot be ignored by "Elegance".--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's "loyalty" and "infidelity" in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the "creative treason" in translation from Howard's "Big Breasts" and "Big Buttocks". Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's "loyalty" and "treason" when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as "The Legend of Hulan River", "Turbulence", "Six Chapters of My Life", "Red Sorghum" and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br />
<br />
Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br />
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br />
<br />
Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br />
<br />
Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br />
<br />
Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
<br />
What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
<br />
The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br />
<br />
Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work "Red Sorghum" was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br />
<br />
Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20). <br />
<br />
It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br />
<br />
This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br />
=====1. Domestication=====<br />
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br />
<br />
======1.1. Annotation======<br />
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br />
<br />
Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br />
<br />
In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br />
<br />
In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word "的" is usually added to the person's last name. "上官家的" refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses "lady" to explain "的" here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br />
<br />
Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br />
<br />
“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi". <br />
<br />
"八竿子拨拉不着" is equivalent to "Eight poles can’t be struck", which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of "Baganzi".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br />
<br />
======1.2. Addition======<br />
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom "信马由缰" refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
======1.3. Omission======<br />
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br />
<br />
E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
<br />
Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br />
<br />
Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of "The Ballad of Garlic", Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
======1.4. Substitution======<br />
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br />
<br />
The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br />
<br />
Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br />
<br />
The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates "亲娘" into "mother", this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with "Mistress" using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
=====2. Foreignization=====<br />
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br />
<br />
======2.1. Transliteration======<br />
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br />
<br />
However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
<br />
However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as "刘罗汉", and translate it into "Arhat Liu". Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of "Araht", so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br />
<br />
“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br />
<br />
======2.2. Literal Translation======<br />
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉" is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br />
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br />
<br />
Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br />
<br />
The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br />
<br />
However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work "Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks", believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br />
<br />
Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br />
<br />
Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br />
<br />
Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br />
<br />
However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br />
<br />
Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br />
<br />
Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br />
<br />
There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br />
<br />
There are "third readers" in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to "fair readers" who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br />
<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br />
<br />
The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br />
<br />
With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to "go out".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br />
<br />
*Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br />
<br />
*Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br />
<br />
*Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br />
<br />
*Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Cao Shunying&Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br />
<br />
*Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
<br />
*Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br />
<br />
*Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
<br />
*Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br />
<br />
*Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br />
<br />
*Liu Yunhong&Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br />
<br />
*Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br />
<br />
*Wen Jun&Wang Xiaochuan&Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping&Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br />
<br />
*Yan Yixun&Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br />
<br />
*Yin Lingwei&Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br />
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br />
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===摘要===<br />
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
目的论，归化，异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br />
<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br />
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br />
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The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
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In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br />
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Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br />
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In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br />
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====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br />
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As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Domestication====<br />
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br />
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Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br />
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Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br />
<br />
Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Foreignization====<br />
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br />
<br />
Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, ."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br />
<br />
The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br />
<br />
On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity". XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br />
<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br />
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)<br />
<br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br />
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br />
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“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br />
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)<br />
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<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br />
<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br />
<br />
*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br />
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*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br />
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*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br />
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*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br />
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*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br />
<br />
*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br />
<br />
==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br />
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; Hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br />
<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; Therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br />
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The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 11:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br />
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In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spreading of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 11:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24). <br />
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In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br />
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====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
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Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br />
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Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br />
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In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br />
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Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br />
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Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br />
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Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br />
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Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br />
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Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br />
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====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br />
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br />
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Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).<br />
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As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br />
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Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br />
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===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br />
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====2.1 The type of the text==== <br />
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br />
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Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br />
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Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br />
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Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br />
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These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br />
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Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
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Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br />
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According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br />
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Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br />
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====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br />
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br />
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The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147). <br />
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However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).<br />
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Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br />
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===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br />
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====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br />
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br />
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As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br />
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Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br />
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====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br />
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br />
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Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br />
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For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br />
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Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br />
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Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br />
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====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br />
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br />
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Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br />
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For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
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However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
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Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br />
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Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br />
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For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br />
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On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br />
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===Conclusion=== <br />
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br />
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Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br />
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Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br />
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Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br />
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===References===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br />
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br />
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br />
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br />
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br />
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br />
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==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br />
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center> <br />
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==='''Abstract'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br />
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===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br />
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===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Key words'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br />
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===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br />
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===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br />
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The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br />
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===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
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====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br />
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Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".<br />
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Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term "Xiehouyu". --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
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The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ". He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.<br />
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At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br />
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In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br />
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In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br />
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Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br />
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According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br />
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Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
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In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
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''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)" omits the latter part "一场空 (all is empty)". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br />
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br />
There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br />
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There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br />
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br />
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The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
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====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br />
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Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."<br />
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The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as "domesticationg transaltion", and the second strategy as "foreignizing transaltion". <br />
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In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of "foreignization", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br />
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Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br />
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There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br />
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For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br />
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In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
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In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br />
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（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
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A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
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====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br />
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
<br />
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br />
In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br />
<br />
In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
<br />
In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺"、"狗腿子"、"狗仗人势"、"狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br />
<br />
（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br />
<br />
（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
<br />
（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br />
<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br />
<br />
（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br />
<br />
（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
<br />
（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br />
While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br />
<br />
While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br />
<br />
Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning ". The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br />
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br />
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br />
<br />
When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br />
<br />
When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.4 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br />
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai,1986)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br />
<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Reference'''===<br />
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1.Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br />
<br />
2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br />
<br />
3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br />
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4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br />
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5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br />
<br />
6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br />
<br />
7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br />
<br />
8. Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br />
<br />
9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br />
<br />
10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br />
<br />
11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br />
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12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br />
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13. Chen Hongwei & Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br />
<br />
14.Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br />
<br />
16.Gao Yun & Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br />
<br />
17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br />
<br />
18.Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
<br />
<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br />
<br />
The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br />
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归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br />
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对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br />
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===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br />
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====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). --[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
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Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br />
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As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).<br />
As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).<br />
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As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118). <br />
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The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br />
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Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br />
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Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br />
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People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br />
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===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br />
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br />
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====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br />
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br />
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In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908). <br />
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As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal". <br />
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These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br />
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====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br />
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br />
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===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br />
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br />
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====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br />
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Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br />
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The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br />
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她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br />
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Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br />
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The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br />
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运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
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Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br />
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The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br />
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等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br />
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Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br />
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Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br />
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一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
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Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br />
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This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br />
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The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br />
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English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br />
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====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br />
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Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him".<br />
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咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
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Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br />
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特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br />
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Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br />
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Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br />
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匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br />
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Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br />
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In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br />
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主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
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Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br />
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For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br />
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Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br />
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====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
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Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"<br />
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梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
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Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".<br />
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耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
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Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor". <br />
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The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br />
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蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br />
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Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".<br />
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子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br />
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Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".<br />
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The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br />
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In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br />
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Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br />
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Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning. <br />
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Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). "Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). "On the Different Methods of Translating", in André Lefevere (ed. & trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen & Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br />
<br />
*Schulte, Rainer & Biguenet, John. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translaing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br />
<br />
*Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (01) 40-44.<br />
<br />
*Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 03-05.<br />
<br />
*Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br />
<br />
= '''Title Translation''' =<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br />
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br />
<br />
This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br />
<br />
And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br />
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br />
<br />
Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br />
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===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br />
<br />
Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br />
<br />
Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br />
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The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br />
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It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br />
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The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br />
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The film can accurately "restore" the real world, "show" the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br />
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(1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br />
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(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br />
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(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br />
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People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br />
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(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins "). <br />
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According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br />
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These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br />
<br />
In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br />
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2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br />
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3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br />
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4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br />
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5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br />
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===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br />
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br />
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For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.<br />
<br />
Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br />
<br />
The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br />
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Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br />
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In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.<br />
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The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br />
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====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br />
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br />
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Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br />
<br />
And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.<br />
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"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br />
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant ", but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br />
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As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br />
<br />
Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br />
<br />
====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br />
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br />
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It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.<br />
<br />
Since then, the film has been widely accepted as "the sound of music" by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br />
<br />
This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".<br />
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===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Literal Translation====<br />
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br />
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For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br />
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====4.2 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into "Face Off" or "Face Off". Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br />
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When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into "If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into" cat and mouse game "or" free ", the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br />
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====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br />
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====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br />
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br />
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So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br />
<br />
====4.5 Naturalization====<br />
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br />
<br />
Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br />
<br />
Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br />
<br />
====4.6 Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br />
<br />
Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br />
<br />
Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br />
<br />
[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br />
<br />
[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br />
<br />
[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br />
<br />
[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br />
<br />
[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br />
<br />
[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br />
<br />
[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br />
<br />
[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br />
<br />
[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br />
<br />
== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br />
<br />
<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br />
<br />
A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br />
<br />
This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br />
<br />
This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Film Genres ====<br />
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br />
<br />
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
<br />
===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br />
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br />
<br />
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br />
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br />
Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br />
The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br />
<br />
The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br />
A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
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A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br />
====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br />
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Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br />
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Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place".Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br />
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Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)".<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br />
All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br />
A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br />
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A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br />
Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br />
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Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br />
Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br />
<br />
Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br />
<br />
A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br />
The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br />
<br />
There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br />
As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br />
<br />
The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br />
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''=== <br />
He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br />
<br />
Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br />
<br />
Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br />
<br />
Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&129.<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br />
<br />
Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br />
<br />
He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br />
<br />
Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br />
<br />
Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br />
<br />
==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br />
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br />
<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br />
<br />
===商标翻译研究===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
商标翻译；原则；方法<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
<br />
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br />
<br />
The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br />
<br />
First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br />
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br />
<br />
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
<br />
Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br />
<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br />
have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br />
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
<br />
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br />
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br />
<br />
In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br />
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Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br />
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People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br />
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br />
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As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br />
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For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett-packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br />
Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br />
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A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
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For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br />
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Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br />
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br />
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Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon". On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br />
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br />
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Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br />
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br />
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br />
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br />
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Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br />
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====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick", is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
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It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br />
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A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 Free translation====<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br />
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Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br />
<br />
However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br />
<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br />
<br />
“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Non-translation====<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br />
<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br />
<br />
On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br />
<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br />
<br />
First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.<br />
<br />
First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br />
<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br />
<br />
[2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of "Three Beauty" in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br />
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[3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br />
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[4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br />
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[6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[7]Wang Hengen. "Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br />
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[8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br />
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[9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br />
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[10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br />
<br />
[11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br />
<br />
[12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br />
<br />
[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br />
<br />
[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). "Revlon" in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br />
<center>周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br />
<br />
===Key word===<br />
culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br />
====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br />
====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br />
<br />
Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
<br />
In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
<br />
In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br />
<br />
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br />
<br />
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br />
<br />
The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br />
<br />
Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
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Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br />
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Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br />
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====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
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=====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
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Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
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For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
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Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
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Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
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Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
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The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br />
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=====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
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Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br />
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<br />
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br />
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===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br />
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Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br />
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(1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br />
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I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br />
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O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br />
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Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br />
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(2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br />
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I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br />
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I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br />
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In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br />
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In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br />
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(3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br />
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I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br />
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I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br />
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The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br />
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(4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br />
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My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br />
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I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,& Chung Ling,1979:56)<br />
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Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br />
However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br />
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====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br />
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(5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br />
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The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br />
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People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br />
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Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
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Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br />
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The Double Ninth comes now again.<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br />
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Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br />
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“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
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“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br />
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(7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br />
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In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br />
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I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br />
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As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br />
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As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br />
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You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br />
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The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br />
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Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br />
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In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br />
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(9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br />
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I look for what I miss;<br />
<br />
I know not what it is.<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer.<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br />
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Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br />
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Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br />
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Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br />
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—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br />
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Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
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(10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br />
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A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br />
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—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br />
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Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br />
<br />
In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br />
<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
*Rexroth, K. & Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br />
<br />
*Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br />
<br />
*Fu Guiying 付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Three-Beauty Principle][D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
* Han Zhouwen 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究[A Study on the Translation of the Culture-loaded Terms of Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out:A perspective of Skopos Theory]——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Li Qing 郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhao 李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's "Our Country and Our People"]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br />
<br />
* Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Yang Jian 杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang 张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br />
<br />
==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br />
<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br />
<br />
By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br />
<br />
沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br />
<br />
通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br />
<br />
因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
<br />
With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used around the globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 11:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there exists plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is so hard to render them that foreign readers couldn't understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 11:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest to the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 11:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of domesticating and foreignizing translations, find out the reasons for the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 11:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br />
<br />
====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br />
For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: --[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title "floating life" derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title "floating life" derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year during the Jiaqing period (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on a stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with a movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without fictitious traces. (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and got a large readership. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br />
In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and the unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in promoting Chinese culture, second Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and last his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that "the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' ". (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br />
<br />
There are many definitions of culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that "the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' ". (Mona Baker 2000,21)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br />
<br />
This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carrying in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as "culture-specific items" and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that "Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text". (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br />
<br />
In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as "culture-specific items" and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that "Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text". (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br />
<br />
From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br />
Eugene Nida considers that "if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture". (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br />
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Eugene Nida considers that "if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture". (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
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In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in --[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br />
Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br />
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Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the studies of Mr. Lin account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin with the one done by Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
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====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br />
Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br />
Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br />
When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br />
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The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br />
Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br />
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“未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br />
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“未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without any mistakes. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br />
Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br />
Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br />
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3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br />
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The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence in Chinese history and culture.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br />
Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br />
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4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br />
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“Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br />
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“Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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Literal translation, or direct translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br />
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“挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br />
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“挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set of expressions in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and be aware of the culture differences.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br />
In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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In this chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or method to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies with their translation methods in his translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
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====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88) --[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br />
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The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br />
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7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br />
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In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br />
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In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without making troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br />
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This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br />
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This four-character Chinese phrase means that one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:43, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br />
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“San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br />
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“San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br />
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10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br />
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“篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br />
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“篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal-script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. Otherwise, most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br />
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11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br />
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The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br />
<br />
The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lying behind those English words.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br />
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12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br />
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In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br />
<br />
In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers that the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br />
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13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br />
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“月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br />
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“月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different countries have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 14:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br />
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Eugene, A. Nida. (2001). Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br />
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Eugene, A. Nida. (2004). Toward a Science of Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br />
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Mona, Baker. (2000). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. ''Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press''.<br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M] [Cultural Context and Language Translation]. ''北京：中国对外翻译出版公司'' Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company.<br />
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Feng Li 冯丽. (2013). 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J] [A Brief Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Culture]. ''漯河职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Luohe Vocational and Technical College (3) 116-117.<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi 胡壮麟，姜望琪. (2002). 语言学高级教程[M] [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. ''北京：北京大学出版社'' Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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Liu Aili 刘艾莉. (2015). 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA] [A Study on the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Fortress Besieged'' from the Perspective of Cognitive Translation]. ''广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies.<br />
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Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. (2017). 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J] [A Study on the Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' at home and abroad: Review and Prospect]. ''外语教育研究'' Research on Foreign Language Education (4) 53-59.<br />
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Li Yi 李懿. (2013). 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J] [Translation of cultural Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (11) 43-44.<br />
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Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (Biligual Edition)]. ''湖南：湖南文艺出版社'' Hunan: Hunan Literature and Art Publishing House.<br />
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Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''浙江：浙江工商大学出版社'' Zhejiang: Zhejiang Gongshang University Press.<br />
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Wu Hualing 吴华玲. (2010). 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J] [The Aesthetic Representation of Lin Yutang's Doctrine of the Mean in his Translation -- A Case Study of Lin's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''云梦学刊'' Cloud Dream Journal (3) 113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Weiwei 王维维. (2012). 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J] [Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Hypotaxis and Parataxis]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (10) 46-47.<br />
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Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J] [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation (3) 82-88.<br />
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Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J] [Review on the Translation Strategies of Cultural Items by Akerasie]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation.<br />
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Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA] [Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' by Lin Yutang]. ''上海外国语大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
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==How to Keep "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
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Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br />
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This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br />
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idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===汉语习语英译如何保持"中国性"===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br />
<br />
本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br />
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=== Introduction===<br />
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
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An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
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Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br />
<br />
The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
<br />
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br />
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
<br />
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br />
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The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 The Importance of Keeping "Chineseness" in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br />
Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br />
<br />
Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br />
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Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of "Chineseness" in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br />
Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br />
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Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br />
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Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate "三顾茅庐" into "repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or "have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly", foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Likewise, the idioms like "班门弄斧" and "卧薪尝胆" are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br />
As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br />
As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br />
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The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br />
As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br />
Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br />
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Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) <br />
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In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. "Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br />
"Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, "The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text", in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br />
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====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. <br />
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====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br />
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Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated as "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated into "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃"[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into "A toad hankering for a tatste of swan"(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the "Chineseness" in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
<br />
Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
<br />
Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
<br />
However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
<br />
For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
<br />
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
<br />
One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br />
<br />
The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
<br />
However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
<br />
In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br />
<br />
*He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br />
<br />
*Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br />
<br />
*Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br />
<br />
*Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br />
<br />
*David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London & New York:Routledge,1995:20<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br />
<br />
As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br />
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===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br />
<br />
Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br />
<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br />
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====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br />
As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br />
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"A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion."(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br />
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"A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation."--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br />
Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br />
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and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br />
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In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br />
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Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.It is said that proverbs in China dated back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br />
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It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br />
Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br />
<br />
Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
<br />
Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br />
<br />
roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br />
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What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br />
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From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br />
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====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br />
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It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br />
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Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br />
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In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br />
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It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br />
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In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br />
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====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br />
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As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br />
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Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br />
As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br />
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====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br />
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The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br />
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Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br />
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In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br />
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Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br />
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The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br />
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====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br />
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As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br />
he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br />
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====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br />
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The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br />
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In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br />
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Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
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Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br />
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Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br />
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Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br />
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In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />
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Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. References===<br />
*Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br />
*Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br />
*Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br />
*Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br />
*Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br />
*Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br />
*Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br />
*Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br />
*Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br />
*Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br />
*Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br />
*Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br />
*Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br />
*You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br />
*Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br />
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==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br />
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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
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On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
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On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
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一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
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Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
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Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br />
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1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br />
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Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br />
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Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br />
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Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br />
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The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br />
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1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br />
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In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br />
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Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br />
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We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br />
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The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br />
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With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
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As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br />
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2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
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Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br />
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2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
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The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br />
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2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br />
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Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br />
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2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br />
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2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
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To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br />
The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br />
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Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br />
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Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br />
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Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Transliteration<br />
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Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br />
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Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br />
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For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br />
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3.2 Literal Translation<br />
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Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br />
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Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br />
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In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br />
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3.3 Free Translation<br />
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Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br />
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Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br />
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Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br />
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[13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br />
[14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br />
[15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br />
[16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br />
[17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br />
[18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br />
[19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br />
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<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
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跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
<br />
一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
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汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
<br />
Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
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Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(<span style="color:red">the</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br />
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To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(<span style="color:red">space</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br />
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====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
<br />
Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (<span style="color:red">delete that have been</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br />
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With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(<span style="color:red">inappropriate</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br />
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Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (<span style="color:red">add the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br />
<br />
First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(<span style="color:red">abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics"哥哥"</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (<span style="color:red">through</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br />
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Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (<span style="color:red">the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br />
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With new things coming in(<span style="color:red">springing up</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br />
<br />
A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (<span style="color:red">updating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br />
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The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(<span style="color:red">developing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
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In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(<span style="color:red">one after another</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
<br />
In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(<span style="color:red">their</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br />
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Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(<span style="color:red">various ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br />
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We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(<span style="color:red">such</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br />
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The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (<span style="color:red">For example,</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br />
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With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(<span style="color:red">increasingly strong</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
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As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (<span style="color:red">them and their</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br />
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====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
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Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (<span style="color:red">transending</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br />
<br />
In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(<span style="color:red">construction</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br />
<br />
Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (<span style="color:red">during translating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(<span style="color:red">improved</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (<span style="color:red">also</span>)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br />
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=====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br />
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Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (<span style="color:red">following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br />
<br />
In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(<span style="color:red">expressions</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
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Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(<span style="color:red">with</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br />
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It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(<span style="color:red">delete above</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
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Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(<span style="color:red">contained</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
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For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (<span style="color:red">describes</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
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To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (<span style="color:red">employing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, it is common to see(<span style="color:red">observe</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
<br />
Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(<span style="color:red">long</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
<br />
Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(<span style="color:red">readers</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br />
<br />
For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and (<span style="color:red">has</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(<span style="color:red">delete a process</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
<br />
The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (<span style="color:red">ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
<br />
In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(<span style="color:red">manifest</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(<span style="color:red">conveys</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
<br />
For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br />
<br />
In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br />
<br />
In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br />
<br />
To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br />
<br />
Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br />
<br />
Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br />
<br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br />
<br />
*Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br />
<br />
*Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br />
<br />
*Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br />
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*Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
*Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br />
<br />
*Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br />
<br />
*Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br />
<br />
*Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br />
<br />
*Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br />
<br />
*Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jian & Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br />
<center>刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br />
<br />
With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Keywords ===<br />
<br />
Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
<br />
中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
<br />
As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
<br />
It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
<br />
The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
<br />
And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
<br />
There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br />
<br />
They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
<br />
(1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br />
<br />
Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
<br />
As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
<br />
As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
<br />
Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same "with" structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br />
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The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br />
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The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br />
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After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br />
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But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br />
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Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br />
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Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br />
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Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br />
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The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br />
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Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br />
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4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
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Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
<br />
It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
<br />
Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
<br />
Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
<br />
First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
<br />
First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
<br />
The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
<br />
But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
<br />
Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
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Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
<br />
One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
<br />
Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
<br />
The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
<br />
The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
<br />
As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
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*Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br />
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*Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br />
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*Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br />
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*Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br />
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*车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br />
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*李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br />
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*莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of "re-creation" translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br />
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*屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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*邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br />
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*吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of "Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research"]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br />
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*张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of "China on the Tip of the Tongue" guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br />
<center> 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
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Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br />
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===题目===<br />
中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
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Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
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The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
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Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
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Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
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====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br />
Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to "the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language". This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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According to Catford, "Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text." (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br />
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First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches "private" meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br />
Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br />
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Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br />
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Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
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The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
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And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
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And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br />
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A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br />
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Informative Function<br />
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The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br />
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Aesthetic Function<br />
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If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
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If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cultural Function<br />
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Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br />
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====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br />
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br />
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There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br />
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Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br />
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator "deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures".(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br />
Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br />
The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br />
Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br />
Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br />
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Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox". (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br />
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Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox".(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br />
The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br />
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The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on "Ingredient and Main Ingredient" or "Main ingredient and Soup"====<br />
The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by with or in. e.g."冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br />
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The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by “with or in”, for example, "冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". The choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br />
When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of "seasoning+main ingredient" can use the structure of "main ingredient+with+seasoning", such as "芥末鸡条" can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as "Cumin Beef".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", e.g. "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", for example, "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br />
The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, "芙蓉鸡片" can be translated as "Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White" and "菊花鱿鱼"as "Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", e.g. "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", for example, "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names "--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape" can be translated as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient", such as "干煸牛肉丝". "干煸" is the cooking method, "牛肉" is the main ingredient and "丝" is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as "Dry-fried Shredded Beef".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from "Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient" to "Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient"====<br />
In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as "person's name+main ingredient" can be made directly. For example, in "组庵豆腐", "组庵" is the name of a person and "豆腐" is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as "Zu'an Tofuo".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+，+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", e.g. "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", for example, "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name of a dish can be translated in the form of "cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style", e.g. "毛氏红烧肉", which can be translated as "Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. "(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br />
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====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as "Utensil + Main Ingredient"====<br />
Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br />
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Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br />
Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br />
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Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br />
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Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br />
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A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br />
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[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br />
<center> 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br />
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<br />
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br />
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After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br />
Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br />
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Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications among China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Below I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br />
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====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br />
China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods vary from region to region. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can’t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people laugh. For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it doesn’t reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. But he didn’t have cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn’t reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is more appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br />
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====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br />
At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese food culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so no explanation can also be. The first translation is more vivid and make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese food culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br />
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====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br />
The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don’t understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.(Wang Junjian 2017，107)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br />
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To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br />
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To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural background contained in dish names, and using inappropriate translation methods. The paper tries to solve these problems by adopting domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduces the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br />
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===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br />
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====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book “Translator's Invisibility” according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expression that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation of translation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions, requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the difference of national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Baidu Encyclopedia, Susong Longhua ,2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br />
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====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br />
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Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level, adopting foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of its reader-oriented characteristics, domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove the obstacles of communication. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, combining domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths, avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br />
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Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br />
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Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and application. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the authors. On the one hand, we should consider their way of thinking and understanding ability as far as possible from the reader's point of view, so that they can understand the translation content. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retain the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br />
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===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br />
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====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br />
Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br />
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Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br />
There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br />
slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br />
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====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br />
“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br />
Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br />
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Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br />
The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br />
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As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br />
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=====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br />
以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br />
There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br />
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There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. She casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br />
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=====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br />
带地名和人名的菜名<br />
There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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There are usually two translation methods for the dish name with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as“pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual“step by step” (步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br />
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====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br />
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Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br />
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Although foreignization and domestication are opposite in theory, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this paper can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br />
*Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br />
*Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br />
*Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br />
*Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. "Baidu Encyclopedia". https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br />
*Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br />
*Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br />
*Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br />
*Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br />
*Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br />
*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of "Translation Strategies", "Translation Methods" and "Translation Skills"]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br />
*Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br />
*Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br />
*Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br />
*Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br />
*Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br />
*Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=11625820201221 trans2020-12-20T05:57:32Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Chen Jiangning 陈江宁 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br />
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Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br />
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杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.<br />
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。<br />
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胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。 像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。 然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。 在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br />
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'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br />
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A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br />
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br />
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很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br />
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I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.<br />
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读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。<br />
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作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br />
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我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br />
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这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br />
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br />
<br />
文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''East Station'''<br />
<br />
Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
<br />
'''东站'''<br />
<br />
在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br />
<br />
This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br />
<br />
Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br />
<br />
而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br />
<br />
Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br />
<br />
但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br />
<br />
今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br />
<br />
1989.9.13<br />
<br />
请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br />
<br />
但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br />
<br />
今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br />
In the Context of Fable of September''' <br />
<br />
Jie Lu<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br />
<br />
'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br />
以九月寓言为背景'''<br />
<br />
吕杰<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br />
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]<br />
<br />
在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br />
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.<br />
<br />
而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。<br />
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br />
<br />
然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br />
<br />
当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.<br />
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正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).<br />
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在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br />
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但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br />
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张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.<br />
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张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).<br />
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接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br />
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张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br />
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.<br />
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于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br />
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阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br />
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与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br />
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br />
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜） 与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。 这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。 围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。 年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br />
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br />
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This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”<br />
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正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br />
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这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br />
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这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.<br />
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唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br />
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br />
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The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br />
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As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br />
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这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br />
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正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br />
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br />
<br />
金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br />
<br />
Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br />
<br />
而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。 <br />
<br />
因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.<br />
<br />
因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br />
<br />
In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.<br />
<br />
显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br />
<br />
The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br />
<br />
最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br />
<br />
So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br />
<br />
''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br />
<br />
<br />
......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。 这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。 事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。 毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.<br />
<br />
然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。 在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。 商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br />
<br />
Works Cited（不用翻）<br />
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Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br />
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Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br />
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Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br />
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Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br />
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Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br />
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Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br />
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Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br />
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Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br />
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Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br />
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Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br />
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Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"''' <br />
<br />
''Xinmin Liu<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''Abstract<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br />
<br />
Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent. <br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br />
<br />
In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”<br />
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它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。<br />
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在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。<br />
<br />
在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.<br />
<br />
想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?<br />
<br />
称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br />
<br />
Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br />
<br />
Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]<br />
<br />
很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》 的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br />
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br />
<br />
It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br />
<br />
Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br />
<br />
No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br />
<br />
但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。<br />
<br />
毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br />
<br />
A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br />
Zhang 1999a, 37.<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br />
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br />
<br />
What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br />
<br />
作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。<br />
<br />
他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br />
<br />
那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br />
<br />
Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br />
<br />
Zhang 1994a, 125.<br />
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br />
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br />
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br />
<br />
这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
<br />
这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br />
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br />
<br />
The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.<br />
<br />
事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：<br />
<br />
这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：<br />
<br />
这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br />
<br />
One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br />
<br />
作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。<br />
<br />
有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br />
<br />
Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br />
<br />
其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br />
<br />
Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br />
<br />
For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。<br />
<br />
关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br />
<br />
'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br />
<br />
''King-Fai Tam''<br />
<br />
I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”<br />
<br />
'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''<br />
<br />
''谭景辉''<br />
<br />
首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br />
<br />
然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br />
<br />
虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br />
<br />
我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
[http://www.example.com link title]<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br />
<br />
然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对<br />
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br />
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br />
<br />
即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
<br />
即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
<br />
In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br />
<br />
在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.<br />
<br />
这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br />
<br />
'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br />
<br />
其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。<br />
<br />
'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
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'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br />
<br />
In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br />
<br />
In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br />
<br />
Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br />
<br />
The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br />
<br />
在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。<br />
<br />
当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。<br />
<br />
当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br />
<br />
在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
'''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br />
<br />
1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br />
<br />
1. 特征<br />
<br />
1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br />
<br />
与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
'''1. 特征<br />
<br />
1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''<br />
<br />
和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
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“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
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该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。 这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。 这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。 散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。 形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
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Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.<br />
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不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。<br />
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地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
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In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br />
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The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
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当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
<br />
当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br />
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周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br />
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Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
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这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br />
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进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br />
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Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br />
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In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
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'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br />
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br />
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20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''<br />
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。<br />
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20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br />
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Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br />
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文 《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br />
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'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br />
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The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br />
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在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。<br />
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”<br />
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br />
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I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.<br />
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而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。<br />
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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划词翻译<br />
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。<br />
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我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
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This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
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在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br />
<br />
在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br />
<br />
Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
<br />
Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br />
<br />
One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br />
<br />
'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br />
<br />
这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br />
<br />
这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.<br />
<br />
在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br />
<br />
Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br />
<br />
Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br />
<br />
For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br />
<br />
余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
<br />
决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
<br />
因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。<br />
<br />
有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
<br />
决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
<br />
因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。<br />
<br />
有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br />
<br />
Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br />
<br />
王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br />
<br />
朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br />
<br />
1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.<br />
<br />
王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
'''3.Trends<br />
<br />
3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br />
<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br />
3.潮流与趋势<br />
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”<br />
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。<br />
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。<br />
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。<br />
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.趋势<br />
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文<br />
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。<br />
<br />
“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。 在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。 好方法”（王萌，1994年）。 这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。<br />
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。<br />
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。<br />
<br />
- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。<br />
<br />
中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br />
<br />
-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br />
<br />
The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。<br />
<br />
从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br />
<br />
1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br />
<br />
2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br />
<br />
'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers". <br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br />
<br />
3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br />
<br />
4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).<br />
<br />
5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.<br />
<br />
The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.<br />
<br />
因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。<br />
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br />
<br />
"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br />
<br />
'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br />
<br />
Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。<br />
<br />
'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''<br />
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巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
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One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br />
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这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br />
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狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
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6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br />
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7 (Zhou 1923).<br />
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8 (The Family in 1951)<br />
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9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br />
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10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..<br />
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11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br />
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2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
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3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br />
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本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
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5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
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6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br />
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"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]<br />
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."<br />
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6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。<br />
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正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
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To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.<br />
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综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=11625620201221 trans2020-12-20T05:53:12Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhang Qi 张琪 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br />
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Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br />
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杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.<br />
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br />
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'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br />
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A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br />
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br />
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很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br />
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I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.<br />
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读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。<br />
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作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br />
<br />
这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br />
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br />
<br />
文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''East Station'''<br />
<br />
Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
<br />
'''东站'''<br />
<br />
在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br />
<br />
This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br />
<br />
Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br />
<br />
而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br />
<br />
Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br />
<br />
但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br />
<br />
今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br />
<br />
1989.9.13<br />
<br />
请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br />
<br />
但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br />
<br />
今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br />
In the Context of Fable of September''' <br />
<br />
Jie Lu<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br />
<br />
'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br />
以九月寓言为背景'''<br />
<br />
吕杰<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br />
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]<br />
<br />
在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br />
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.<br />
<br />
而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。<br />
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br />
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然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br />
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当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.<br />
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正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).<br />
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在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br />
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但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br />
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张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.<br />
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张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).<br />
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接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br />
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张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br />
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.<br />
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于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br />
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阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br />
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与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br />
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br />
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜） 与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。 这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。 围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。 年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br />
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br />
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This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”<br />
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正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br />
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这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br />
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这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.<br />
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唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br />
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br />
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The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br />
<br />
As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br />
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这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br />
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正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br />
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br />
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金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br />
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Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br />
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而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。 <br />
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因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.<br />
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因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br />
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In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.<br />
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显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br />
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Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br />
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The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br />
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最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br />
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So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br />
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''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br />
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<br />
......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。 这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。 事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。 毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.<br />
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然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。 在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。 商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br />
<br />
Works Cited（不用翻）<br />
<br />
Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br />
<br />
Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br />
<br />
Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br />
<br />
Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br />
<br />
Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br />
<br />
Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"''' <br />
<br />
''Xinmin Liu<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''Abstract<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br />
<br />
Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent. <br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br />
<br />
In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”<br />
<br />
它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。<br />
<br />
在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。<br />
<br />
在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.<br />
<br />
想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?<br />
<br />
称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br />
<br />
Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br />
<br />
Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]<br />
<br />
很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》 的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br />
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br />
<br />
It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br />
<br />
Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br />
<br />
No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br />
<br />
但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。<br />
<br />
毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br />
<br />
A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br />
Zhang 1999a, 37.<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br />
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br />
<br />
What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br />
<br />
作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。<br />
<br />
他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br />
<br />
那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br />
<br />
Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br />
<br />
Zhang 1994a, 125.<br />
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br />
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br />
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br />
<br />
这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
<br />
这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br />
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br />
<br />
The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.<br />
<br />
事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：<br />
<br />
这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：<br />
<br />
这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br />
<br />
One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br />
<br />
作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。<br />
<br />
有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br />
<br />
Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br />
<br />
其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br />
<br />
Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br />
<br />
For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。<br />
<br />
关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br />
<br />
'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br />
<br />
''King-Fai Tam''<br />
<br />
I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”<br />
<br />
'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''<br />
<br />
''谭景辉''<br />
<br />
首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br />
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然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br />
<br />
我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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[http://www.example.com link title]<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br />
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然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对<br />
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br />
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br />
<br />
即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
<br />
即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
<br />
In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br />
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在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.<br />
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这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br />
<br />
'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br />
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''Martin Woesler''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br />
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其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。<br />
<br />
'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''<br />
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''Martin Woesler''<br />
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'''摘要'''<br />
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本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br />
<br />
In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br />
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In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br />
<br />
Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br />
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The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br />
<br />
在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。<br />
<br />
当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。<br />
<br />
当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br />
<br />
在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
'''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br />
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1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
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Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br />
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1. 特征<br />
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1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br />
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与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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'''1. 特征<br />
<br />
1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''<br />
<br />
和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
<br />
“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
<br />
<br />
该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。 这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。 这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。 散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。 形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.<br />
<br />
不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。<br />
<br />
地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
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In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br />
<br />
The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
<br />
当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
<br />
当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br />
<br />
周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br />
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Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
<br />
这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br />
<br />
进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br />
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Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br />
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In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
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'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br />
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''<br />
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br />
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文 《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br />
<br />
'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br />
<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br />
<br />
在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。<br />
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”<br />
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br />
<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.<br />
<br />
而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。<br />
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
划词翻译<br />
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。<br />
<br />
我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br />
<br />
在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br />
<br />
Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
<br />
Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br />
<br />
One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br />
<br />
'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br />
<br />
这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br />
<br />
这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.<br />
<br />
在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br />
<br />
Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br />
<br />
Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br />
<br />
For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br />
<br />
余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
<br />
决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
<br />
因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。<br />
<br />
有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
<br />
决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
<br />
因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。<br />
<br />
有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br />
<br />
Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br />
<br />
王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br />
<br />
朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br />
<br />
1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.<br />
<br />
王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
'''3.Trends<br />
<br />
3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br />
<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br />
3.潮流与趋势<br />
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”<br />
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。<br />
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。<br />
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。<br />
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.趋势<br />
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文<br />
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。<br />
<br />
“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。 在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。 好方法”（王萌，1994年）。 这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。<br />
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。<br />
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。<br />
<br />
- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。<br />
<br />
中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br />
<br />
-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br />
<br />
The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。<br />
<br />
从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br />
<br />
1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br />
<br />
2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br />
<br />
'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers". <br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br />
<br />
3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br />
<br />
4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).<br />
<br />
5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.<br />
<br />
The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.<br />
<br />
因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。<br />
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br />
<br />
"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br />
<br />
'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br />
<br />
Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。<br />
<br />
'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''<br />
<br />
巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br />
<br />
这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br />
<br />
狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br />
<br />
7 (Zhou 1923).<br />
<br />
8 (The Family in 1951)<br />
<br />
9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br />
<br />
10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..<br />
<br />
11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br />
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2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
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3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br />
<br />
本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
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5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br />
<br />
"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]<br />
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."<br />
<br />
6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。<br />
<br />
正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.<br />
<br />
综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_trans&diff=11624520201214 trans2020-12-20T05:29:10Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
In fact, reportage research and composition along with organizing and performing in roving theatrical troupes became one of the principal modes of ”internship” for young writers in the socialist educational system as it emerged in Yan’an.<br />
<br />
Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu were all in their twenties at this time, so they had limited literary experience before the 1940s. Thus for Liu and Yang, the Yan’an years helped define for them what literature is supposed to be from process to product. Qin Mu, however, never went to Yan’an; he spent the entire war in Guangdong, Guangxi and Guizhou. Thus though he had experience with some of these procedures of production in progressive circles in those areas, Qin Mu was not saturated in this kind of cultural environment.<br />
<br />
事实上，在延安出现的社会主义教育体系中，报道文学的研究与创作和组织并参演剧团演出一起，成为青年作家的主要“实习”方式之一。<br />
<br />
事实上，在延安时，研究撰写报道文学和组织参演剧团演出，成为当时社会主义教育体系中青年作家的主要“实习”方式之一。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 06:12, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨朔，刘白羽和秦牧当时都是二十来岁，所以他们在四十年代前的文学经验有限。对于刘白羽和杨朔而言，那段延安时光帮助他们定义了文学是如何由形成到产出的。秦牧却没有去过延安，他的整个战争时期都是在广东，广西和贵州度过的。因此，即便他在一些抗战区域有相关经验，秦牧仍然是没有被这种文化环境所浸染的。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨朔，刘白羽和秦牧当时都是二十来岁，在十九世纪四十年代前，他们还没有太多文学创作经验。因此对于刘白羽和杨朔而言，那段延安时光让他们明白文学从形成到完成是一个什么样的过程。然而，秦牧从没有去过延安，整个战争时期他都是在广东、广西和贵州度过的。因此，即便他在一些抗战区域有相关经验，秦牧没有受到这种文化环境的熏陶。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 06:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
Once socialism or communism took the position of power (as in Yan’an during the war against Japan and then throughout the PRC after 1949) critical prose writing (whether essays or reportage) as it had been practiced during wartime became much more dubious from the point of view of cultural officials, and nonfiction needed to become a vehicle of literary celebration of public, historical achievements.[ See for example Yang Shuo, ”Qian jin, gangtie de dajun” (March Forth, Great Army of Steel, 1949), Zhonghua sanwen zhencang ben, Yang Shuo juan (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1998) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951), Yang Shuo juan 13-17, ”Gebi tan shang de chuntian” (Springtime on the Gobi, 1953), Yang Shuo juan 29-33. ] This is precisely the familiar dilemma of Ding Ling, coming into Yan’an society well trained as a keen critic of her environment. It was an awkward transition, except for those who came into the socialist educational cultural system while still relatively young. To them the business of literature was that of constructing an unprecedented new vision.<br />
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社会主义或者说共产主义曾经处于主导地位（如抗日时期的延安，然后贯穿1949中国成立以来整个时期）批判散文写作（无论是小品文还是报告文学）可以说，它已经在战时经过多次实践，从文化官员的角度来说，它变得更加不可信。纪实文学需要成为公众庆祝和历史成就的文学工具【如：杨朔《钢铁的大军》（前进，钢铁的大军，1949），中华散文珍藏本，杨朔卷（北京：人民文学出版社，1998）25-33；《平常的人》（平常的人，1951）25-33；杨朔卷13-17，《戈壁滩上的春天》（戈壁滩上的春天，1953），阳朔卷29-33】。这恰好是丁玲的困境，参加延安协会，作为同一批人中受到良好训练的敏锐批评家。除了那些参加社会主义教育文化系统但是相对年轻的人，这是一次尴尬的转变。对他们来说，文学事业正在建造一个前所未有的新视野。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:37, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
'''Writers’ changing roles changed literary prose'''<br />
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Each of the three authors I am discussing here was born between 1913 and 1919, only a few short years after the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. They were all in their late teens and early twenties at the outbreak of the war against Japan. Being roughly the same age, they shared the same historical and cultural atmosphere, but being in different locations, engaged in the war in different capacities, their transition into the aesthetics of incongruous lyricism took different paths and thus embodied different tensions.<br />
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'''作者的角色变化改变了文学散文的面貌'''<br />
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我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年间，距清王朝灭亡和中华民国建立仅短短几年时间。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十几岁。他们年龄相仿，有着相同的历史、文化氛围，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的身份参加战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:09, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''作家角色的变化改变了散文的面貌'''<br />
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我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年之间，是清王朝覆灭和中华民国建立后的短短几年。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十出头。他们年龄相仿，处于相同的历史和文化氛围下，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的方式参与战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Yang Shuo[ 1913-1968, orig. Yang Shujin(?), of Penglai County in Shandong.] is probably the most ”standard” of the three from the point of view of the Communist Party in that he went to Yan’an early (winter 1937) and worked under the direction of the party’s cultural apparatus for the duration of the war there, in the northwest, and in Guangzhou. Like the reportage writer Huang Gang, he was of the right age for this Yan’an-based period to be his principal formative and educational experience, deeply conditioning his approach and attitude toward writing in the 1950s and 1960s. That being said, Yang Shuo was more concerned with issues of literary quality and symbolic meaning than others writing under the direction of the CP, and this concern colored even his most famous works with puzzling tones of ambivalence and reservation.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Liu Baiyu[ 1916-?, orig. Liu Yuzan, of Beijing. See Niu Yunqing, Liu Baiyu pingzhuan (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 1995).] arrived in Yan’an relatively early too, and was quickly immersed in its literary activism. Only weeks after his arrival, and though Liu was only 22 at the time, Mao Zedong personally assigned him to lead a five-person escort for the American marine observer Evans Carson to visit the guerilla areas in Northern China (one of a variety of types of ”cultural worker” assignments in the communist base areas). Despite this promising start and occasional contact with Mao, Liu published works that incurred the wrath of some critics and officials, became a target in the Yan’an zhengfeng campaign after Mao’s Talks, and underwent a process of mutual and self-criticism at the Central Party School.<br />
刘柏宇[1916-?, 源自. 刘玉赞，北京. 参见牛云清, 刘柏宇 平专（重庆：重庆出版社，1995).]抵达延安也很早，并很快就投入到了当地的文学活动中去。在他抵达数周后，尽管刘当时才22岁，毛泽东亲自派他带领一个五人护卫队，并陪同美国海军观察员埃文斯·卡森参观中国北部的游击地区（一个派遣各种类型“文化工作者”的共产党基地）。尽管开了一个充满前景的好头以及偶尔会与毛主席接触，刘出版的作品还是引起了某些批评家和政府工作人员的不满，因此，他在毛泽东讲话后成了延安正风运动的目标，并在中央党校进行了互相批评以及自我批评的过程。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Though the result of this painful process was apparently ”successful” (Liu went on to hold important cultural administrative positions in the PRC), it also alienated him from certain elements in the literary community and led him to take an aggressively authoritarian role as the Party secretary of the Writers’ Assocation during the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957 and 58. This alienation is occasionally revealed in his sanwen works from that point on.<br />
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Qin Mu[ 1919-199?, orig. Lin Juefu, b. Singapore, of Chenghai County in Guangdong. See Huang Zhuocai, Weng Guangyu and Ai Zhiping, Qin Mu pingzhuan (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1989).] is one more step removed because he did not share the Yan’an experience with Yang and Liu. Though he was active in the literary resistance during the war against Japan, and though his biographers insist that he originally planned to go to Yan’an as early as 1938, he never went there (Huang, Weng and Ai, 1989, 26-27).<br />
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尽管这一痛苦过程的结果显然是“成功的”（刘在中国继续担任重要的文化行政职务），但这也使他脱离了文学界的某些因素，并导致他在1957年和58年的反右运动期间担任作家协会党委书记— 一个积极的威权主义角色。从那时起，这种疏离在他的散文作品中偶尔会有所体现。<br />
秦牧[1919-199 ?，原件。林觉夫，b。新加坡，广东省澄海县。参见黄卓才，翁光裕和艾志平，秦木平专（广州：华城出版社，1989）.] 由于他没有与杨，刘分享延安经验，他又前进了一步。尽管他在抗日战争期间积极从事文学抗争，尽管他的传记作者坚称他最初计划最早在1938年去延安，但他从未去过那里（黄，翁和艾，1989，26-27 ）。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:23, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Because he did belong to the age cohort and had the same basic inclinations, he did come into contact with the same organizations (the Communist Party, Wenxie) that the others did, and indeed could even have met Yang Shuo in Canton when Yang was sent there on assignment in 1938. He also engaged in similar types of literary intervention, organizing and performing traveling anti-Japanese theater in the countryside, accompanying troops in the field as a writer, and publishing anti-Japanese and anti-KMT/US zawen in Rear or KMT area newspapers. But his experience during the war was not a community experience: Qin at first alone and later with his wife underwent the trials and tribulations of a writer at wartime as an individual, making his own decisions and contacting organizations only when the opportunity presented itself and he wished to do so.<br />
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因为他确实属于同龄人并且具有相同的基本倾向，他也确实和其他人一样和同一个组织如共产党，文协有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日及反抗国民党或美国的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。<br />
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因为他与别人年纪相仿， 基本倾向相同，也都与共产党，文协等组织有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日，反抗国民党或抗美的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Thus there is an especially independent streak about him that made relations between him and the Writer’s Association after 1949 somewhat strained. He was attacked in the 1957 zhengfeng movement, and it was not until 1962 that he joined the Communist Party.<br />
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Thus each of these writers exhibited different tensions as they approached writing after 1949, and particularly during and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign. All of them, however, adopted sanwen as a vehicle to express themselves, and while these essays at time seem on the surface to be pat or fulsome propaganda.<br />
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因此，他有一种特别独立的特质，这一特质使得他在1949年后与作家协会的关系有些紧张。他在1957年的正风运动中遭到攻击，且直到1962年才加入共产党。<br />
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因此，1949年后，尤其是百花运动期间和百花运动之后，每一位作家在接触到写作时都会表现出不同程度的紧张。然而,他们都以散文为载体来表达自己,尽管有时这些文章似乎表面上是适度的或过度的宣传。<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Procedures and interests of socialist essays'''<br />
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The sanwen of the late 1950s and early 1960s, because of a variety of different such personal and larger cultural tensions, manifest various kinds of ”incongruous lyricism.” All three of these writers had their essays included in textbooks for junior high school and high school during the 1960s and 70s. But these canonic texts represented only the completion of a gradual process of adjustment and must be viewed alongside earlier, less well-known efforts by these authors as well as their works in other genres, particularly fiction.<br />
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社会散文的发展阶段和关注点<br />
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由于不同的个人冲突和更严重的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样“不和谐的抒情性”。这三位作家的散文均已收录进20世纪六七十年代的中学教材中。这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来看待那些经典文本。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于各种各样的个人冲突乃至文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出多样的“不和谐的抒情性”。在20世纪六七十年代的中学和高中教材中，这三位作家的散文均编撰进了课本。然而这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来分析那些经典文本。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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社会散文的发展和关注点<br />
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由于各种个人冲突和愈发剧烈的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样的“不和谐的抒情性”。20世纪六七十年代，这三位作家的三位都被收录进中学教材中。而这些经典文本仅代表调整工作的逐步完成，要正确的看待这些经典文本，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
'''Friction with leftist aesthetics'''<br />
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In the late 1950s and early 1960s the term sanwen was more frequently associated with ”lyricism” (shuqing) and opposed to ”expository” (shuoli) prose essays. In practice, this is indicated by long descriptive passages, the frequent use of direct address to the reader in the second person as well as rhetorically loaded interrogative, imperative and expressive particles. At particularly rhapsodic moments, socialist sanwen texts take on a fu-like rhetoric, syntactic parallelism and a piling up of listed concrete objects and rich varieties of adverbs and adjectives. One is attempted to associate this attempt at of verbal profusion with certain Republican period stylists like Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo, but the socialist version is much more extravagant both in verbiage and emotional exhibitionism.<br />
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与左派美学的摩擦<br />
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在20世纪50年代末和60年代初，“散文”一词更多地与“抒情性”(抒情)联系在一起，而非“说理性”(说理)。在实践中，这表现在冗长的描述性段落，经常使用第二人称直接称呼读者，以及修辞性的疑问句、祈使句和表达性助词。在狂热表达的时候，社会主义性散文呈现出一种赋式的修辞、句法上的排比，具象堆砌以及华丽的词藻。有人试着将这种语言丰富的尝试与朱自清和俞平伯等某些民国时期风格明显的散文家联系起来，但社会主义性散文在语言和情感显露方面更加丰富。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:31, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
On the level of imagery, a general fascination with images of light, fire and torches left over from the war period[ Particularly evident in Liu Baiyu’s reportage works from the late 1940s.] remains but in part gives way to a new interest in flower imagery in the 1950s.[ Qin Mu’s essays and some of Yang Shuo’s are filled with varieties of flowers and plants, enjoyed in themselves and as symbols of other things. ] Finally a strategy common to all three writers is to conceive of a vista or an experience as a living landscape painting, emphasizing a magnitude of vision and the accompanying emotional exhilaration. In some cases, these highly visual essays are accompanied with illustrations uncannily consistent with the texts’ visualization of the landscape.<br />
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从意象层面来看，人们对战争时期遗留下来的光，火及火把等意象十分着迷的现象仍然存在（在刘白羽1940年代后期的报道文学作品中尤为显著），不过到1950年代后兴趣点开始转向于花卉意象。（秦牧的散文作品以及杨朔的部分作品中充满花卉植物等意象，这些意象自成一体，同时具有象征之意）。最后，三位作家的共同策略是将远景或某种经验想象成为一副写生风景画，强调视觉的重要性及随之而来的欣喜和振奋之情。在某些情况下，这些充满视觉冲击的文章配有插图，而插图与充满视觉化风景的文章之间出奇地吻合。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 06:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
'''Yang Shuo'''<br />
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Yang Shuo’s 1959 essay ”The Highest Peak of Taishan”[ Taishan jiding, wr. 1959, from Haishi. Yang, 125-129.] features this kind of overt reference to landscape painting. The text simply narrates the author’s ascent of the famous Shandong mountain, but the narrative structure of the climb is interwoven with a figurative structure consisting of three elements. The first is the traditional landscape painting motif: ”All the way from the foothills, looking closely at the mountain landscape, I felt like what was before me was not the lord of the Five Famous Mountains, but more like a green and blue landscape painting of astounding size,” (Yang, 125) an idea he develops as a conceit with figurative descriptive language. Second, Yang writes ”after a while, I began to feel that I was not only looking at a landscape painting, but randomly flipping through a historical manuscript.” (Yang, 126)<br />
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'''杨朔'''<br />
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杨朔于1959年创作的散文《泰山极顶》[《泰山极顶》创作于1959年，选自《海市》。 杨，125-129。]就是这种对山水画的公开引用。 文字只是讲述了作者在著名的山东山峰上的登顶，但攀登的叙事结构与由三个要素组成的形象结构交织在一起。 第一个是传统的山水画主题：“一路上从山脚往上爬，细看山景，我觉得挂在眼前的不是五岳独尊的泰山，却像一幅规模惊人的青绿山水画。”（Yang，125）。他将这种想法发展为一种比喻性的描述性语言。然后杨写道：“一时间，我又觉得自己不仅是在看画卷，却又象是在零零乱乱翻着一卷历史稿本。” （杨，126）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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杨朔于1959年创作的散文《泰山极顶》[《泰山极顶》创作于1959年，选自《海市》。 杨，125-129。]就是大谈山水画的典范。 虽然文章只是讲述了作者登顶著名的泰山的过程，但攀登的叙事结构与由三个要素组成的比喻结构交相辉映。 第一个是传统的山水画主题：“一路上从山脚往上爬，细看山景，我觉得挂在眼前的不是五岳独尊的泰山，却像一幅规模惊人的青绿山水画。”（Yang，125）。他将这种想法发展为一种富有形象和描述性语言的巧妙构思。第二个要素：杨写道“一时间，我又觉得自己不仅是在看画卷，却又象是在零零乱乱翻着一卷历史稿本。” （杨，126）--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:02, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This in reference to the calligraphy of famous visitors to the mountain carved into its sides and the legends and stories about them. The third and last layer of figuration is the sense that the author is not climbing a mountain, but climbing into the sky.<br />
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The touristy desire to see the sunrise from Taishan’s peak introduced at the essay’s outset and which teases the reader occasionally throughout the text is deftly frustrated in the rhetorical pursuit of what to the author is a higher aim: the recontainment of a Taishan travelogue into the extolling of the historical achievements of socialism. Once he has passed through the Southern Gate of Heaven, the author sees the Shandong landscape spread out at his feet, but what he notices are the grand commune wheat fields (amber waves of grain) as opposed to patchwork agricultural quilt of yore, and smoky plumes in the distance are not scattered homes but factories.<br />
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这指的是著名游客在山上刻的书法以及他们的传说和故事。该比喻的第三层，也是最后一层指的意象不是作者在爬山，而是在攀向天空。 <br />
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文章一开始就介绍了游客想从泰山山顶看日出的期望，这种期望偶尔会在整篇文章中戏弄读者，但在追求对作者来说是更高的目标的过程中，这种期望被巧妙地挫败了，即将泰山游记重新纳入那些值得赞美的社会主义历史成就中。一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到在他脚下绵延的山东风景，但他注意到的不是往昔像被子一样拼凑的田块，而是壮观的公社麦田(琥珀色的谷浪)，远处像羽毛般的迷雾也不是分散的家庭，而是工厂。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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山的两侧雕刻了著名游客的书法，这里参考了他们的书法，以及他们的传奇故事。第三层比喻，也是最后一层比喻，意不在于作者爬山，而是在于攀登高空。<br />
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文章一开始就介绍：游客想从泰山顶观赏日出，然而在整篇文章中，作者为了追求更高目标：将泰山游记重塑为对社会主义历史成就的颂扬，灵活使用修辞，有时会逗弄读者，让读者受挫。游客一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到整个山东省的美景在他脚下，但是作者却把注意力放在宽阔的公社麦田（琥珀色的麦浪），麦田对面是一块块农田，还有从远处飘散的羽毛似的迷雾，这迷雾不是从飘出来的，而是从工厂里出来的。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Though the weather had been clear at night near the peak when the party went to bed early in order to get up in time for the sunrise, fog and rain overnight linger to create an overcast sky at dawn. But author’s socialist/communist landscape epiphany of the previous evening eclipses the banal tourist wish for a beautiful sunrise – he has seen ”another kind of” (metaphysical) sunrise, that of the Chinese people/nation on the horizon.<br />
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In his essay about Kunming’s camellias,[ ”Chahua fu” (Ode to the Camellia) written 1961, from Dongfeng di yi zhi. Yang 134-37.] Yang Shuo opens with a discussion with an artist friend about what kind of painting would show the face of the ”motherland” (zuguo). He then turns to his trip to Kunming after returning from travels abroad.<br />
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为了（第二天）能按时起来看日出，游客们很早就上床睡觉了，夜晚在靠近顶峰的地方，天气很是晴朗，但是在黎明时分，一夜之间水雾缭绕，天空乌云密布 。但作者前一天晚上对的社会主义/共产主义景观的顿悟，使平庸的游客对期望看到美丽日出的愿望黯然失色--他看到了地平线上的中国人/民族的“另一种”（形而上的）日出。<br />
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在他关于昆明的山茶花的文章中，[《茶花赋》写于1961年，摘自《东风第一枝》. 杨134-37] 杨朔开篇就写道与一位画家朋友讨论什么样的画能展示 "祖国"的面貌。 接着，他转而谈到从国外旅行回来后的昆明之行。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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顶峰附近晚上的天气已经晴朗，为了第二天能够早起赶上日出，这时聚会早早就结束了。雨雾逗留一整夜，黎明时变得灰蒙蒙的。但是作者前一天傍晚的社会主义/共产主义景观顿悟掩盖了普通游客对美丽日出的渴望，他看到了“另一种”（抽象的）日出，即地平线上的中国人/民族的日出。<br />
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杨朔写关于昆明插茶花的散文时 [《茶花赋》出自《东风第一枝》杨朔134-37]，他先与一位艺术家朋友讨论哪种描绘可以展现“祖国”的面貌。之后，他谈论了从国外旅行回来后的昆明之行。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:36, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
Especially as a ”northerner” he is struck by the beauty of the red camellia flowers around the city and in Huating Temple, where he is escorted by Jin Zhiwen, the landscaper. His attention is drawn to one variety called ”Child’s Face” tongmian. As is almost invariably the case in Yang Shuo essays, the subject he has chosen becomes an opportunity for the author to contemplate the symbolic resonances of its characteristics – in this case the camellia’s sensitivity to proper care, environment and natural enemies, but also the fact that great trees centuries old have been carefully cultivated with hundreds and even thousands of blossoms. A detailed description of the gardener himself provides the author with the key to the signified:<br />
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特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内美丽的山茶花迷住了，在那里，景观设计师金志文护送着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。对园丁本人详尽描述也是作者了解其重要意义的关键。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:48, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被遍布在这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内的美丽山茶花迷住了，这一路有该市景观设计师金志文陪同着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。园丁本人的详尽描述也是作者了解所指之物的关键。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:58, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
I fervently gazed at his hands, hands covered with mud-stained calluses. Then I looked at his face, the wrinkles at the corners of his eyes were cut deep, and it was not necessary to ask about his background: I could guess that he was a middle aged man who had been through a lot. If he waled away from you and into the crowd, he would vanish immediately and it would be very hard to find him again – he was just that kind of very ordinary laborer. But it is just this kind of person, month after month, year after year, exerting mind and body, cultivating flowers and plants with all his effort, beautifying our lives. This is how beauty is created. (Yang, 136)<br />
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我热切地注视着他的双手，那双手满是带泥的茧子。然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹已经很深了。我没有必要再追问他的背景，因为我可以猜出他是一个饱受风霜的中年男人。如果他现在转身离开钻进人群里，他会很快消失在人海中，要再找到他就很难了——他就是这样一个十分普通的劳动者。但是正是这样普通的劳动者日复一日，年复一年的辛勤劳作，用身心浇灌花朵和树木，美化我们的生活。美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:02, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我热切地注视着他的手，那双手布满了沾满泥土的老茧。 然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹很深。不用问他的背景， 我可以猜到他是一个饱经沧桑的中年男人。 如果他从你身边晃晃悠悠地走到人群中，他就会立刻消失在人海中，再想找到他就很难了--他就是那种很普通的劳动者。 但就是这样一个人，月复一月，年复一年，耗费着身心，用他的全部心血培育着花草，美化着我们的生活。 美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
When author observes a group of schoolchildren who have come to see the camellias, the bond is cemented and the ”paint the face of the nation” riddle is solved – paint the Child Face Camelia.<br />
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What is incongruous in Yang Shuo’s lyricism, in many other examples in addition to these, is that no matter how transparent the symbolism and fervent the message of his essay, there is almost always slight ambivalence introduced by negative elements at the fringes: why does the glorification of socialist progress in ”Taishan’s Highest Peak” have to come at the expense of the famous sunrise? What has Jin Zhiren ”been through” that has deepened his wrinkles, and why should that pain be related to the creation of beauty?<br />
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当作者观察到一群来观赏山茶花的小学生时，山茶花和孩童们之间的联系就建立了，“怎样画出祖国的面貌特色”这个谜题也就解开了——画童子面茶花。<br />
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在杨朔的抒情诗中，除了这些例子外，还有许多不协调之处，就是无论他的文章的象征意义多么明显，感情多么热烈，几乎总是在负面因素的带动下产生矛盾：为什么在“泰山最高峰”上颂扬社会主义进步，却要以壮观的日出为代价？普之仁“经历”了什么，使他的皱纹加深了？为什么这种痛苦与创造美感有关？--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 05:41, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
'''Liu Baiyu'''<br />
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Liu Baiyu’s transition toward sanwen in the PRC came from the direction of reportage literature. Liu had established some reputation as a novelist on the literary scene through key connections he had made with Ba Jin, Zhang Tianyi, Ye Yiqun and other major figures in the 1930s. But by 1949 it was his reportage collections, including Around the Northeast, The Light Shines Down on Shenyang, Cutting across the Central Plains, and The Torches Glow Red in the Yangtse River that were some of the best known works by a communist writer during the civil war in the late 1940s.<br />
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刘白羽在国内向三文的转型，来自于报告文学的方向。 刘白羽在30年代通过与巴金、张天翼、叶逸群等主要人物的关键联系，在文坛上建立了一定的小说家声誉。 但到了1949年，他的报告文学集《东北各地》、《光照沈阳》、《横切中原》、《火把在扬子江边发红》等，才是40年代末内战时期共产党作家最著名的作品。<br />
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<br />
'''刘白羽'''<br />
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刘白羽在国内向散文的转型，来自于报告文学的方向。 刘白羽在30年代通过与巴金、张天翼、叶逸群等主要人物的关键联系，在文坛上建立了一定的小说家声誉。 但到了1949年，他的报告文学集《东北各地》、《光照沈阳》、《横切中原》、《火把在扬子江边发红》等，才是40年代末内战时期共产党作家最著名的作品。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 04:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
The late 1950s text ”Lamplight” revisits the experience of the battlefield in a much more peaceful China. ”Lamplight” has a forceful, shrill rhetoric in its development of the image of glowing light through a number of different contexts, from war to socialist economic construction without losing the sense of militant struggle that informed the image of light for Liu from the beginning. [”Denghuo” (Lamplight), Liu Baiyu, Hong manao ji (Red agate) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1983) 5-11. ] Evidently Liu, though he holds influential positions in the literary establishment of the time, feels alienated by certain elements on the literary scene, particularly in regard to the stigmatization of the experience of the battlefield:<br />
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20世纪50年代末的中国岁月静好，现世安稳；而彼时《灯火》的诞生则带我们重回马革裹尸的战场。《灯火》，以抗战时期到社会主义经济建设时期的不同发展阶段为背景，通过强有力的、入木三分的修辞手段，刻画了灯火的形象，将刘白羽最初想要透过灯火告诉我们的激进斗争意识很好地嵌入其中。[《灯火》（Lamplight),刘白羽，《红玛瑙集》（Red agate)(北京：文化艺术出版社，1983）5-11.]显而易见，刘白羽虽然在当时的文学界影响力颇大，但他仍与文学界的某些观点格格不入，特别是在对战场的污名化方面：--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪50年代末的中国岁月静好，现世安稳；而彼时《灯火》的诞生则带我们重回战场。《灯火》以抗战时期到社会主义经济建设时期的不同阶段为背景，通过有力的、入木三分的修辞手段，刻画了灯火的形象，将刘白羽最初想要透过灯火告诉我们的激进斗争意识很好地嵌入其中。[《灯火》（Lamplight),刘白羽，《红玛瑙集》（Red agate)(北京：文化艺术出版社，1983）5-11.] 显而易见，刘白羽虽然在当时的文学界影响颇大，但仍与文学界的某些观点格格不入，特别是在战场的污名化方面：--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 05:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
. . . nowadays some people treat the subject of war, regardless of right or wrong, regardless of green red black or white always make it look bloody, dark and horrible! They call this ”through the soldier’s eyes,” ”foxhole realism” Hai! This makes those of us who have strapped puttees on our calves and have had the smell of gunpowder about the shoulders want to laugh our heads off. What can you do? There are brave soldiers who fight for what’s right; there are counter-revolutionary murderers; and there are cowardly traitors. Since there are different kinds of soldiers, there have to be different soldier points of view, and there must be different kinds of ”foxhole reality.” Perhaps there are those who would criticize me: how did I get from lamplight to this argument about war, aren’t I getting way off track? Actually, no. The lamplight I am talking about may be a small matter, but it really is a reality of life at war. Getting back to the subject, on the chill wilderness of the Songhua river, trudging through winter snows, wading through summer rapids, from lamplight I was able to understand a certain kind of warmth. (Liu, 7-8)<br />
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...现如今，有些人对待战争话题上，无论对错，不分黑白，总把它们弄得血腥，黑暗又恐怖！他们称之为“通过士兵的眼睛”，“现实主义散兵坑”！这让我们那些腿上绑着绑腿，肩上扛着火药捧腹大笑。你可以做些什么？有勇敢的士兵为正义而战；有反革命的凶手；并且有懦弱的叛国贼。有不同种类的战士就应该有不同种的观点，还得要有不同种类的“现实主义散兵坑”。也许有些人会批评我：我怎么能从那些明亮的地方得出这些关于战争的言论，那我不是跑题了吗？其实上并没有。我在说的点也许是个小问题，但这确实映射出的是战争中实际生活。回到主题，在松花江寒冷的荒野上，穿越冬日的雪地，穿越夏日的急流，从光照下，我能够体会到某种温暖。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:30, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
"The Brilliance of Spring,"[”Qingchun de shanguang,” written 1959, in Hong manao ji, 23-33.] a lengthy, fu-like essay extolling ten years of socialism in China, manifests many of the distinguishing characteristics of Liu’s post-1949 sanwen. Though written in the wake of the Anti-Rightist Campaign, it casts no shadow on the essay and though there is flower imagery, significantly, it does not emphasize diversity (as in ”hundred flowers”). At about 6,000 characters, it is also much longer than most of Yang Shuo’s essays, which are usually about half that long, particularly those most revered and anthologized. ”The Brilliance of Spring” does not start out with a clearly-defined topic; the occasion or motivation of its composition did not become obvious to me until near the end.<br />
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"春光灿烂"（又名《青春的闪光》，写于1959年，载自《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。）这是一篇颂扬中国十年来社会主义发展的长篇巨作，表现了1949年后其散文的显著特点。即使写于反右运动之后，但其并未受其影响，虽然辞藻华丽，但并未没有强调多样性（如 "百花齐放"）。文章字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在3000字左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 "春光灿烂 "一开始并没有明确的主题，制造结尾我才明白它的创作场合和动机。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"春天的辉煌"，[《庆春德山岗》，写于1959年，载《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。]这是一篇颂扬中国社会主义十年的长篇文章，表现了刘勰1949年后散文的许多显著特点。 虽然写于反右运动之后，但没有给文章蒙上阴影，虽然有花的意象，但显著的是，它没有强调多样性（如 "百花"）。 它的字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在一半左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 "春光灿烂 "一开始并没有明确的主题，它的创作场合或动机直到接近尾声时我才明白。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:23, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
The visualization with which the text begins juxtaposes a dawn construction scene complete with a handsome, rugged construction worker in Tian’anmen square with author’s memories of other occasions when he was ”right here, in this spot!” including most significantly, a vision of a Japanese tank rolling up from Qianmen, its treads gouging scars in the ground. Liu also includes memories of the entry of the People’s Liberation Army into Beijing, and the ceremony at which Mao Zedong officially established the People’s Republic, but the author moves from one impression-layer to the next vaguely and ambiguously, punctuated with the refrain ”Here! It was right here!”<br />
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这篇文章以视觉化形式开始，黎明时分，建筑工地上有一个帅气但是衣服破烂的建筑工人在天安门，伴随着作者其他场景的记忆，当他就在“那里，那个位置！”其中就一个很重要的回忆是，一个日本坦克从乾门进入，经过断层泥的地板。刘白羽还有些记忆是关于人民解放军回北京，和毛泽东宣布中国人民共和国成立大典的开幕式，但是作者仅是从一个印象层模糊的转到下一个，吃力的说：“那儿，就在那。”--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:18, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这篇文章以视觉化形式呈现，黎明时分，天安门广场的建筑工地上有长相帅气但是衣服褴褛的工人，作者还想起其他场景，当他就在“那里，那个位置！” 其中就一个很重要的一段记忆就是，一个日本坦克从乾门进入，经过断层泥的地板。刘白羽还有人民解放军回北京和毛泽东宣布中国人民共和国成立大典的开幕式的记忆。但是作者仅是从一个印象层模糊的转到下一个，吃力的说：“那儿，就在那。”--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 01:51, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
Liu makes a conspicuous gesture away from the scene of Tian’anmen to other significant spaces including oilfields in the Western deserts, a poignant scene of a mother sending her son off to the Korean war, Anshan the ”city of steel,” a humble Party meeting among lumberjacks taking place in a shack deep in the forest far from Beijing, and other sites of significant material and spiritual progress in the PRC. As the essay progresses, a new motif is picked up from the contemporary Tian’anmen scene and repeated with increasing frequency: the ”radiant red face and brilliant eyes” of the young socialist citizens whose verbal pictures Liu paints. There is much hyperbole and the extraordinary breadth of subject matter, convering ten years of socialist achievement packaged in spatial-visual tableaux, like a memorial display case or monument, which was the usual strategy of essays and reportage about the Korean War.<br />
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刘白羽很明显地从天安门这一场景转向其他的景色描写，包括西部沙漠的油田，一个母亲送别儿子去参加朝鲜战争的辛酸场景，“钢都”鞍山，远离北京的深山密林中召开的一次党员会议以及其他的中国的重要的物质遗迹以及以及精神进步。随着文章的不断推进，一个新的主题从当代天安门的场景中产生，并以越来越高的频率重复着。在刘白羽的描述中，年轻的社会主义公民“红光满面，双眼炯炯有神”的口头画面。夸张的成分越多，题材的广度就非同一般，将十年的社会主义成就用空间和视觉的表象来包装起来，就像纪念展柜或纪念碑一样，这是有关朝鲜战争的文章和报道的惯用策略。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 10:52, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Despite the desire to come into close contact with the masses through genuine experiences, it was more common for writers to come into contact with workers, peasants and soldiers through the organizational activities and connections of the Communist Party. In Liu Baiyu’s essays from the 1950s and 60s, you can feel the author incongruously straining to make the most of his experience (straining to maximize its feeling of authenticity) and the characters he describes.[ ”Xie zai taiyang chu sheng de shihou” (Written as the Sun Begins to Rise), Hong manao ji 34-52 [written 1959?]. ] On the level of subject matter, since the (model) workers etc. he writes about are models and leaders, already part of the (embodiments of the) local Communist Party administrative apparatus, they too are straining to give the correct impression, put the right spin on their experiences and ideas, to behave in the way expected of them.<br />
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尽管渴望通过真实的体验来密切联系群众，但作家更多的是通过共产党的组织活动和联系来接触工农兵。 读刘白羽在上个世纪五六十年代创作的文章中，你可以感觉到他为了使自身的经历（努力使其真实感最大化）和他所描述的人物发挥最大作用所做的努力是不太协调的。(《写在太阳初升的时候》，Hong manao ji 34-52 [写于1959年？]) 在主体层面上，由于他所写的（模范）工人等都是模范和领袖，已经是（体现）地方共产党行政机关的一部分，他们也在努力给人以正确的印象，把自己的经验和思想正确地表达出来，按照人们所期望的方式去做。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 15:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
'''Qin Mu'''<br />
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Qin Mu’s case might be distinguishable from the others by virtue of the fact that he established himself as a satirical (zawen) columnist during the civil war, and of course satire in general had to go after 1949.[ Interestingly, Qin Mu continued to write zawen in the 1950s and beyond, publishing a very popular collection in 1960 entitled Yihai shibei (Gathering Shells by the Sea of Art). By then Qin’s zawen were not combative, but expository in nature, reflections on principles of artistic creation, so in a way Qin had redefined the zawen genre for himself. The sanwen collection Hua cheng was published at roughly the same time as Yihai shibei and was distinguished by the author himself as ”more lyrical” than the ”expository” pieces in Yihai shibei. Comparing the essays therein with those of Hua cheng, one is struck by formal differences (the Yihai shibei pieces are much shorter than those in Hua cheng) and by the almost complete lack of figurative or descriptive language in Yihai shibei. However difficult it might be for us to define the differences between zawen and sanwen now, it seems clear that Qin Mu had a clear idea in his own literary practice.] Fortunately he had been accustomed to making fun of Americans and the Guomindang which continued to be safe and politically correct targets in the 1950s, but he had to find positive things to write about as well, and considering his background and the ambiguity of his relationship with the Communist Party, this must have been a difficult transition for him, more difficult than it was for those who were already linked up with the party for years in Yan’an and other base areas.<br />
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秦牧的情况可能与其他人有所区别，因为他在内战期间确立了自己的讽刺专栏作家的地位，当然讽刺一般都要在1949年以后才开始。[有趣的是，秦牧在1950年代及以后继续写杂文，1960年出版了一本很受欢迎的诗集，名为《逸海市北》（艺术之海收集贝壳）。此时的秦杂文不是好斗的，而是本质上的说明文，是对艺术创作原则的反思，在某种程度上，秦对杂文体裁进行了重新定义。三文集《华城》与《逸海市北》大致同一时间出版，作者认为《华城集》比《逸海市北》中的“说明文”作品“更抒情”。与《华城》的散文相比，形式上的差异（亦海市北比《华城》短得多）以及《沂海市北》几乎完全没有比喻或描写的语言。不管现在如何界定扎文和三文之间的区别有多困难，秦穆在自己的文学实践中似乎有一个清晰的想法。]幸运的是，他习惯于取笑美国人和20世纪50年代仍然是安全和政治正确目标的国民党，但他必须找到积极的一面写的东西也要写，考虑到他的背景并且与共产党交好，这对他来说一定是一个艰难的过渡，比那些在延安等根据地已经与党联系多年的人来说，难度更大。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In his 1960 essay ”Earth,” (Tudi), Qin Mu makes a figurative connection between earth how handfuls of earth can serve as symbols of wealth, power, sovereignty, political positions. Part of the visualization involves (like Liu Baiyu) aerial views. As war with its arial reconnaisance and bombing transformed the concept of China’s space into a contiguous whole rather than a network of locales, the wider availability of air travel in the 1950s added a visual dimension to this contiguity that reinforces the connection between earth, China’s physical expance, the map of China, and the concept of nation:<br />
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秦牧在他1960年发表的论文《地球》（土地）中，将地球上的少数几个人如何象征着财富，权力，主权，政治地位作为形象的联系。 可视化的一部分涉及（如刘白玉）鸟瞰图。 随着战争的轰炸和轰炸将中国空间的概念转变为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，1950年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了视觉上的意义，从而加强了地球与中国物质扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系 。<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:57, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在他1960年的文章《土地》中，秦牧把土地比喻成财富、权力、主权和政治地位的象征。部分可视化包括(如刘白玉)空中视图。随着战争的勘察和轰炸，中国的太空的概念转变成一个连续的整体,而不是一个地区的网络,航空旅行的更广泛的可用性在1950年代增加了一个视觉维度，强化了地球之间的联系,中国物质扩张,中国的地图,和国家的概念:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:11, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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秦牧在1960年的文章《地球》（Tudi）中，将地球如何撮合成财富、权力、主权、政治立场的象征做了形象化的联系。 部分视觉化涉及（像刘白羽一样）鸟瞰图。 由于战争的侦察和轰炸将中国的空间概念转化为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，20世纪50年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了一个视觉维度，加强了地球、中国的物理扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:47, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Once I gazed out an airplane window straight down upon the Pearl River delta; the heavens were crystal clear and I looked down and couldn’t help but cheer out loud because the Pearl River delta looked so magnificent that words couldn’t even describe it. The network of rivers and lakes shimmered in the sunlight while the earth looked like a piece of dark green velvet. The roads seemed as straight as if they had been sliced with a knife while the fields looked as neat as a chessboard. Wow! A hundred thousand years ago people looked to the skies for gods and miracles, but today the real miracle is taking place on the earth below.[ Qin Mu, Hua cheng (Guangzhou: Zuojia chubanshe, 1961) 17-18.]<br />
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一次，透过飞机窗外，我凝视着珠江三角洲：天空清澈见底，我低头一看，不禁大声欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲看起来壮观无比，简直无可言喻。河流和湖泊交织着在阳光下闪烁，而大地看起来像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路看起来笔直的像是用刀子划的一样，而田野看起来像棋盘一样整齐。哇！十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹发生在地下。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:51, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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有一次，我透过飞机的窗户凝视着珠江三角洲;天上一片清澈，我低头一看，不禁欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲是如此的壮丽，无法用语言来形容。河流和湖泊交织在阳光下闪闪发光，而大地看起来就像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路笔直得好似用刀划过一样，田野整齐得像棋盘一样。哇!十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹就发生在这片土地下。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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有一次，我透过飞机窗凝视珠江三角洲：天空万里无云、湛蓝如许。低头一看，我不禁欢呼起来！珠江三角洲实在太壮观了，简直妙不可言！河流和湖泊星罗棋布，在阳光下熠熠生辉；而大地看起来就像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路笔直得好似用刀刻画出来一般；田野块块分明，与棋盘别无二致。哇!十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神明和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹正发生在这片土地上。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:03, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Many of Qin Mu’s essays in the collection Hua cheng (City of Flowers) imaginatively recreate an (occasionally ancient) historical scene, in a specific place the essay focuses on that the author is observing today (or at least gives that impression) like Liu Baiyu’s ”right here on this spot” refrain. In his 1956 essay ”Lyric on the Altar of the God of Grain,” the earthen, square altar referred to in the title is in Zhongshan park in Beijing, and was where aristocrats were traditionally enfoeffed by the emperor.[ Qin, 21-31.] In many ways, this is a continuation of the previous essay (”Earth”), extending reflections on the material symbolism of earth and the glorious wisdom of the ancients.<br />
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在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再现了一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今仍能观察到的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，是传统上皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是对前一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:22, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再创造一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今正在观察的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，在古代是皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是上一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:42, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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This essay distinguishes itself by its relentless return to the altar itself, its self-conscious admiration of the brilliance of the ancients (with overtones of ethnic and cultural pride and reconciliation with the premodern culture of China) as well as a shrilly specific emphasis on unity as territorial sovereignty (”Once we liberate Taiwan and a few coastal islands, [our territorial] unity’s scope will be even more unprecedented.” 30)<br />
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Qin Mu is at his most characteristic, though, in writing educational essays (zhishi xiaopin). Also known as scientific xiaopin, the character of such writings would seem to be defined by their subject matter. [ Another writer of the post-Hundred Flowers period that writes a lot in this vein is Ma Nancun (Deng Tuo), whose popular Yanshan yehua column in Beijing Wanbao lasted for years and was published in four volumes in book form.] But I would like to suggest that the transmission of modern scientific knowledge in these texts is not an end in itself, but rather one answer to the question of ”what to write about?” in socialist sanwen. And it conveys (in addition to the knowledge or information), a certain scientistic, post-industrial atmosphere of enthusiasm that is a style as much as content.<br />
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这篇文章的与众不同之处在于，它不遗余力地回到祭坛本身，自觉地仰慕古人的辉煌(带有民族和文化自豪感以及与中国前现代文化结合的色彩)，且明确强调领土的主权统一。("一旦我们解放台湾和几个沿海岛屿，[我们的领土]统一的范围将更加空前绝后"。30)<br />
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秦牧最有特色的是教育随笔（知识小品），也被称为科学随笔，这种随笔的特点由其主题决定。[ 百花齐放·百家争鸣期后，另一位在这方面写作较多的作家是马南邨(邓拓)，他在北京晚报上的《燕山夜话》专栏持续多年撰写文章，并出版了四卷书。] 但我想说的是，在这些文字中传递现代科学知识本身并不是目的，而是对社会散文中 "写什么？"这个问题的一个回答。而且它传达的（除了知识或信息外）是某种科学的、后工业化的热情环境，它展示风格的同时，也表达了内容。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Qin Mu’s ”Xing xia” (Under the Stars, 1958)[ Qin, 49-60.] begins as a sweeping exploration of stars, moving from the universal experience of gazing at the skies and wondering about the questions of existence to the cultural perspectives of the beliefs and lore of the ancients and finally to the scientific perspective of the astronomical knowledge gathered in recent centuries, decades and years that confirm the author’s faith in science and industrial modernity. The scientific knowledge in fact becomes a context or background against which to look back with some disdain at the superstitious quality of premodern beliefs, not only about the structure of the cosmos, but the extensions of such speculation into areas of human destiny and supernatural beliefs.<br />
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秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式开始，从凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，到古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式作为开端，然后写到凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，又至古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Reading this essay one can see that one of the keys to Qin Mu’s popularity lay not in his conspicuously Marxist-Leninist politics, but in his sweeping, timeless, universal and seemingly all-inclusive scope of vision and contemplation. Many or most of his essays give an exhilarating sense of vastness.<br />
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But this essay does not reach its completion without being recontained, as are Yang Shuo’s landscape meditations, in a political context. Written in the early years of Soviet space exploration, it seems obvious to Qin Mu that Soviet success in this area and the US’s failure is a clear sign of the direction of history. He argues with almost excessive rhetorical force that the failure of space exploration and science in general under capitalism signifies the inability of the capitalist world view to free itself from outmoded beliefs, while socialism is easily and innocently aligned with scientific achievement and progress.<br />
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通过阅读这篇文章，我们不难发现秦牧的大受欢迎不是因为他显而易见的马克思列宁主义，而是其影响广泛的、永不过时的、普遍适用的以及几乎包罗万象的视野和深思。秦牧的许多或大部分文章都有种令人兴奋的广博感。<br />
政治语境下，这篇文章如杨朔的《山水沉思录》一样，在重构的情况下才于苏联太空探索的早年间写就。在秦牧看来，这一领域中苏联的成功与美国的失败是历史的清晰指示。他以几乎过火的言辞声明，资本主义在太空探索以及一般科学的失败意味着资本主义世界观无法摆脱过时的信念，而社会主义则是容易且自然地与科学成果和进步结合在一起的。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 04:51, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Qin Mu’s often shrill diatribes on historical materialism and Marxism-Leninism in educational essays (zhishi xiaopin) like this one, or about the history of overseas Chinese or the cosmic theories of warring states philosophers is an incongruous, inverted reflection of Qin’s perennial status as an outsider to the PRC socialist literary orthodoxy, being victimized by literary officials like Liu Baiyu in the anti-rightist campaign and only being admitted to the Communist Party in 1962. It is in his attempts to contain an ambitious gaze that can encompass human and natural history and the furthest reaches of space in a historicized polemic about the supremacy of Marxism-Leninism in the post war years that the incongruity of Qin Mu’s lyricism manifests itself.<br />
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秦牧经常在教育论文中这样尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义(知识小品文)，或海外华人史或战国哲学家的宇宙理论，认为这是一个不协调的，颠倒的反映。秦牧作为中国社会主义中正统的局外人，在反右运动中遭到刘白宇这样的文学官员迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。他试图以一个包罗万象的视角，用抒情的方式表达对战后马克思主义主导地位的辩驳。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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秦牧在这样的教育论文（知识小品）中，经常尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义，或是关于华侨历史或战国哲人的宇宙理论，认为这些是不协调的。秦牧作为中国社会主义文学正统派的局外人，在反右运动中受到刘白羽等文学官员的迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。正是在他试图在一场关于战后马列主义至高无上的历史化论战中，包含一种能够涵盖人类历史和自然历史以及最遥远的空间的雄心勃勃的目光，秦牧抒情诗的不协调性才得以体现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
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The question of whether the ”real” world corresponds to the world these authors describe and narrate is moot; through the act of seeing or imagining the world as they do, they helped create the socialist world. These authors did not slavishly obey orders, writing from formulae they were provided by superiors and other writers; they willingly engaged in the procedures of research and composition that were part and parcel of communist education and literary practice; what they wrote followed from their training, it was the logical and organic extension of that training. They helped write the socialist world into existence.<br />
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'''结论'''<br />
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"真实"世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是无意义的；通过观察或者想象这个世界，他们帮助创造了社会主义世界。这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的公式写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。作者们所写的是训练之后的结果，是训练的逻辑和有机的延伸。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界。<br />
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"真实"世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是没有意义的；通过向他们一样去观察或者想象这个世界，他们就帮助创造了社会主义世界，这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的模板进行写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界，他们帮助把社会主义世界写成了现实。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
Slavoj Zizek’s interpretation of Pascal that belief can actually emerge from deliberately going through the motions of ritual and imitating the faithful, and Zizek’s further point that ”reality” in any society is produced by ideological fantasies peculiar to it, suggest a similar interpretation of socialist sanwen.[ Slavoj Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (London: Verso, 1989) 38-43.] Going through the ritual motions of faith, the individual already believes without realizing it, he argues, and then it is only a matter of time before that belief gradually takes control of the conscious mind. But within that ideological fantasy that is the representation of social reality, there are at the fringes and in the shadows suggestions of the impossibility of the vision. What I have referred to as the ”incongruous” in Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu are those almost unconscious suggestions tainting the pristine vision.<br />
<br />
斯拉沃伊·齐泽克对帕斯卡的解释是，信仰实际上可以从刻意通过仪式和对信徒的模仿中产生，齐泽克进一步指出，任何社会中的“现实”都是由它特有的意识形态幻想产生的，这暗示了对社会主义散文的类似解释。[斯拉瓦伊·齐泽克，《崇高的意识形态》(伦敦:Verso, 1989) 38-43]他认为，通过信仰的仪式活动，个体已经在没有意识到的情况下相信了它，而这种信仰对于意识的控制只是时间问题。但是在意识形态的幻想中，社会现实代表在边缘和阴影中暗示着这种幻想的不可能性。我所说的杨烁、刘白羽和秦木作品中的“不协调”，是指那些几乎无意识的玷污了原始视觉的暗示。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 15:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Reading literature from the first seventeen years of the People’s Republic of China requires as much attention to practices within the socialist orthodoxy as to dissidents and victims. Against the prevalent view that socialist literary culture in China was a self-contained system introduced from the Soviet Union as if into a vacuum, socialist sanwen speaks to the mutability of that literary culture and the voice of individual writers in its development, however much sanwen may have been used for propaganda and indoctrination, it retained an ambiguity and reserve inherent in the genre since before the War gainst Japan. Above all, I think this speaks to the enormous importance of various forms of sanwen in modern Chinese literary culture in general, and any general apprach to the modernn Chinese essay must further explore the legacy of socialist sanwen, particularly as today’s sanwen writers for the most part read the works of Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu in their middle school textbooks.<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个真空的封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:59, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是就像至于一个真空环境之下一样，中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个自我封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 15:40, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Tradition as Construct and the Search for a Modern Identity: A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place ''' [ This article is an extended version of the paper “The Self in the Landscape: Chinese Essays of Place in the Republican Era (1912-1949)” delivered at the conference The Modern Chinese Literary Essay: Defining the Self in the 20th Century, held in Achern, Germany, August 25-27, 2000.]<br />
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''Alexandra R. Wagner''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst the Sound of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe, 1923), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (Diaotai de chunzhou, 1932), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from the Langya Mountain” (Langyashan youji, 1936) are three modern Chinese essays in which place and memory serve as the main textual and conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and search for meaning unfolds. Examining these “essays of place” with a focus on the dynamics between place, on the one hand, and personal as well as cultural memory, on the other, challenges the prevailing views of modern travel or landscape essays as either lyrical evocations of scenery, backdrops for personal experiences and thoughts, or sources for information on locations.<br />
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““作为建构的传统和对现代身份的寻求：对中国现代地方杂文中传统姿态的解读”” [本文是民国时期（1912-1949）中国地方散文《风景中的自我》的扩展版。在2000年8月25日至27日于德国阿彻恩举行的“中国现代文学论文：定义20世纪的自我”会议上发表。亚历山大·瓦格纳（Alexandra R.Wagner）<br />
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'''摘要''' 朱自清的“桨声与灯影中的秦淮河”（桨声与灯影里的的秦淮河，1923年），郁达夫的“钓台春日”（钓台的春昼，1932），以及方令儒的“琅琊山” （琅琊山游记，1936年）是三篇中国现代散文，其中，地点和记忆是主要的文本和概念元素，通过这些文本和概念，作者进行了身份认同和对意义的寻求。审视这些“地方散文”，一方面侧重于地点与个人记忆以及文化记忆之间的动态关系，另一方面，挑战现代游记或风景散文的主流观点，认为它们要么是对风景的抒情，要么是个人经验和思想的背景，要么是地点信息的来源。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
The aggregation of cultural and personal memory in these essays foregrounds the skepticism and uncertainty that characterize the mindset of Chinese writers situated in a transitional period moving from tradition to modernity. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the essays are ultimately texts on writing as a continuous and open-ended exploration. <br />
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Examining the “traditional gestures” central to the essays by Zhu, Yu, and Fang most prominently demonstrates this questioning of apparent meaning. Activities closely tied to places, such as climbing mountains, traversing lakes and rivers, and contemplating past history during visits to ruins and other sites are highly reminiscent of poetic onventions that have informed the long pre-modern literary history of travel and landscape writings.<br />
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这些文章中文化和个人记忆的聚合，凸显了处于传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家心态的怀疑和不确定性。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章归根结底是关于写作的文本，是一种持续而开放的探索。<br />
<br />
审视朱、余、方三家文章中的 "传统姿态"，最突出地体现了这种对表层意义的质疑。与地方密切相关的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊、河流，以及在参观遗迹等过程中对过去历史的思考等，都让人高度联想到在漫长的前现代文学史上的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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这些文章中文化记忆和个人记忆的聚集，突出了处于从传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家的怀疑和不确定性特征。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章最终成为关于写作的文本，是一种持续的、开放式的探索。<br />
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对朱先生、于先生和方先生所著文章的核心“传统手势”的研究，最突出地证明了对表面意义的质疑。与地方紧密相连的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊和河流，以及在参观遗迹和其他遗址时思考过去的历史，都让人联想到在漫长的前现代文学史的的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:19, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
As manifestations of cultural memory, such activities are more than simply concrete actions; they are gestures, i.e. “acts made as a sign of attitude.” These traditional gestures suggest an affinity between pre-modern and modern texts, yet at the same time, the essays consistently question the significance and consequence of this apparent affinity. This questioning is achieved, first, by the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, by introducing elements of imperfection and incompletion throughout the essays, and, third, by the self-referential aspects of the essays.<br />
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作为文化记忆的表现形式，这些活动不仅仅是具体的行动。它们是手势，也就是“态度表征的行为”。这些传统手势表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切关系，然而，同时这些文章始终对这种明显的亲和力的意义和结果存在质疑。这种质疑的实现，首先是通过作者与居住在这片风景中的人们的相遇；其次，通过在文章中引入不完美和不完善的元素；第三，通过文章的自我参照。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为文化记忆的表现形式，这种活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动，而是一种姿态，即 "作为一种态度的标志而做出的行为"。这些传统的姿态暗示了前现代和现代文本之间的密切关系，但与此同时，这些文章一直在质疑这种明显的密切关系的意义和后果。这种质疑的实现，一是通过作者与居住在风景中的人的相遇；二是通过在文章中引入不完美和不完整的元素；三是通过文章的自述来实现。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为文化记忆的体现，这些活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动； 它们是姿态，即“态度表征的行为”。 这些传统姿态暗示了前现代文本与现代文本之间的亲和力，但与此同时，论文也不断质疑这种明显亲和力的重要性和后果。 首先，作者与居住在风景中的人们相遇，然后是通过在论文中引入不完美和不完整的元素，其次是通过论文的自我参照。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:01, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最为文化记忆的体现形式，这种活动不单单是具体的行动，它们更是一种姿态，也就是“用以表征态度的行为”。这些传统的姿态表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切联系；然而，与此同时，这些文章也在不断地质疑这种表面联系的影响和结果。这种质疑，首先是通过作者与居住在当地的本地人的邂逅；其次是在全文中体现出一些不完美和不完整的因素；最后是通过文章的自我参照这三个步骤来实现的。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
Adopting traditional gestures of contemplating place and past can be seen as an attempt to place the author in a privileged and thus assured position, offering him a way to authoritatively define himself within, yet separate from, his surroundings. However, encounters with people inhabiting the places make the author “interact” with these places. Rather than being objects of perception and contemplation only, places become parts of the perceiving and contemplating subject. The idea of place as distinct from the observer, providing a setting against which he can define himself as well as measure the changing times is deceptive.<br />
采用传统的姿态来思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于一种特权地位，从而保证他的地位，为其提供了一种根据周围环境给自己定义，但又与之分离的权威方式。然而，与居住在这些地方的人的相遇，使作者与这些地方产生了 "互动"。地方不只是感知和思考的对象，而是成为感知和思考主体的一部分。将地方与观察者区分开来，提供一个环境，让观察者可以据此来定义自己以及衡量时代的变化，这种想法是具有欺骗性的。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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采用传统的姿态思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于特权以及确定的地位的一种尝试，为其提供一种根据其周围环境，但又脱离其环境然而，给自己定义的权威性的方式。然而，和居住在这些地方的人相遇，使得作者和这些地方有了“互动”。地方除了作为感知和思考的物体，还成为了感知和思考主体的一部分。地点和观察者分离、提供观察者给自己下定义的背景、衡量时代的变化，这些想法都具有欺骗性。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 13:40, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
In addition, elements of imperfection and incompletion disrupt the narrative in these essays and thus similarly question the reliability of traditional gestures in the search for stable definitions of selves. Self-referential aspects of the texts also draw attention to the essays’ constructedness, thus questioning the idea that the texts have a single, accurate (and thus authoritative) interpretation and significance.<br />
<br />
In sum, an “ironic” reading of the traditional gestures in these essays of place foregrounds the concept of tradition as a vital part and construct needed to engage in a discourse on tradition and modernity from which modern texts ultimately evolve.<br />
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此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，因此同样质疑传统姿态在寻找稳定的自我定义时的可靠性。文本的自我参照方面也引起了对文章的结构性的关注，从而质疑了文本具有单一、准确（因而具有权威性）的解释和意义的观点。<br />
总而言之，对这些散文中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，预示了传统的概念作为现代性话语的一个重要组成部分，现代性最终需要从这一部分演变而来。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 11:57, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，从而同样质疑传统姿态在寻求稳定的自我定义方面的可靠性。文本的自我参照性也引起了人们对文章建构性的关注，从而对文本具有单一的、准确的（因为也是权威的）解释和意义的观点提出了质疑。<br />
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总之，对于这些地方性文章中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，凸显了传统概念是参与传统与现代文本所需的重要部分和建构，而现代文本最终也是在这个基础上发展起来的。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 09:14, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst Sounds of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (''Qinhuaihe''), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (''Diaotai''), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from Langya Mountain” (''Langyashan''), are three notable essays of place in which place and memory serve as the main conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and meaning unfolds. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the texts become ultimately texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays. <br />
<br />
In the essays, the authors engage in activities such as climbing mountains, traversing rivers, and contemplating history and historical figures while visiting ruins and other sites. <br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
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Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
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Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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朱自清的《浆声灯影里的秦淮河》（《秦淮河》）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台的春昼》（《钓鱼台》）和方令孺的《琅琊山游记》（ 《琅琊山》）是三篇有关地点的著名散文。在这几篇文章中，地点和回忆是主要的概念性元素，作者通过这些元素来具体展开关于身份认同以及具体含义的阐述。通过质疑明显的含义和文学习俗，这些文本最终象征着作者的不懈努力与探索，因此成为了文本的开放性文本。<br />
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在这几篇散文中，作者在参观历史遗址时都参加了诸如爬山、过河、对历史以及历史人物进行深思的活动。<br />
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Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:26, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台上的春昼》（钓鱼台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。<br />
<br />
在这些散文中，作者在参观遗址和其他地方时，还参与了登山、穿越河流、思考历史和历史人物等活动。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:52, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台上的春昼》（钓台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:53, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》（钓台）、方令儒的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
For example, all three essays contain elements reminiscent of the poetic convention of contemplating the past (''huaigu''), often conveying regret over gone times and places. Images exposing the transience of human life in an enduring landscape suggest the writer’s uncertainty about the present and future, implying his desire to find a more lasting place within his existing surroundings. <br />
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In their apparent affinity to poetic conventions, traditional gestures seem to promise the writer a degree of authority and certainty in observing and interpreting surroundings and thus in determining his position and role in them. An ''ironic'' understanding and reading of such gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang's essays however, exposes the concept of tradition as construct indispensable for a discourse on modernity. <br />
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Evoking and sharing the cultural memory of place writing, Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays not only contain, but also constitute traditional gestures.（文献无需翻译） <br />
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FFor a concise explication of this poetic convention, see Hans H. Frankel, ''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady: Interpretations of Chinese Poetry'' (New Haven and London, 1976), chapter 9 “Contemplation of the Past.”（文献无需翻译）<br />
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例如，这三篇文章都包含了凝视过去的诗学传统的元素（怀古），常常表达对逝去的时光和地方的遗憾。在一幅经久不衰的风景画中，展现人类生命的无常，暗示着作者对现在和未来的不确定性，暗示着他希望在现有的环境中找到一个更永恒的地点。<br />
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传统的姿态与诗歌的传统有明显的亲近感，它似乎给了作者一定程度的权威性和确定性来观察和解释周围的环境，从而确定自己在其中的定位和角色。然而，通过对朱自清、郁达夫和方灵如的文章中这些姿态的反讽地理解和解读，揭示了传统观念构筑现代性话语所不可或缺的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
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Modern texts evolve from a questioning and reassessment of well-established meaning and value, rather than from a mere rejection of what are perceived to be traditional notions, customs, and ideals. Once tradition is divested of its absolute claim and subject to interpretation and reconstruction, modernity can emerge. <br />
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Generally, the term “gesture” describes an activity as “something done to convey one’s intentions or attitude.” The traveler’s activities are more than actions that have an obvious purpose, such as getting to a location or viewing a certain site. Roland Barthes’ notion of gestures in writing and writing as gesture suggests the multiplicity of meaning within essays of place and ultimately bears out the idea of essays of place as texts on writing. In ''The Responsibility of Forms'', Roland Barthes describes “gesture” in art as<br />
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“Gesture.” Def.2. ''Oxford American Dictionary''. New York: Avon Books, 1980. （文献无需翻译）<br />
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''The Oxford English Dictionary'' defines “gesture” as “a move or course of action undertaken as an expression of feeling or as a formality; especially a demonstration of friendly feeling, usually with the purpose of eliciting a favorable response from another.” Def.4.b. ''The Oxford English Dictionary''. 2nd Ed. (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1989).（文献无需翻译）<br />
现代文本从对已确立的意义和价值的质疑和重新评估演变而来，而不仅仅是对被认为是传统观念、习俗和理想的排斥。一旦剥夺了传统的绝对权利，接受了解释和重建，现代性就会出现。<br />
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一般来说，“手势”指的是“为了传达某人的意图或态度的行动。旅行者的活动不仅仅是有明显目的的行动，比如到达某个地点或参观某个地点。罗兰·巴特关于书写中的手势和作为手势的书写的概念暗示了地点散文中意义的多样性，并最终证明了地点散文作为写作文本的观点。在《形式的责任》一书中，罗兰·巴特将艺术中的“姿态”描述为一种行为的多余。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
[s]omething like the surplus of an action. The action is transitive, it seeks only to provoke an object, a result; the gesture is the indeterminate and inexhaustible total of reasons, pulsions, indolences which surround the action with an atmosphere [. . .]. Hence, let us distinguish the message, which seeks to produce information, and the sign, which seeks to produce an intellection, from the gesture, which produces all the rest (the “surplus”) without necessarily seeking to produce anything. <br />
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Traversing mountains and lakes are activities with a concrete objective. As “gestures” or “surplus action,” those activities are signs of attitudes that in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays ultimately serve to constantly question and change meaning by providing possibility instead of demarcation of meaning and signification. <br />
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Barthes, Roland. “''[Readings: Gesture] Cy Twombly: Works on Paper.” The Responsibility of Forms''. By Barthes. Trans. Richard Howard, (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985) 160.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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According to Roland Barthes, every text is ultimately a product of gestures Discussing the work of American painter Cy Twombly (b. 1928), Roland Barthes furthermore says about the workings of gestures:（文献无需翻译） <br />
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[t]he artist [ . . . ] is by status an “operator” of gestures: he seeks to produce an effect and at the same time seeks no such thing; the effects he produces he has not obligatorily sought out; they are reversed, inadvertent effects which turn back upon him and thereupon provoke certain modifications, deviations, mitigations of the line, of the stroke. Thus in gesture is abolished the distinction between cause and effect, motivation and goal, expression and persuasion (Barthes 160).（文献无需翻译）<br />
类似于一种行为的盈余。动作是及物性的，它只寻求刺激一个对象，一个结果;手势是一种不确定的、无穷无尽的原因、脉动、懒惰的总和，它以一种气氛围绕着动作[…]。因此，让我们把寻求产生信息的信息和寻求产生智力的符号，与无需寻求产生任何东西而产生其余一切(“剩余”)的手势区分开来。<br />
穿越山脉和湖泊是有具体目标的活动。这些作为“姿态”或“剩余行动”的活动，在朱、于、方的文章中，最终是一种态度的标志，通过提供可能性而不是界定意义和意义，来不断地质疑和改变意义。<br />
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根据Roland Barthes的说法，每一篇文章最终都是手势的产物，讨论了美国画家Cy Twombly (b. 1928)的作品，Roland Barthes进一步谈到了手势的作用:<br />
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艺术家[…]就身份而言，他是一个手势的“操作者”:他试图产生一种效果，但同时又不寻求这种效果;他所产生的效果他并没有义务去寻求;它们是颠倒的，无意的影响，反过来影响到他，并因此引起某些修改，偏差，线条和笔划的缓和。因此，手势废除了因果、动机和目标、表情和说服之间的区别(Barthes 160)。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
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Zhu Ziqing’s ''Qinhuaihe'' describes a pleasure excursion on the Qinhuai River he and his friend Yu Pingbo embark on one summer evening. Singsong girls and their musicians, offering their services to passengers in the roaming boats, provide popular entertainment on the river. Zhu and Yu try to enjoy the atmosphere produced by a combination of natural scenery, history, lantern lights, and sound of oars and of music. Despite mingling with other boats whose passengers happily solicit the singsong girls’ services, they remain passive observers. Zhu's narrative culminates in his and Yu’s direct encounter with the singsong girls, who approach them to solicit business. This encounter mortifies and confounds Zhu, turning the trip into a disconcerting experience. Both Zhu and Yu reject the singsong girls’ solicitations, and soon after the encounter, they head back to the pier.<br />
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朱自清的《秦淮河》描述了一个夏天的晚上，他和朋友俞平伯在秦淮河上的一次愉快的旅行。歌女和她们的乐师在游船上为乘客提供服务，上演河上流行的娱乐节目。朱和俞试图享受由自然风光、历史、灯笼灯、船声和音乐的结合所产生的氛围。尽管和其他船只混在一起，船上的乘客很高兴地请求歌女的服务，但他们仍然是被动的旁观者。朱的叙述在他和俞直接接触歌女的过程中达到了高潮，歌女们向他们招揽生意。这次遭遇让朱感到难堪和困惑，使他的旅行变成了一次令人不安的经历。朱和于都拒绝了歌女们的恳求，与歌女接触后不久，他们回到了码头。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 11:10, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'' describes his travels in the countryside after having hurriedly left Shanghai to avoid being rounded up by Nationalist forces in the spring of 1931. Watching boats taking locals to their ancestral graves, Yu decides to visit his hometown in time for the Qingming festival. After only a few days with relatives and friends however, he becomes restless and leaves for a trip to Diaotai (Fishing Terrace) on Fuchun Mountain. He stops over at Tonglu for the night and despite the late hour climbs Tongjun Mountain located across the river. The next day, Yu visits the memorial hall on Fuchun Mountain dedicated to the Eastern Han recluse Yan Ziling and then climbs the famous Diaotai.<br />
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郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》一书中，描写了1931年春天他为逃避国民党军队的抓捕，匆匆离开上海后在乡下的旅行的故事。郁达夫看见船只把过世的当地人带回祖墓埋葬，于是他决定在清明节前回到家乡。 然而，与亲戚和朋友团圆几天之后，他变得躁动不安，便前往富春山钓台旅行。 他停留在桐庐过夜，尽管天色已晚，他爬上横跨在河面的桐郡山。 第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:51, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》描述了他在1931年春天为避免被国民党军队围捕，匆忙离开上海后在农村的旅行。看着载着当地人去往他们祖坟的船只，郁达夫决定在清明节的时候回家乡看看。然而，在与亲戚朋友相处几天后，他变得焦躁不安，便前往富春山的钓台。他在桐庐停留了一夜，尽管时间已晚，他还是爬上了河对岸的桐君山。第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:50, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
Fang Lingru and a group of friends visit various historic sites scattered in the mountains they traverse during a spring outing. The most famous site is the pavilion named by Ouyang Xiu and celebrated in his famous ''An Account of the Pavilion of the Drunken Old Man'' (Zuiweng ting ji). The group decides to stay overnight at the ''Temple of Cultivation'' (Kaihua si), located deeper in the mountains, and spends the rest of the day touring the mountains and their cultural imprints guided by a monk. In the evening, the friends enjoy the nocturnal atmosphere and quietude of temple and mountains. The next day, the day of the Qingming festival, the group tours two more mountains before returning to Nanjing in the evening.<br />
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在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜，并在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 06:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜。在休息之前，众人在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，大家又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:48, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
All three essays contain attempts to adopt gestures of contemplating times and places while traversing varied landscapes. Yet, three elements in the essays destabilize significance and consequence of those gestures, undermining their power to confirm identities and signaling the questioning nature of the texts. These three elements are first the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, elements of incompletion and ambiguity that unsettle the traditional gestures, and, third, as supplementary elements, the essays’ self-referential strategies. The following readings of Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays explain and illustrate one of each of these elements respectively.<br />
这三篇文章都试图在穿越不同的风景时采用思考时间和地点的姿态。然而，文章中的三个因素动摇了这些姿态的意义和后果，削弱了它们确认身份的力量，并暗示了文本的质疑本质。这三个要素，一是作者与居住在这片风景中的人的接触，二是对传统姿态的不完善和模糊，三是作为补充的自我参照策略。以下阅读朱、于和方的文章，分别解释和说明这些元素中的一个。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 11:47, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这三篇文章在穿越不同情景时，都试图采用思考时间和地点的姿态。然而，文章中的三个因素动摇了这些姿态的意义和结果，削弱了它们确认身份的力量，并暗示了文本的质疑本质。这三个要素，一是作者与居住在这片风景中的人的接触，二是对传统姿态的描述的不完善和模糊，三是作为补充的自我参照策略。以下阅读朱、于和方的文章，分别解释和说明这些元素。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 03:21, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
'''Encounters with People in Zhu Ziqing’s Qinhuaihe'''<br />
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Encounters with people populating the landscape have two effects. First, these encounters force the author to interact with the landscape. It becomes impossible for him to demarcate his position and identity by contemplating places from an autonomous vantage point. Zhu and Yu’s encounter with the singsong girls is the central human encounter in Zhu’s ''Qinhuaihe''. Initially, the singsong girls’ presence on the river does not appear to displease or disconcert Zhu. However, he maintains this sanguine perception by keeping a distance to the singers’ boats. The distance allows him to assume the traditional gesture of traversing a river to take in and contemplate its scenery and history from an independent viewpoint.<br />
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It is important to point out that a clear distinction between traveler and landscape does not mean the travelers’ disassociation from his surroundings. Rather it points to the clear demarcation of positions and roles necessary to form a stable unified whole from two distinct units.(文献无需翻译)<br />
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'''朱自清的《秦淮河》中的相遇'''<br />
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与居住在风景中的人的相遇有两个效果。首先，这中相遇迫使作者与场景互动。这样他就不能通过从对自己有利的视角来划分自己的位置和身份。 朱自清、郁达夫二人与歌女的相遇，是朱自清《秦淮河》中最核心的人际交往。起初，歌女们在江上的出现，似乎并没有让朱自清感到不快或不安。然而，他通过与歌女们的船保持一定的距离来维持这种乐观的看法。这种距离使他能够以一种传统的姿态在江上穿行，以独立的视角来欣赏和思考江上的风景和历史。<br />
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需要指出的是，旅行者与风景的明确区分，并不意味着旅行者与周围环境的脱离。相反，它指向的是明确的位置和角色的划分，这对于从两个不同的环境中形成一个稳定的统一整体是必要的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'“朱自清的《秦淮河》的相遇”<br />
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遇到有人居住的景观有两个影响。首先，这些遭遇迫使作者与景观互动。对于他来说，通过从自治的有利位置考虑地点来划分自己的位置和身份变得不可能。朱和俞与歌星女孩的相遇是朱的《秦淮河》中人类的主要相遇。最初，歌星女孩在河上的存在似乎并没有使朱朱感到不悦或不安。但是，他通过与歌手的船保持一定距离来保持这种乐观的感觉。距离使他能够采取传统的穿越河流的姿势，从一个独立的角度来欣赏和思考河流的风景和历史。<br />
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重要的是要指出，旅行者与风景之间的明显区别并不意味着旅行者与周围环境脱节。相反，它指出了从两个截然不同的单元形成一个稳定的统一整体所需的职位和角色的明确划分。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The encounter with the singsong girls witnessed by other passengers unsettles gesture and atmosphere. By diminishing the safe distance between writer and observed place (which so far included the singers), the encounter forces Zhu to play an active role in his surroundings. The singers step out of the landscape picture, and Zhu becomes part of the place against his will.<br />
Ironically, however, the ensuing interaction nevertheless exposes an unbridgeable gap between author and people inhabiting the landscape. Zhu’s confrontation with the singsong girls reinforces an experience of distance, misapprehension, and alienation rooted in the dilemma of modern intellectuals.<br />
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朱自清与歌星女孩的相遇是在其他路人的围观下，这使得气氛紧张起来，他的行为也变得不安。 通过减少作家和被观察者之间的安全距离（到目前为止，包括歌手在内），相遇迫使朱自清在他的世界中发挥了积极作用。 歌手们走出了画面，而朱自清成为了其中的一部分，这是违背了他的意愿的。<br />
然而，具有讽刺意味的是，随后的互动却暴露了作者与居住在画面中的人们之间不可逾越的鸿沟。朱自清与歌星女孩的对峙加强了距离感，误解和疏离感，这些都根植于现代知识分子所遇到的困境中。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 15:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在其他路人的围观下朱自清与歌星女孩相遇了，这使得气氛紧张，他也变得不安。通过减少作家和被观察者之间的安全距离（到目前为止，包括歌手在内），相遇迫使朱自清在他的世界中发挥了积极作用。 歌手们走出了画面，而朱自清成为了其中的一部分，这是违背他的意愿的。<br />
然而，讽刺的是，随后的互动却暴露了作者与居住在画面中的人们之间不可逾越的鸿沟。朱自清与歌星女孩的对峙强化了源自现代知识分子困境的距离感，误解和疏离感。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 17:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Zhu is both tempted by the offer and ashamed about even entertaining such a sentiment. Being publicly approached by women who sell their services to men and confronting his inner conflicting emotion embarrasses Zhu, who considers himself a moral and modern individual professing to condemn the exploitation of underprivileged social groups. <br />
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The text moves from the portrayal of external space and atmosphere to a detailed self-dissection of Zhu's psyche and thoughts, a strikingly modern feature. As Zhu's progressive sensibilities interfere with acting out his desire, this psychological passage further disrupts the cohesion of the text as traditional gesture.<br />
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朱自清受到诱惑的同时又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。朱自清自认为是高尚现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪和内心的矛盾情绪，朱自清却感到尴尬。<br />
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文本从对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的心理和思想细致的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的进步情感干扰了他的欲望的表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:30, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代人，会公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，感觉十分尴尬，<br />
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文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，以及对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，均具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的先进情感干扰了他的欲望表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，也十分地尴尬。<br />
<br />
文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。朱自清的先进思想抑制了他的欲望，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 15:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The encounter quickly deflates and undermines Zhu's attempt to adopt traditional gestures, causing confusion and conflict rather than reassurance of positions and identities in the river’s ultimately unpredictable space. Zhu’s experience of place is marked by a tension arising from an attempt to assert his independent position within his surroundings, the futility of the attempt, and the concurrent impossibility to become part of his surroundings.<br />
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Significantly, only when Zhu’s inner conflict has abated somewhat, he and Yu are rewarded. On their way back, they pass a boat with a solitary singer coming toward them.<br />
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这一遭遇使朱自清很快打消了采用传统姿态的想法，在秦淮河上他的内心并没有得到安宁，而是充满困惑和冲突。朱自清在此地体验到的紧张感，来自他试图在周围的环境中坚持自己的身份，但这种尝试是徒劳的，于是他也不可能融入秦淮河的夜景中。<br />
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只有当朱自清的内心冲突有所缓和时，他和俞平伯才怡然自若。在回去的路上，他们经过一只载妓的板船，妓女在船上唱着清歌。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这一遭遇使朱自清很快打消了采用传统姿态的想法，在秦淮河上他的内心并没有得到安宁，而是充满困惑和冲突。朱自清在此地感受到的紧张，来自他试图在周围的环境中坚持自己的身份，但这种尝试是徒劳的，因此他也不可能融入秦淮河的夜景中。<br />
<br />
只有当朱自清的内心冲突有所缓和时，他和俞平伯才怡然自若。在回去的路上，他们经过一只载妓的板船，妓女在船上唱着清歌。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:54, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
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The singer is sitting in the bow of the unlit boat, singing only to herself. This unexpected episode has an at least temporarily redeeming quality for Zhu. However, his feeling of contentment lasts only a fleeting instant, and soon he and Yu are back in the bustling amusement district. Importantly, Zhu and Yu do not truly encounter the solitary singer. Possibly, the singer did not even notice them. This brief moment comes closest to successfully adopting a traditional gesture. As long as they maintain a distance, fulfilling the significance of the gesture seems possible. Ultimately however, Zhu, not in control of the gesture, is unable to prolong this moment.<br />
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歌者坐在没有灯光的船头，只对自己唱歌。这个意外的插曲，对朱棣来说，至少有一种短暂的满足。然而，他的满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和余先生回到了繁华的游乐区。其实朱和宇并没有真正遇到那个孤独的歌手。也有可能歌手根本没有注意到他们。但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的姿态。只要他们保持一定的距离，传递这个姿态的意义似乎是可能的。然而最终由于朱先生没有保持好这一姿态，他没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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歌妓坐在没有灯光的船头，独自唱着歌。对朱自清来说，这个意外的插曲暂时弥补了之前的遗憾，然而，这种满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和俞平伯回到了繁华的闹市。其实二人并没有真的遇到那个孤独的歌妓，也有可能歌妓根本没有注意到他们，但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的语言姿势。只要他们保持一定的距离，这个姿态的意义似乎就有可能被传达出来，然而最终由于朱自清没有维持这一姿态，所以没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
He is left in utter despondency. Threat and intimidation Zhu experiences are signified well by the way he perceives his surroundings immediately after passing the lone singer’s boat. Passing under a tall bridge, it seems to Zhu “as if the darkness was opening its huge mouth, about to swallow [their] boat.” Zhu is left in a no-man’s-land between private desire and modern awareness.<br />
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'''Incompletion and Ambiguity in Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'''''<br />
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Elements of incompletion and ambiguity further question the significance of traditional gestures. By unsettling the essay’s narrative, these elements suggest an ironic reading of the texts that undermines the reliability of traditional gestures when searching for stable definitions of selves and surroundings.<br />
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他陷入了彻底的绝望。朱棣棣所经历的威胁和恐吓，从他经过独唱者的船后立即感知周围环境的方式就可以看出。经过一座高高的桥下，在朱棣看来，"仿佛黑暗张开了巨口，要把他们的船吞掉"。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br />
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'''郁达夫的''钓鱼台''的不完整与模糊'''<br />
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不完整和模棱两可的元素进一步质疑传统手势的意义。这些元素使文章的叙事变得不稳定，暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，破坏了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:20, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他陷入了深深的怅惘。经过歌舫后，他立即感知到周围环境变化，从这里就可以看出朱自清所感受到的压迫和不安。船过大中桥时，朱自清写道，"如黑暗张着巨口，要将我们的船吞了下去"。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br />
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'''郁达夫《钓台的春昼》的不完整性与模糊性'''<br />
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不完整性和模棱性的要素对传统手势的意义提出更多的质疑。通过打乱文章的叙述方式，这些要素暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，削弱了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:55, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Obstacles in Yu Dafu’s path paired with a restlessness he experiences in places destabilize the gestures he tries to adopt. The significance of his trip remains ambiguous.<br />
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The evening before reaching Diaotai, Yu sets out to climb Tongjun Mountain to visit a Daoist temple. Upon disembarking from the ferryboat, he immediately falls over a loose rock on the dark and rugged mountain path. The image of a stumbling Yu on his solitary endeavor to climb the mountain at night is almost comical. His idea to climb the mountain at this hour appears unreasonable and undermines any effect the attempt to adopt a traditional gesture might have.<br />
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郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上与他在一些地方感到了不安，这都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br />
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在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山，去一座道观。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他摔倒在了一块松动的石头上。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也打破了他想要的任何意义。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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出现在郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上他在一些地方感到的不安，都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br />
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在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，为了参观一座道观，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他被一块松动的石头绊倒了。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也破坏了采用传统姿态可能产生的任何影响。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:38, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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路上的崎岖加上内心的不安，使得郁达夫上山的一路都走得不平稳。他此行的意义也模糊不清。<br />
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在到达钓台的前一天傍晚，郁达夫启程桐君山参观一座道观。一下渡船，山路崎岖漆黑，他被一块乱石绊倒了。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候选择去爬山似乎不可理喻，而正常的行走也几乎不可能了。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The ferryman hands Yu a pack of matches to help him find the way. At first, Yu is “groping [his] way up the mountain,” but as he approaches the top, moonlight begins to illuminate his path. A vast sky and a broad vista into the distance and onto the town seem to increase Yu’s chances of adopting the traditional gesture of contemplating place and past. As he approaches the temple however, an apparently locked gate in the low wall surrounding it obstructs Yu’s progress. After pacing up and down for a while not knowing what to do, he finally tries the gate, and surprisingly it opens. Ironically, Yu’s trip is delayed and almost cut short not by a locked gate but by his indecision and hesitation.<br />
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渡船人递给他一包火柴帮他找路。一开始，郁正“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。辽阔的天空和小镇的广阔景色似乎增加了郁采用传统方式思考地方和过去的机会。然而，当他走近庙宇时，四周低矮的墙壁中一扇明显锁着的门阻碍了他的前进。在不知所措地踱来踱去后，他最终尝试开门，而门惊喜地被打开了。更具有讽刺意味的是郁的行程延误，不是因为一扇紧锁的大门，而是因为他的犹豫不决。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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船夫递给他一盒火柴帮助他找到路。起初，于是“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。广阔的天空和广阔的视野延伸到远处的城镇，似乎增加了俞正声采用传统的姿态，思考地点和过去的机会。然而，当他接近寺庙时，围绕寺庙的矮墙中一个明显被锁住的门阻碍了他的前进。他踱来踱去，不知如何是好，最后他试了试大门，结果门开了。具有讽刺意味的是，于的行程被推迟，甚至几乎被缩短，不是因为一扇锁着的门，而是因为他的优柔寡断和犹豫。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 11:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Although he finds the temple gates indeed securely shut for the night, Yu is at this point quite content to sit on the wall adjacent to the gate from where he can overlook the river and enjoy the scenery. He gazes at the stars, clouds, and moon above and the lights of the boats below gently wavering in the wind. At last, Yu’s position allows him to contemplate place and past from an elevated and independent vantage point. The unparalleled scenery of Tongjun Mountain inspires Yu to contemplate the lives of the Eastern Han (25-220 A.D.) recluse Yan Ziling and that of the two Dai brothers, Dai Bo and Dai Yong of the Easter Jin (317-420), who made this area their home.<br />
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虽然他发现寺庙的门夜晚确实是紧紧关着的，但此时他还是很满足于坐在与门相邻的城墙上，从那里他可以俯瞰河流，欣赏风景。他凝视着天上的星星、云朵和月亮，以及下面在风中轻轻摇曳的船只的灯光。最后，郁达夫的位置让他能够从一个更高的、独立的有利位置思考过去。同郡山无与伦比的风景激发了郁达夫对东汉(公元25-220年)隐士严子陵和东晋(317-420年)戴波和戴勇的生活的思考，他们把这里作为自己的家。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:53, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Yu fully appreciates and identifies with their decision to lead a hermit’s life foreshadowing his own life of seclusion soon to begin. The clapper of the night watch in town finally wakes Yu to reality. Startled, he runs back head over heels to the boat. This abrupt ending to Yu’s reverie and his sudden anxiety to get back to the boat sharply contrast with the reflective atmosphere and sentiment of the passage. The traditional gesture is abruptly terminated. Like the clapper startling Yu, this abrupt ending to the nightly scene startles the reader.<br />
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郁达夫完全理解并尊重他们隐居的决定，并预示着自己的隐居生活即将开始。镇上守夜的钟声把将他唤醒。他吓了一跳，背对着船跑去。他的遐想戛然而止，突然急着要回到船上，与这段文字中反映出来的气氛和情感形成了鲜明的对比。传统的手势突然终止了。就像钟声将他惊动一般，这个突然结束的夜景让读者大吃一惊。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 05:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
On the boat to Diaotai, Yu, tired from admiring the scenery, falls asleep and dreams of a gathering with some old friends in an inn along the river. The text does not make it explicitly clear that Yu is dreaming. This becomes fully clear only when the boatman wakes Yu as they approach Diaotai. <br />
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In his dream, the friends chat and make merry, but after all has been said and done, the atmosphere turns cheerless and awkward. At the center of the dream is a poem Yu composed a few years ago at a similar occasion. It is a political poem written in traditional septa-syllabic regulated verse style, lamenting the chaotic state of the country and expressing the dissatisfaction of intellectuals with the government.<br />
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在去钓鱼台的船上，赏风景赏累了，他睡着了，梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并没有明确表示郁达夫是在做梦，只有当船夫在接近钓鱼台的时候把他叫醒，这才变得完全清楚。--<br />
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在他的梦里，朋友们聊天，嬉戏，但这一切都结束后，气氛变得不愉快和尴尬起来。梦的中心是一首郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，哀叹国家的混乱状态，表达知识分子对政府的不满。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在去钓鱼台的船上，郁达夫疲于赏景，而后进入梦乡。他梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并未表明这是郁达夫在做梦，只有当船夫在临近钓鱼台叫醒他时，一切才水落石出。<br />
在他的梦境里，朋友们一起聊天、嬉戏，但当一切都结束后，气氛变得无趣且尴尬。梦的中心出现郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，其哀叹国家的混沌，表达知识分子对政府部门的不满。<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:42, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
在去钓台的船上，郁达夫赏景后觉得疲倦，而后进入梦乡。他梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并未表明这是郁达夫在做梦，只有当船夫在临近钓台叫醒他时，一切才水落石出。<br />
<br />
在他的梦境里，朋友们一起聊天、嬉戏，但当一切都结束后，气氛变得无趣且尴尬。梦中出现郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，其哀叹国家的混沌，表达知识分子对政府部门的不满。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:27, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
One prominent traditional image in the poem is the loyal official who, “feigning madness,” (yang kuang) speaks the truth that goes unheeded. Here, a well-known traditional gesture is embedded in a text within a text. Before the gesture can come to full fruition, however, it is again terminated, this time by the boatman who wakes Yu.<br />
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在这首诗中，一个突出的传统形象是这个忠诚的官员，他假装疯狂（佯狂）地说出了未被注意的真理。这里，一个众所众知的传统手势被嵌入到文本中的文本中。然而，在做这个手势之前，他这一次再次被叫醒于的船夫终止了。<br />
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Significantly, Yu's perception of his surrounding has completely changed. Before falling asleep, he saw green mountains encasing the clear river and sandbanks with blossoming flowers; in short, tranquil and picturesque scenery. As the boat approaches Diaotai, however, “river and mountain scenery all around had suddenly changed.” (文献无需翻译)<br />
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很明显，于对他周围的看法改变了。在入睡之前，他看见连绵的青山环绕清澈的河流，沙洲上百花盛开，总之就是一幅祥和的如画风景。然而，当船接近钓台时，周围的山水画已经不知不觉间改变了。<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing, “Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 95.(文献无需翻译)<br />
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Yu Dafu, “Diaotai de chunzhou,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 204.<br />
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Yu Dafu, 206(文献无需翻译)--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The river has narrowed and the mountains have moved extremely close, “as if ahead was no further way.” The towering mountains create an oppressively lonely atmosphere, in which even the sound of the oars seems disheartened; the echo is audible only after a long while, amplifying the “ancient silence,” the “silence of extinction” enveloping the boat. The sun is gone, and only a soughing wind comes and goes. <br />
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The surrounding has turned ominous. Yu’s anticipation turns into apprehension. Compared to his reverie on Tongjun Mountain, Yu now perceives Diaotai as desolate and gloomy, eerily echoing the chaos and tumult evoked in his poem. He describes dilapidated stone structures overgrown with weeds.<br />
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河流越来越窄，山也越来越近，“好像没有前进的路了。” 高耸的山脉营造出一种压抑的孤独气氛，甚至船桨的声音都令人沮丧：回声过了很久才能听到，更加渲染了“古老的寂静”，将“灭绝的寂静”笼罩在船上。 太阳落山了，只有风阵阵吹过。<br />
周围环境变得阴郁，于的期待变成了恐惧。 相比于他在铜军山上的遐想，于现在认为钓鱼台是荒凉而阴沉的，怪异地回响着他诗歌中的混乱无序、动荡不安。 他描述了杂草上乱乱的石头。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:43, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
河水变窄，山峦移动得非常近，“仿佛前方没有路可走”，巍峨的山峦营造出一种压抑的孤独气氛，甚至连船桨的声音都显得灰心丧气；过了很久才听得见回声，更加渲染了“古老的寂静，"。“灭绝的寂静”笼罩着船。太阳不见了，只有一阵刺耳的风来来去去。<br />
周围环境变得阴郁。余秋雨的期待变成了忧虑。与他在桐君山上的遐想相比，余秋雨现在认为钓台是荒凉和阴郁的，诡异地呼应了他诗中所唤起的混乱和骚动。他描述了杂草丛生的破旧石头建筑。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 08:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Approaching Yan Ziling’s ancestral hall, now no more than decrepit walls and broken tiles, Yu begins to feel “a little afraid, afraid to encounter the ghost of Master Yan, old and dried-up like strips from a towel gourd.” Yu’s rapidly growing skepticism and discomfort upon approaching the setting further suggest the impossibility to find meaning and identity by adopting traditional gestures in places.<br />
<br />
On the Fishing Terrace, Yu is curiously reminded of a postcard depicting the William Tell Memorial Hall and its scenery in Switzerland. The colors of mountains and rivers he sees from Diaotai are strikingly similar to those on the “collotype postcard.”<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
However, in the scenery he views from Diaotai, “the variations are a little greater, the surrounding in all directions is just a little more jumbled and chaotic, that’s all, but this is actually a plus, enough to represent the East’s desolate beauty of national degeneration.” Ironically, Yu’s comparison between the postcard picture and his view stresses the similarities between the colors of the landscapes only. He views a place that in its very structure carries the marks of present crisis. Associating his description of the scenery with Switzerland generally associated with national stability and social order only intensifies the image of national chaos and debility.<br />
然而，他身临钓台，亲看其景，却感叹与明信片上所见差别极大，周围更加荒芜杂乱，仅此而已。但此情此景实际上更说明了东方民族堕落的冷落之美。讽刺地是，余秋雨对明信片和实景的对比只是更加强调了景色色彩的相似性而已。他观的这个地方，本身就自带现今危难的印记。把他对景色的描述和代表国家稳定秩序的瑞士联系在一起只是徒增国家衰弱混乱的印象罢了。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 03:14, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
然而，他身临钓台，亲看其景，却感叹与明信片上所见差别极大，周围更加荒芜杂乱，仅此而已。但此情此景实际上更说明了东方民族没落的荒凉之美。讽刺地是，余秋雨对明信片和实景的对比只是更加强调了景色色彩的相似性而已。他观的这个地方，本身就自带现今危难的印记。把他对景色的描述和代表国家稳定秩序的瑞士联系在一起只是徒增国家衰弱混乱的印象罢了。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Superficially conforming to the traditional gesture of contemplating (and lamenting) place and past, the comparison here is not one between present and past, but one between two presents. Yu's view evokes scenery on a foreign postcard, which in its modern photographic quality and miniature size cannot evoke the past, challenging the idea of a traditional gesture. <br />
<br />
After having had some wine in the hall, Yu walks up to the Buddhist shrine whose derelict walls are covered with poems, most of them of poor quality. In a corner near the ceiling, he finds an inscription by the Qing loyalist and fellow villager Xia Lingfeng (Xia Zhenwu, 1854-1930), whose commitment Yu admires despite objecting to Xia’s political convictions. Yu inscribes the poem from his dream next to Xia’s.<br />
<br />
这里的对比并非介于今昔之间，而是两个现在时间的对比，从表面上看，这与传统的伤怀表达方式不谋而合。余想起了外国明信片上的风景，其现代摄影质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，因而挑战了传统的表达方式。<br />
<br />
在祠堂里喝了点酒后，俞走到佛龛前，佛龛斑驳的墙壁上满是诗词，其中大部分文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了一首由夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）题的词，夏灵凤是清朝的拥护者，也是本村的村民。尽管余反对夏灵凤的政治信念，但他仍然钦佩他的忠诚。因而余在夏灵凤的词旁边也作了一首诗。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:32, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
虽然表面上符合传统的伤怀表现手法，但这里并非今昔对比，而是两个现时的比较。余秋雨的观点让人联想到外国明信片上的风景，以其现代摄影的质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，挑战了传统的表达方式。<br />
<br />
在祠堂里喝了点酒后，余秋雨走到佛龛前，佛堂废弃的墙壁上挂满了诗词，其中大都文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了清朝忠臣、同乡夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）的题词，虽反对夏的政治立场，但他还是很欣赏夏的忠诚，因将梦中的诗词题在夏的旁边。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 07:05, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Initially, Yu's act of inscribing the poem suggests that he sympathizes and identifies with Xia. However, since Yu does object to the substance of Xia’s ideals and motives, the gesture of writing a poem next to Xia’s only stresses the ambiguity of such an act. With the gesture of inscribing his poem along with others of inferior quality and next to that of a Qing loyalist Yu willingly obscures his own political stance and inadvertently questions the relevance of his act. The traditional-style poem placed in an obscure corner on the wall as one among many is ineffective, and the gesture of inscribing it loses its significance. Yu’s position and role in his time and place remains ambiguous and difficult to define. Ironically, while Yu’s essay saves the poem and its context from obscurity, it also exposes the very ambiguity of his act.<br />
<br />
最初，郁达夫题诗的行为表明他同情并认同夏灵凤。然而，由于郁达夫的确反对夏灵凤的理想和动机，在夏灵凤的诗歌旁题诗的行为只会强调这种行为的模糊性。他将自己的诗歌和其他劣质诗歌一样题在清朝忠臣的诗歌旁边，这样一种行为表明他甘愿掩盖自己的政治立场，无意中质疑了其行为的意义。将传统诗歌作为许多诗中的一首题在墙上一个隐晦的角落里是无效的，而且题诗这一行为也将失去其意义。在郁达夫所处的时代和场所，他的位置与角色仍然模棱两可，难以界定。具有讽刺意味的是，虽然郁达夫的文章将这首诗及其上下文从朦胧中拯救出来，但它也暴露了他行为的模糊性。--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 16:07, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Nan<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
'''Self-referential strategy in Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan'''''<br />
<br />
By foregrounding a texts’ constructedness, self-referential strategies question the idea of a texts’ definite and authoritative meaning. Suggesting the texts’ plurality of meaning further substantiates their significance in negotiating perspectives, positions, and identities.<br />
<br />
Concluding the narration of her two-day trip, Fang Lingru writes: “There are still many more scenic spots and ancient sites on Langya Mountain; if it’s meant to be, I’ll come another time to visit again. ''There is nothing more I can add to this piece'' (my emphasis).” <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru, “Langyashan youji,” ''Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan'', eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 148.<br />
<br />
方令孺《琅琊山游记》中的自我指称策略<br />
自我指称策略通过凸显文本的建构性对文本明确、权威的意义提出了质疑。该策略指出，文本意义的多元性进一步证实了它们在谈判视角、立场和身份上的重要性。方令孺在对其两天旅行的叙述结尾处写道：“琅琊山上仍有许多名胜古迹；如果命中注定，我还会再来一次。我没有什么可以补充的了(我的重点)。”<br />
方令孺,《琅琊山游记》, 编著，马忠林，杨国璋, 王钟华, 北京:中国旅游出版社, 1982:148.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
Yet, she goes on to recommend a particular dish and wine the group had at a restaurant in Chuzhou before returning to Nanjing. This rather banal and anticlimactic addendum to her narrative is then followed by two more paragraphs, describing her sentiments upon returning home. <br />
<br />
When I got home, it was already ten o’clock at night, and a fine drizzle filled the air. Just before leaving, the old monk Shangkuan had tied three Spring Azalea sprigs to my rickshaw, which I planted immediately upon coming home. Now the twigs have already developed tender sprouts; by this time next year, they will blossom. XX named them “Bodhi Shangkuan.”<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京之前，她继续推荐该伙人在滁州一家饭店享用过的特殊菜肴和美酒。然后，在她叙述的这个平淡而滑稽的附录中再加上了两段，描述了她回家后的情绪。<br />
<br />
当我回到家时，已经是晚上十点了，细雨蒙蒙。临走时，老和尚尚宽把三只杜鹃花春天的小树枝绑在了我的人力车上，我刚回家时就把它们种了下来。现在，树枝已经长出嫩芽了。到明年这个时候，它们将会开花。 XX将其命名为“菩提上宽”。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京前，她继续给这些人推荐他们此前在滁州一家饭店已经吃过的特别菜肴和美酒。她的叙述非常乏味且跟着一个虎头蛇尾的附录。之后，这段叙述之后又加了两端来描写她回家后的感受。<br />
当我回到家，已经深夜十点了，且下着淅淅沥沥的小雨。在离开前，老和尚上宽把三个春季的杜鹃花小枝绑在了我的人力车上，一回家我就立即把它们种了。现在，这些小枝已经长出嫩芽了。明年这个时候，它们就会开花了。XX给其取名为“菩提上宽”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:06, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京前，她继续给这些人推荐他们此前在滁州一家饭店已经吃过的一种特别的菜肴和葡萄酒。对她的叙述进行这种乏味且虎头蛇尾的补充之后，她又加了两段来描写她回家后的感受。<br />
当我回到家，已经深夜十点了，且下着淅淅沥沥的小雨。在离开前，老和尚上宽把三个春季的杜鹃花小枝绑在了我的人力车上，一回家我就立即把它们种了。现在，这些小枝已经长出嫩芽了。明年这个时候，它们就会开花了。XX给其取名为“菩提上宽”----[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:46, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I’ve been feeling extremely tired lately, but thinking back to the trip into the mountains, I can say that it was flawless, and I have no regrets. <br />
<br />
It is a cliché to state at the end of a text that nothing can be added. Fang’s appended restaurant and food recommendation suggests her eagerness to relate every detail from the trip. However, extending her narrative by two paragraphs, she effectively contradicts her own assertion that everything worth saying has been said. This contradiction and the contrast between her matter-of-fact-style in which she ostensibly ends the essay and the intimate tone and personal content of the concluding paragraphs highlight the act of writing and constructing the text.<br />
<br />
最近我一直感到非常疲倦，但是回想那次去山上的旅行，我可以说那是完美的，没有后悔。<br />
<br />
在文本末尾声明没什么可说的，这是陈词滥调。方令孺附加描述的餐厅和美食推荐说明她渴望讲述旅行中的每一个细节。然而，将她的叙述扩展了两段，她实际上反驳了她自己的主张，即所有值得说的话都说了出来。这种矛盾和她表面上结束文章的实事求是的风格与结尾段落的私密语气和个人内容之间的反差突出了写作和构建文本的行为。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 08:04, 14 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
The final paragraphs further question the effect of adopting traditional gestures to find stable meaning and purpose in and through one’s surroundings. For Fang the gesture of translating visits to sites and ruins into detailed description evoke the past is not sufficient. Her encounter with the monk ultimately renders her experience on Langya Mountain significant. The flowers she received from him signify the possibility of growth, nurturing, and encouragement. By contrast, the significance of the sites themselves remains ambiguous.<br />
<br />
文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了传统手势的效果，在传统手势中，文章的意义和目的仅仅通过环境体现出来。对方令孺来说，如果运用简单的翻译手势，只是详细描述到访的琅琊山遗址是远远不够的，因为与那名僧人的相遇才是她琅琊山一行最有意义的事情，她从僧人那里收到的花代表着生长的可能性、象征着养护和激励，相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义确是模糊不清的。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了采用传统手势在环境中寻找稳定意义和目的而产生的效果。对方令孺来说，只对到访的琅琊山遗址进行详细描述是远远不够的。遇见这名僧人让她的琅琊山一行意义非凡。她从僧人那里收到的花象征着成长、呵护和鼓励。相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义仍然是模糊的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
The last two paragraphs of Fang’s essay complete the framework of personal reflection that encases the largely dispassionate narration of her trip. Personal memory is the ultimate locus of meaningful experience and the creative force underlying the essay. Exhausting facts and details in representing an experience does not bring a text to its end despite assertions to the contrary. Fang’s last sentence suggests that remembering the trip in close connection with the human encounter constitutes a source of satisfaction for her, rather than the emulation of traditional gestures that seem to promise an authoritative rendition of place and time.<br />
方令孺的文章的最后两段完成了个人反思的框架，其中包含了她对旅行的冷静叙述。个人记忆是有意义体验的最终轨迹，也是文章背后的创作力量。尽管断言与此相反，在表述一种经历时，穷尽的事实和细节并不会使文本结束。她的最后一句话表明，与人类相遇密切相关的旅行记忆是她满足的来源，而不是模仿传统手势，似乎承诺了一个权威的地点和时间的再现。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 07:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
她的记忆和文章如同植物一般，充满活力且不断变化着。她宣布文本的结束，为相同文本的延续所破坏。方舟子论文中的提到的自我参照策略最终肯定了可能性和潜能，而非完整性和终结性。最终的结论就是，在朱、余、方的散文中采用的传统诗歌节奏并没有消除作者的不确定性和矛盾心理。在每篇文章中，不同的因素素质疑这些姿态的可靠性和意义，突出了作家的经验和地位在其所参观过地方的模糊性。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 08:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
她的记忆和文字就像植物一样，生生不息，不断变化。宣告她的文本结束的手势被同样的文本的继续削弱了。方文章中的自我参照策略最终肯定了可能性和潜在性，而不是完整性和终结性。<br />
在朱、于和方的文章中尝试采用既定的诗性姿态，并没有消除作者在一个不断变化的环境中导航、重新定义和断言自己角色时的不确定性和矛盾心理。在每一篇文章中，各种因素都质疑这些手势的可靠性和重要性，突出了作者在他所访问的地方的经历和位置的模糊性。她的记忆和文字就像植物一样，生生不息，不断变化。宣告她的文本结束的手势被同样的文本的继续削弱了。方文章中的自我参照策略最终肯定了可能性和潜在性，而不是完整性和终结性。<br />
结论<br />
在朱、于和方的文章中采用既定的诗性姿态的尝试，并没有消除作者在一个不断变化的环境中航行、重新定义和断言自己(或她)角色时的不确定性和矛盾心理。在每一篇文章中，各种因素都质疑这些手势的可靠性和重要性，突出了作者在他所访问的地方的经历和位置的模糊性。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 07:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
Traditionally, the poet contemplating place and past was a solitary figure estranged from his times and surroundings, often questioning the present state of affairs. From the perspective of literary history, however, sharing this gesture and its variations with other poets in a long line of succession offered writers a way to secure rather than question their role and identity. Through canon formation and the writing of literary history, acts and themes such as contemplating places and past came to be understood as customary endeavors gaining and increasing their significance from their perceived continuity. Such understanding is part of the ''construction of traditions'' to legitimize poetic authority and continuity, or - as during the May Fourth movement - change and eradication. <br />
<br />
Relevant to the argument here is the idea of canon formation and the way it works. The argument does by no means suggest that all texts based on or containing certain traditional gestures and conventions are indeed similar and unchanged over the long pre-modern period. Nor does it suggest that in pre-modern travel and landscape writings the writer can indeed successfully confirm his identity and role through following the conventions of his time. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
传统上，这位诗人考虑的地方和过去是一个与他的时代和周围环境疏远的孤独人物，经常质疑现在的事态。但是，从文学史的角度来看，与其他诗人一路相继分享这种姿态及其变化，为作家提供了一种确保而不是质疑其角色和身份的方式。 通过教规的形成和文学史的写作，诸如冥想地点和过去之类的行为和主题被理解为习惯性的努力，这些努力和主题从其连续性中获得并增加了其重要性。种理解是使诗歌权威和连续性合法化的“传统建构”的一部分，或者像在“五四”运动中那样，改变和根除。<br />
<br />
与这里的论点相关的是佳能形成的思想及其运作方式。 该论点绝不暗示所有基于或包含某些传统手势和约定的文本在很长的前现代时期中确实是相似且不变的。 它也没有暗示在前现代的旅行和风景画中，作家确实可以通过遵循当时的惯例成功地确认其身份和作用。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:02, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
Instead of confirming the writer’s authority as mediator and interpreter of time and place, traditional gestures in modern essays such as Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s foreground his precarious role and position within his time and place. Attempting to adopt traditional gestures ultimately exposes the gestures as constructs that do not provide an indisputable way of understanding and representing surroundings and one’s position and role in them. <br />
<br />
By deconstructing the cultural and literary traditions, May Fourth intellectuals and writers tried to establish a practical dichotomy between conservative past and progressive present and future to confer authority upon the modern text.<br />
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朱、俞、方等人的现代散文没有肯定作者作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，而是强调作者在时间和地点中的不稳定角色和地位。采用传统手势最终会将手势揭示为一种构造，而这种构造并没有为再现环境及理解手势的地位和作用提供一种无可争辩的方式。<br />
<br />
通过解构文化和文学传统，五四知识分子和作家试图在保守的过去与激进的现在甚至未来之间建立一种实用的赋予现代文本权威性的二分法。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:53, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清、郁达夫和方令孺等人在现代散文中的传统姿态非但没有确认作家作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，反而凸显了他们在时间和地点中不稳定的角色和地位。试图采用传统姿态最终揭示作家姿态的方式称之为建构，这种建构并不能为理解和再现境以及作家在其中的地位和角色提供一种无可争议的方式。<br />
<br />
五四知识分子和作家通过对文化和文学传统的解构，试图在保守的过去和进步的现在与未来之间建立一种赋予现代文本权威的实用二分法。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
As the above readings show however, modern texts inevitably comprise a ''discourse'' on what is made out to be tradition and modernity. This discourse inscribes, negotiates, and transforms tradition within the modern text albeit in an ever varying and irrepressible way. The texts’ complexity, subtexts, and plurality of meaning arises from a ''negotiation'' between familiar conventions and new and modern perspectives in search of identities, roles, and positions in a changing time and place. Ultimately, the texts are texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays.<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
'''From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature'''<br />
<br />
''Wang Ban''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
As a genre, the essay in contemporary China can be seen as a symptom of the decline of historical consciousness and narrative. This comes through most sharply when compared with the previously established literary paradigm: the Chinese novel in the realistic mode. For many decades the fiction of revolutionary realism served as ideological apparatus and medium for providing coherent temporal perceptions about past, present, and future.<br />
<br />
'''从历史叙事到散文世界: 当代中国文学的散文模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种体裁在当代中国被视作历史意识和叙事走向衰弱的象征。当将其与先前建立的文学典范—现实主义模式的中文小说对比时，这一点尤为明显。数十年来，革命现实主义的小说都是意识形态的工具和媒介，它为提供连贯的对于过去，现在和未来的时间观念而服务。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 11:41, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''从历史叙事到散文世界:中国当代文学的散文化模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种文学体裁，在当代中国被视为是一种历史意识和叙事意识衰落的表现。与之前确立的文学范式——现实主义模式下的中国小说相比，这一点表现得最为明显。几十年来，革命现实主义小说一直作为一种意识形态工具和媒介，提供了关于过去、现在和未来的连贯的时间感知。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''从历史性叙事到散文世界：中国当代文学的散文模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文是一种文学体裁，中国当代的散文可以被视为历史性意识和叙事的衰落象征。与之前已建立的文学范式对比可明显得出这个结果：现实主义模式下的中国小说。许多年来，小说中革命性的现实主义是作为对过去，现在和未来提供连贯短暂的感知力的意识形态的结构和中介而服务的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 10:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The realistic novel's central assumption is epic best described by Georg Lukacs, who construes the epic form as a projected ideal that is realizable through narrated social and historical actions. Little thought needs to be taken to see that a revolutionary epic is a strenuous but finally triumphant harmony of ideal and reality. The rise of the essay in the recent decades epitomizes the turn of literary writing from the epic coherence of ideal and life to the dispersed and fragmented sensory or sensual pleasures and sheer appreciation of images or anecdotes.<br />
<br />
卢卡奇(Georg Lukacs)对现实主义小说的中心假设是史诗，他将史诗的形式解释为一种投射的理想，这种理想可以通过叙述社会和历史行为而实现。无须多想，革命史诗是理想与现实的艰苦而最终胜利的和谐统一。近几十年来随笔的兴起是文学创作的一个缩影，从理想与生活史诗般的连贯，到感官或感官愉悦的分散和支离破碎，以及对形象或轶事的纯粹欣赏。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay retreats from historical consciousness and responds warmly and lightheartedly to the advent of consumer culture. It is designed to satisfy the modest needs of the urban consumer whose sensibility is becoming “essayistic,” prosaic, ahistorical and everyday, preoccupied with the most intimate and quotidian matters. This paper takes a look back at Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay and attempts to trace the linkage between the modern essay and the rise of urban consumer culture. Then through an analysis of Wang Anyi's novella ''The Story of Our Uncle'' (Shushu de gushi), I demonstrate how the retreat from historical consciousness to what I would call the essayistic structure of feeling is dramatized by Wang's groping, explorative essay/fiction.<br />
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这篇文章摆脱了历史意识，对消费文化的到来做出了热情而轻松的回应。 它旨在满足城市消费者的适度需求，因为他们的敏感性正变得“散文化”，平淡无奇，历史悠久，每天都在忙于处理最私密和琐碎的事情。 本文回顾了张爱玲的论文思想，并试图追溯现代论文与城市消费文化兴起之间的联系。 然后，通过分析王安忆的中篇小说《叔叔的故事》，我展示了王的摸索，探索性论文/小说如何戏剧性地从历史意识退缩到我所说的感觉的文章结构。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 07:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
The main character Uncle's career illustrates the waning of historical consciousness. This paper seeks to point out that the essay's ambivalence lies in its freedom from the straitjacket of the grand narrative and in its contribution to the withering of historical consciousness in the rising consumer culture in China. <br />
<br />
'''The Essay and the Novel'''<br />
<br />
The essay as a cultural form can be grasped in its relation to the novel. In twentieth-century China the novel in the epic, realistic mode had been the dominant form of literature and a pivotal ideological apparatus--probably up to the mid-1980s. The Chinese realistic novel can be construed as epic in the way formulated by Georg Lukács.<br />
<br />
主人公叔叔的事业说明了历史意识的减弱。 本文力求指出，散文的矛盾之处在于其摆脱了宏大叙事的束缚，并且对中国崛起的消费文化中历史意识的衰落做出了贡献。<br />
<br />
'''散文与小说'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种文化形式，可以与小说联系起来。 在20世纪的中国，可能直到1980年代中期为止，史诗般的现实主义小说一直是文学的主要形式和重要的意识形态工具。中国现实主义小说可以用乔治·卢卡奇（GeorgLukács）的方式解释为史诗。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Its epic characteristic lies in its historical scope and teleology, its engagement with social and political issues, its intertwining of the individual's fate with collective projects, its aesthetics of the exemplary hero, and its striving for transcendence within everyday immanence. The novel of socialist realism in the Mao era strove to achieve an imaginary unity of transcendent ideals and quotidian reality. It depicts a universe in which the world and the self “never become permanent strangers to one another” (Lukács 29) and the individual's growth is of one piece with communal destiny. In the post-Mao era, often dubbed the New Period, works of fiction appeared to be different but were still imbued with an epic impulse. <br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
It is true that the 1980s saw the emphatic upsurge of interest in the subjectivity of the autonomous individual, but far from an atomistic ego of appetitive self-interest, fictional characters were still figured as the subject of history. For all its seeming revolt against the previously dominant mode, the image of the newly awakened modern self in the fiction of the New Period went hand in hand with the socio-historical process of socialist modernization, individuals serving as agents of this process. Thus, Fredric Jameson's concept of national allegory--in which the individual's fate tells a larger story of collective destiny – was well received in Chinese criticism and made to apply with equal ease to the realistic novel of the Mao era as well as those advocating reforms. <br />
<br />
Critics have noted that in the 1980s thought emancipation movement (sixiang jiefang), the fundamental literary mode and historical consciousness were derived from the Hegelian-Marxist version of the unity of subject and object, the individual and history. So the self that was upheld was not an autonomous self cut off from the collectivity of social processes, but was assimilated and modeled by the requirements of the modernization drive. See Qi Shuyu, 103-104.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
<br />
诚然，在20世纪80年代，人们对自主个体的主体性产生了浓厚的兴趣，但小说中的人物角色远不是出于利己主义的欲望，而是仍然被视为历史的主体。新时期小说中新觉醒的现代自我的形象与社会主义现代化的社会历史进程携手前行，个人充当了这一进程的代理人。因此,詹姆逊的国家概念的寓言——个人的命运讲述一个更大的集体命运——在中国大受好评的批评,使平等轻松地应用于毛泽东时代的现实主义小说,以及那些鼓吹改革。<br />
批评家们注意到，在20世纪80年代的思想解放运动中，主体与客体、个体与历史统一的黑格尔-马克思主义版本衍生出了基本的文学模式和历史意识。因此，所维护的自我并不是一个脱离社会过程的集体的自主的自我，而是被现代化进程的要求同化和塑造的自我。可见 Qi Shuyu, 103-104.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 06:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
If this view of the novel sounds anachronistic to contemporary China, we may justify it by a reference to the striven-for unity of revolutionary ideals and social reality, of theory and practice, a prominent tenet in the utopian legacy of Marxism. As literary counterpart of this projected unity the Chinese realistic novel presents a mythical and epic structure in which dream and history, individual and collective become one. In Lukács the epic is contracted with the novel, because the latter is a form stripped of the former’s immediate and unproblematic unity of ideal and reality (56).<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听起来不合时宜，我们可以通过引用革命理想和社会现实、理论和实践的统一来证明其合理性，这是马克思主义乌托邦遗产中的一个突出宗旨。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种神话和史诗结构，在这种结构中，梦想和历史、个人和集体成为一体。 在卢卡斯看来，史诗是缩略的小说，因为后者是一种脱胎于前者的直接的、没有问题的理想与现实的统一的形式(56)。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:41, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听上去不合时宜，那么我们可以参照争取革命理想与社会现实、理论与实践的统一来证明其正确性，这是马克思主义乌托邦遗产中一个突出的信条。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种梦想与历史、个人与集体合一的神话史诗结构。在卢卡斯看来，史诗与小说紧密相连，因为后者是一种剥离了前者直接的、毫无问题的理想与现实统一的形式（56）。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 14:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听上去不合时宜，那么我们可以参照马克思主义乌托邦遗产中一个突出的信条，即争取革命理想与社会现实、理论与实践的统一。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种梦幻与历史、个人与集体合一的神话史诗结构。在卢卡奇，史诗与小说紧密相连，因为后者脱离了前者直接而毫无疑问的理想与现实的统一（56）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
In other words, the novel in the Western realistic tradition is troubled by the intrusion of time, which causes fractures in the epic, time-defying harmony between self and collectivity, dream and actuality. But Lukács still insists that the novel is a kind of epic, because it strives to close the fissures created by the gap of time, hence potentially able to attain the epic status on a higher level. <br />
<br />
The gap between ideal and reality is minimized in the Chinese novel, which appears to be more epic than the realistic novel in the West. The novel of revolutionary realism is closer to poetry, marked with tremendous lyricism, as Charles Laughlin notes with regard to the socialist sanwen in his essay “Incongruous Lyricism” in this volume.<br />
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换句话说，西方现实主义传统小说因受到时间的侵扰而困扰，这种侵扰导致自我与集体、梦境与现实之间的史诗性、时间性和谐出现裂痕。但是卢卡斯仍然坚持小说也是一种史诗，因为小说试图对时间差造成的断裂进行修复，因此有潜在可能达到更高层次的史诗地位。<br />
<br />
在中国小说里，理想和现实的差距被最小化，中国小说看起来似乎比西方的现实小说更加具有史诗性质。革命现实主义小说更接近于诗，同时巨大的抒情性为标志，正如查尔斯·劳夫林在本卷文章“不协调的抒情诗”中提到的社会主义散文那样。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 14:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
It would not seem incongruous when lyrical exuberance, equated with revolutionary idealism and utopianism, is maximized in the novel as a way to transcend and close the gap between a historical time marked by imperialist invasions, sufferings, and poverty on the one hand, and the ultimate ideal of communism culminating in the epic harmony of ideal and reality, theory and practice, on the other. The novel in this mode is supposed to be more than a text you read, curled up in your couch in a snowy winter night in solitary comfort. It was ideological, educational, edifying, its grand narrative projecting material praxis. It aimed to instigate you to go out into the streets or impoverished villages and get organized with other fellow humans to make history.<br />
<br />
和革命现实主义和乌托邦主义一样，慷慨激昂的抒情小说中一方面最大化地弥合了历史上帝国主义入侵时期苦难和贫穷之间的差距，另一方面，实现共产主义最终理想，实现理想与现实、理论与实践的史诗般的和谐。这种模式的小说应该远不止我们在寒冬飘雪的夜晚舒舒服服地蜷缩在沙发上阅读的文本。而是意识形态的、教育性的、启迪式的宏大叙事题材实践。这种小说旨在促使你上街或到贫穷的村庄，和其他人们组织起来创造历史。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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小说中的抒情繁荣被等同于革命唯心主义和乌托邦主义时，似乎就显得格格不入，其一方面最大化地弥合了历史上帝国主义入侵时期导致的苦难和贫穷；另一方面，实现了共产主义最终理想，实现了理想与现实、理论与实践的史诗般的和谐。这种模式下的小说不是我们在寒冬飘雪的夜晚，舒服蜷缩在沙发上看的那类小说。而是意识形态的、教育性的、启发性的，其宏大的叙事投射了物质实践。 它的目的是鼓励您走上街头或走进贫困的村庄，并与其他同伴一起创造历史。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:40, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The rise of the essay in contemporary China is a sign that the novel in the epic mode has become an endangered species. This is not merely the problem of genre, nor am I suggesting that readers are flocking to essays and abandoning novels. My point is that the novel as a medium of envisioning social life and registering experiences of temporality is giving way to the essay, or more generally to the essayistic structure of sensibility. I play with the idea of essayistic in order to refer to the essay as a canonical textual form as well as those discursive moments in other literary genres embodying an “essayistic” quality and a “prosaic” structure of feeling.<br />
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散文在当代中国的兴起，标志着史诗模式下的小说已经面临濒危。这不仅仅是体裁的问题，我也不是在建议读者们蜂拥去写散文而放弃小说。我的观点是，小说作为一种想象社会生活和记录时间体验的媒介，正在让位于散文，或者更普遍地，让位于感性的散文结构。为了使散文成为一种规范的文本形式，以及其他文学体裁中体现“散文学”质量和“散文学”结构的话语性瞬间，我运用了散文论的思想。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 17:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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散文在当代中国的兴起，意味着史诗类型小说的下坡。这不仅是题材问题，我也不是说建议读者们一股脑地去阅读散文作品而将小说抛诸脑后。我的意思是，小说作为一种想象社会生活和记录时间体验的媒介，正在让位于散文，更笼统地说就是在让位于感性的散文式结构。为了使散文成为一种规范的文本形式，以及其他文学体裁中体现“散文学”质量和“散文学”结构的话语性瞬间，我运用了散文论的思想。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:00, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
One crucial point to made is that this emotional structure accords with the everyday sensibility of a city-dweller and consumer. This is one reason why it is instructive to contract the essayistic with the novel. The essay deals with a prosaic and mundane world. In Hayden White’s recapturing of Hegel’s distinction of poetry and prose, “The world in which prosaic utterance developed must be supposed to have been one in which experience had become atomized and denuded of its ideality and immediately apprehended significance, and voided of its richness and vitality” (87).This prosaic world of fragmented experience is to the Chinese novel as the Lukácsian novel is to the epic: a fall from an original oneness. In contemporary China, neither the novel nor poetry seems to be a means of closing this widened gap. My purpose in the essay is to examine the position of the essayistic in relation to the novel, and the related sensibilities in relation to history.<br />
<br />
关键的一点是，这种情感结构与城市居民和消费者的日常情感相符。这就是为什么说把散文家和小说联系起来是有益的。散文处理的是一个平淡且平凡的世界。在海登怀特对黑格尔的诗歌和散文的区分的重述中，他指出，"在散文性语句发展的世界里，经验已经被原子化，它的理想性和即刻领会的重要性被剥夺，它的丰富性和生命力丧失"（87）。这个由碎片化经验构成的散文性世界对于中国小说来说就像卢卡斯小说对于史诗的意义一样：从原始的单一性中堕落。在当代中国，无论是小说还是诗歌，似乎都不是弥合这一差距的手段。本文旨在考察散文家在小说中的地位，以及与历史相关的情感。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
The Hegelian Marxist perspective I sketched earlier is helpful here for understanding the shift from the novel to the essay. For Hegel art is necessary because it strives for a seamless, organic apotheosis of transcendent spirit and mundane reality. This view, though historical, can lead to two contradictory conclusions. In Hegel art is historical because it is a stage of the Spirit's journey to its self-realization. As art evolves as historically transitory forms of the Spirit, the movement of history leads to the abolition of certain forms of art, or the demise of art altogether. On this account the novel would be a casualty of the Spirit’s historical movement and self-realization. For Hegel art becomes problematic and obsolete because the “world of prose” has attained the empirical form erstwhile aspired to by art. In the world of prose, the Spirit has realized itself both in thought and in socio-political praxis, exemplified by the Prussian state.<br />
我前面所概述的黑格尔马克思主义观点有助于理解从小说到散文的转变。对于黑格尔来说，艺术是必要的，因为它努力实现超越精神和世俗现实的无缝、系统的神化。 这一观点虽然是历史的，但可以得出两个相互矛盾的结论。 黑格尔认为艺术是历史性的，因为它是圣灵走向自我实现过程中的一个阶段。 当艺术演变为历史上短暂的精神形式时，历史运动导致某些形式的艺术被废除或者完全消亡。 因此，小说将成为圣灵历史运动和自我实现的牺牲品。对于黑格尔来说，艺术变得有疑问和过时，因为“散文世界”已经达到了过去艺术所渴望的经验形式。 在散文的世界中，圣灵在思想和社会政治实践中都实现了自己，普鲁士国家就是例证。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
我前面所概述的黑格尔马克思主义观点有助于理解从小说到散文的转变。对于黑格尔来说，艺术是必要的，因为它努力实现超越精神和世俗现实的无缝、系统的神化。 这一观点虽然是历史的，但可以得出两个相互矛盾的结论。 黑格尔认为艺术是历史性的，因为它是圣灵走向自我实现过程中的一个阶段。 当艺术演变为历史上短暂的精神形式时，历史运动导致某些形式的艺术被废除或者完全消亡。 因此，小说将成为圣灵历史运动和自我实现的牺牲品。对于黑格尔来说，艺术变得困难重重且过时，因为“散文世界”已经达到了过去艺术所渴望的经验形式。在散文的世界中，圣灵在思想和社会政治实践中都实现了自己，普鲁士国家就是例证。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:57, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
The polity embodied by the Prussian state is for Hegel is the epitome of theory put into practice, a real image of realized art. As Luckács remarked of Hegel, “Thus art becomes problematic precisely because reality has become non-problematic” (Lukács 17).<br />
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Lukács, however, draws a contrary lesson from this historical, or more precisely the “end-of-history,” “end of art” thesis. Taking issue with Hegel's view of art as “aestheticized” body politic, Lukacs argues that the problem of the novel is a mirror image of a world gone out of joint. In modern times the novel is still alive as the impulse of art is still pressing. The novel is aesthetically and epistemologically vital and necessary not because the established reality has achieved what art can only dream. On the contrary, the novel is a desperate attempt to patch up a broken reality and inject little doses of meaning into a world emptied of spontaneous and totalisable significance.<br />
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普鲁士国家所体现的政体是黑格尔是付诸实践的理论缩影，是现实艺术的真实形象。 正如拉克奇（Luckács）评论的黑格尔的那样，“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术才成为问题所在”（卢卡奇17）。<br />
然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点得到了截然不同的教训。 卢卡奇对黑格尔将艺术视为“审美化的”身体政治的观点持怀疑态度，他认为这本小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。 在现代，由于艺术的冲动仍在继续，小说仍然活着。 这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，并且不是必需的，因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:46, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于黑格尔来说，普鲁士王国代表的政体是理论成为现实的缩影，是现实艺术的真正形象。正如卢卡奇(Luckács)评价黑格尔时所说的：“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术就成了问题所在。”（卢卡奇 17）<br />
然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点中得到了截然不同的教训。卢卡奇不认同黑格尔“将艺术看作美学政体”的观点，他认为这部小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。艺术的冲击力仍在继续，因此现代小说依然保持着其生命力。这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，这是必需的，并不是因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Therein lies its modern irony, the irony of dreaming the perfection of the world while knowing acutely the impossibility of perfection. Interestingly, Lukács' insight into the ironic, self-reflexive nature of the novel provides a glimpse on the condition of the essay. In the Chinese realistic novel, to be sure, the historical totality of communist utopia emerging out of a mundane reality is the shining symbol of inspiration, bearing a superficial resemblance to the Hegelian realization of Spirit in the state. But the faith in the final triumph of communist utopia and the attainment of a fully emancipated society is presumed by the novelistic discourse as law-like and predetermined, hence realistic and inevitable. Thus the decline of the novel, the novel in the epic mode, can be read as the decline of the grand, Marxist narrative of historical teleology. In contrast, the rise of the essay harbingers a more fragmentary, disjoint, and private form of signifying practice that is springing up in the cracks and gaps of a fallen reality, a world out of joint.<br />
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它的现代讽刺性就在于此，在梦想完美世界的同时，又深知完美的不可能。有趣的是，卢卡奇对小说的反讽性、自省性的洞察，让我们得以一窥这篇文章的状况。在中国现实主义小说中，可以肯定的是，从世俗现实中涌现出来的共产主义乌托邦的历史总体性是灵感的光辉象征，表面上与黑格尔的精神在国家中的实现有着的相似之处。但对共产主义乌托邦的最终胜利和全面解放社会的实现的信念，却被小说话语假定为规律性的、预设性的，因而具有现实性和必然性。因此，小说、史诗模式的小说的衰落，可以理解为宏大的马克思主义的历史叙事的衰落。相比之下，散文的兴起则预示着一种更为支离破碎、彼此分离和私人化的表意实践形式，这种形式正在一个堕落的现实世界的裂缝和缝隙中涌现。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 04:49, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
The world out of joint is a compelling image of today's China going commercialized, globalized, and fragmented in all aspects of life. The phrase “out of joint' here is meant to denote both the explosive vitality and disorienting chaos, the drama and trauma of the Chinese scene unfolding in the past decade. To grasp China as a vast market place, a rising consumer society, an emergent culture of mass media and spectacles, I refer the reader to numerous reports by journalists, economists, and a vast number of essays written by writers who have recently turned to the personal essay as a forum. Literature, as a historical vision and ideological apparatus, is hanging in the balance.<br />
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脱节是当今中国在生活各个方面走向商业化、全球化和碎片化的一个引人注目的形象特点。在这里，“脱节”一词意指蓬勃发展的活力和令人困惑的混乱，以及过去十年中中国社会的戏剧性和创伤。要了解中国是一个巨大的市场，一个正在崛起的消费社会，一个新兴的大众媒体文化和奇观，我建议读者参考大量的记者、经济学家的报道，以及大量的文章，这些文章的作者最近转向个人文章作为论坛。文学作为一种历史的视野和意识形态的工具，悬而不保。<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 04:46, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
失控的世界是当今中国走向商业化、全球化和生活各方面碎片化的一个引人注目的形象。 这里的 "失控 "一词，既是指活力无限，也是指混乱不堪，以及过去十年中国社会戏剧性的创伤。 要了解中国这个庞大的市场、崛起的消费社会、新兴的大众传媒和文化奇观，我推荐读者阅读众多记者、经济学家的报告，以及近来转而以个人散文为阵地的作家所写的大量文章。 文学，作为一种历史眼光和意识形态的工具，正处于悬而未决的状态。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:59, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Like many other spheres of culture, it has become commodified and entered the marketplace, being packaged into one more item in the mass media and entertainment industry. This altered social context is crucial to understanding the essay as a literary form and a cultural medium of expression in contemporary China. But this link between the culture of commodity and the essay, or the essayistic mode of writing and feeling, is not a brand new phenomenon of the last decade.<br />
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For a tracing of the historical linkage we may turn to the earlier period in modern literary history. Eileen Chang's essays and her reflection on the essay form are the compelling and successful instance of the marriage between the essay and mass culture. Nicole Huang’s paper in this volume looks at some aspects of this marriage as manifest in Chang’s essay.<br />
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像许多其他文化领域一样，它已经商品化并进入市场，在大众传媒和娱乐业被包装成一个又一个项目。这种变化的社会语境对于理解散文作为当代中国的一种文学形式和文化表达媒介至关重要。但是，商品文化与散文，或者说散文写作和感受的方式之间的这种联系，并不是最近十年出现的一种全新现象。<br />
<br />
为了追溯这一历史联系，我们可以追溯到现代文学史的早期。张爱玲的散文及其对散文形式的反思，是散文与大众文化联姻的成功范例。黄妮可在这本书中的论文着眼于这段婚姻的某些方面，这在张爱玲的文章中有所体现。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 06:24, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
This marriage finds its new manifestations in the work of the contemporary writer Wang Anyi, who is writing in a renewed urban context in many ways similar to that of Chiang. An analysis of Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay will help us understand Wang's work. Eileen Chang's views give the essay form a clear shape as it emerged in an urban and consumer culture. Wang Anyi's essays and especially the essayistic moments in her fiction mark the return of this consumer-oriented genre under new historical circumstances.<br />
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'''Eileen Chang and the Essay in the Urban Setting'''<br />
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The story and essay writer Eileen Chang has been seen as one source for Wang Anyi's work. Although Eileen Chang wrote fictions of urban life set in Shanghai and Hong Kong in a mixture of traditional and modernist styles, her writing is a sharp contrast and an antidote to the grand narrative of the May Fourth Enlightenment and revolution in modern Chinese literature.<br />
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This view of Hegel's on art is evoked by Lukács in his preface to ''The Theory of the Novel'', 11-23.<br />
这种结合在当代作家王安忆的作品中有了新的表现，王安忆在一个更新的城市语境中写作，在很多方面与蒋介石相似。分析张爱玲对这篇文章的思考，有助于我们理解王的作品。张爱玲的观点使这篇文章在城市和消费文化中形成了清晰的轮廓。王安忆的散文，尤其是小说中的散文时刻，标志着这一以消费为导向的文体在新的历史条件下的回归。<br />
《张爱玲与都市背景下的散文》<br />
故事和散文作家张爱玲被认为是王安忆作品的来源之一。尽管张爱玲的小说以上海和香港为背景，融合了传统和现代主义风格，但她的作品形成了鲜明对比，是中国现代文学中“五四”启蒙和革命宏大叙事的一剂解药。<br />
卢卡奇在《小说理论》的序言11-23中唤起了黑格尔对艺术的这种观点。--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 06:53, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
Her stories relish the irrelevancies, minor manias, trivia, and anxieties and depict random episodes of the urbanite's life. The intriguing depiction of the narrow romance and personality of the petty urbanites, ''xiaoshimin'', is her forte and attraction. The prose of life in a cramped and congested urban setting is not only the hallmark of her fiction, but also constitutes the major themes of her essays. While her essays correspond to and illuminate her fiction, her thoughts on essay writing serve to highlight the aesthetic quality of the essayistic in modern Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang's essay collection ''Floating Words'' (sometimes translated as ”Written on Walter”) is a compelling example of the essay as it emerged in Chinese urban culture. In the opening essay entitled “The Child Utters his Words without Constraints” (Tongyan wuji) she equates her essays to the chatty, whimsical, and willful airing of pent-up feelings whenever and wherever she can, like an unrestrained child.<br />
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她的故事津津乐道于无关紧要的小事、小躁动、小琐事、小焦虑，描写都市人生活中的随机事件。对都市小资的狭隘浪漫和个性''小资''的描写耐人寻味，是她的强项和魅力所在。散文式描写在狭窄拥挤的城市环境中的生活，不仅是她小说的特点，也构成了她散文的主要主题。她的散文在对应和照应她的小说的同时，她对散文写作的思考也起到了凸显中国现代文学中散文主义审美品质的作用。<br />
张爱玲的散文集《流言》（有时译为《写在沃尔特上》）是中国城市文化中出现的散文的一个引人注目的例子。 在散文集的开篇《童言无忌》一文中，她仿佛在散文中随意畅聊、异想天开、任性地宣泄压抑的感情，像一个无拘无束的孩子。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Writers like her, she says, have little to do with earth-quaking, epoch-making historical events and should drop the dream of immortality attainable from self-portrayal by writing a popular autobiography. The satisfaction and salvation for a writer are writing “bits and pieces about matters concerning oneself” (7). The matters of self-concern, as Chang continues, include money, dress, eating, important personages and their grotesque undersides, and family relations. Within a few pages of this first essay we have a range of sundry themes expressing interest in consumer habit, survival in the city, personal and social relations in an increasingly compartmentalized urban culture. Running down the table of contents of this essay collection, we have trouble classifying what the essays focus on, except to say that they essay opinion and play around with perceptions just about anything in city life. They touch upon whatever flickers through the mind, passes in view, appeals to the senses, any stereotypical or routine scenes or acts in the urban setting.<br />
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她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有多大关系，应该通过写一本流行的自传，放弃从自我描绘中获得永生的梦想。对一个作家来说，满足和拯救是写“关于自己的事情的点点滴滴”。如常所说，自我关注的问题包括金钱、衣着、饮食、重要人物及其怪异的下体，以及家庭关系。在这篇第一篇文章的几页里，我们有各种各样的主题，表达了人们对消费习惯、在城市中的生存、在日益分化的城市文化中的个人和社会关系的兴趣。纵观这篇论文集的目录，我们很难将这些文章的重点分类，只说它们是在写观点，在城市生活中玩弄感知。他们触及任何在脑海中闪过的东西，经过视线的东西，吸引感官的东西，任何在城市环境中的陈规的或常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 05:42, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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<br />
她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯的兴趣，在城市的生存，个人和社会关系在一个日益分割的城市文化。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及任何在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯，在城市中生存，在一个日益分割的城市文化中个人和社会的关系的兴趣。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及一切在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:17, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
There are, to give a taste of their randomness and miscellany, pieces about living in an apartment, beating up people, private and intimate words, shallow impressions about art, changing dresses, woman, rains, the umbrellas, even about a routine act of going upstairs. <br />
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While it is surely impossible to box these essays into a general category and abstract a unifying principle, Eileen Chang points beyond this charmed collection of essays to the grand historical narrative and thus provides a useful reference point for what the essay refuses to do. If it is not clear what the essay is, Chang shows what it is not. She sees the essay in its withdrawal from and rejection of historical discourse and in its all-consuming absorption in the mundane and fragmented urban scenes. The nature of the essay seems to lie in its irrelevance to history as a literary principle:<br />
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为了展现他们的随意和杂乱，有很多关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语的碎片，对于艺术，服饰变换，女性，雨天，雨伞，甚至上楼这种日常动作的浅谈。<br />
<br />
当然这些文章不可能被归入一个大概范畴，从而抽象为一个统一的原则，但张爱玲在这本迷人的散文集之外，指出了宏大的历史性叙事，从而为这篇文章不能做的事情提供了一个有用的参考点。如果不明白某篇文章是什么，张会说明这篇文章不是什么。她认为这篇文章是对历史话语的回避和拒绝，是对世俗和支离破碎的城市场景的全身心地投入。这篇文章的本质似乎在于它与作为文学原则的历史无关：--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
为了让人感受到它们的随意性和杂乱感，有关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语等碎片化场景，有关于艺术、换衣服、女人、雨、雨伞等浅薄印象，甚至有关于上楼的这种日常动作，都被记录下了。<br />
<br />
虽然肯定不可能把这些文章归入一个大类，抽象出一个统一的原则，但张爱玲却把这本充满魅力的文章集指向了宏大的历史叙事之外，从而为散文拒绝做的事情提供了一个有益的参考点。如果不清楚散文是什么，张爱玲就说明它不是什么。她看到了散文对历史话语的抽离和拒绝，看到了散文对平凡而零碎的城市场景的全盘吸收。散文的本质似乎在于，作为一种文学原则，它与历史无关。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
I have no desire to write history, nor am I qualified to make judgement on the historian's perceptions. But privately I hope they would say more things that are irrelevant. Reality as such is not systematic; it is like seven or eight chatter-boxes sounding simultaneously, creating confusion. But amidst this incomprehensible sound and fury there occur moments of illumination, poignant and bright, enabling us to hear the tune and understand a bit, only to be swallowed up by the thickening darkness. Painters, writers, and composers connect these chancy, fragmented discoveries and create artistic wholes. (41)<br />
<br />
As a fiction writer Chang does not believe in artistic perfection. She creates “imperfect” and flawed characters in her fiction, as she repeatedly claims. In her essays she holds it important to write about the irrelevancies, for, as she proclaims, all life' charms are to be found in the irrelevancies. (42)<br />
<br />
我没有书写历史的欲望，我也没有资格去评价历史学家们的看法。但就个人而言，我更希望他们能多说些无关紧要的东西。现实本身不是系统的，它就像七八个同时响起的话匣子，喋喋不休，让人产生困惑。但这不可理喻的声音和喧嚣会时不时会出现片刻的启发，心酸而明亮，让我们能听到曲子并理解它一点，最后只能被浓重的黑暗吞噬。画家，作家和作曲家关联着这些偶然的破碎的发现，并创造了艺术整体。（41）<br />
<br />
作为小说家，张爱玲并不相信艺术的完美。正如她重复申明的那样，在小说中她创造出“不完美”，有瑕疵的人物。在她的散文中，书写不相关的事是很重要的。因为正如她所说，所有生活的魅力都发现于那些不相关之事中。（42）<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay reflects certain aspects of Chinese modernity that provides a context for understanding the essay form as an increasingly prominent cultural medium. The essay for her is a writing practice opposed to the historically oriented and politically charged literature, to the teleological historical narrative, and to the monumental work of art. Formalistically the essay is random, self-contradictory, expressive, and therapeutic. Eileen Chang's essays are a radical departure from Lu Xun's miscellaneous essay (''zawen''). Despite its similarly disjoint, personal, and casual form, the ''zawen'' à la Lu Xun is polemic, militant, acid, socially and political engaged. It seizes upon the small and transitory but its gaze goes past them to the culturally and historically significant. This engaged character puts the ''zawen'' in a close lineage with the didactic tradition of May Fourth literature aimed at raising readers' consciousness or jolting them out of the half-sleep of tradition and convention.<br />
<br />
张爱玲对散文的思考反映了中国现代性的某些方面，这为理解作为日益突出的文化媒介的散文形式提供了一个语境。对她来说，这篇散文是一种与历史导向和充满政治色彩的文学、目的论的历史叙事和不朽的艺术作品相对立的写作实践。从形式上来说，这篇散文是任意性的、自相矛盾的但又富有表现力和治疗性。张爱玲的文章是对鲁迅杂文的彻底背离。尽管鲁迅笔下的“杂文”体现出类似的不连贯性、个人化和随意的形式，但它是论战性的、激进的、尖刻的、社会的和政治的。鲁迅的文章捕捉到的是渺小而短暂的事物，但其目光越过它们，投向其背后体现的文化性和历史性。这个引人入胜的特点将“杂文”与五四文学的说教传统紧密联系在一起，旨在提高读者的意识，试图将他们从传统和习俗的沉睡中唤醒。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 08:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲对散文的思考反应了中国现代性的某些方面，而这为理解散文形式作为一种日益凸显的文化媒介提供了一种语境。散文于她来说是一种反对历史导向和政治色彩文学，目的论历史叙述以及鸿篇巨制的写作实践。形式上来看，散文是随意、自相矛盾、富有表达力以及治愈的。张爱玲的散文是对鲁迅杂文的彻底背离。尽管张的散文也呈现出不连贯，个人化以及形式随意等特点，相较之下鲁迅的杂文是善辩、有攻击性、尖酸并且是社会和政治性的。它抓住微小，短暂之物，但其目光却越过它们，投向文化和历史的高度。这一引人入胜的特点将杂文和五四文学的说教传统紧密联系起来，旨在唤起读者的意识，或将他们从传统习俗的半梦半醒中惊醒过来。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:59, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
The rise of consumer mentality, urban culture, and the new role of the writer as a professional breadwinner brought to prominence the values of entertainment, charm, taste, performance, charisma, and glamour--values inherent to urban culture with a good appetite for entertainment, images, and spectacles. This emergent socio-historical context was overshadowed and marginalized by the dominant political ideology and historical narrative in the decades after Eileen Chang's short-lived popularity. <br />
<br />
Andrew Jones of UC-Berkeley is at work to translate Eileen Chang’s essay collection into English and he uses the phrase “Written on Water.”<br />
<br />
In his recent book ''Shanghai Modern'' Professor Leo Lee has admirably traced Eileen Chang's writing and the commercial urban culture she was immersed in. See the Chapter “Eileen Chang: Romances in a Fallen City,” 267-303.<br />
<br />
消费者心态，城市文化以及职业性养家糊口的新角色：作家的兴起，突显了娱乐，魅力，品味，表演，魅力和诱惑力的价值，这些都是城市文化所固有的价值，并且它们对于 娱乐，印象和景象有着不错的需求。 在张爱玲昙花一现之后的几十年中，这种新兴的社会历史背景被占主导地位的政治意识形态和历史叙事所掩盖和边缘化。<br />
<br />
加州大学伯克利分校的安德鲁·琼斯（Andrew Jones）正在将张爱玲的论文集翻译成英文，并使用了“在水上的书写”一词。<br />
<br />
在他最近的著作《上海现代》中，leo教授怀有钦佩地追溯了张爱玲的著作以及她所沉浸的商业城市文化。请参见《张爱玲：堕落的浪漫》 267-303章。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 14:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
In the 1990s and in Wang Anyi's work, this historical context re-emerged with sharpness and vengeance. I will argue that the fate of the essay or the aesthetic quality of the essayistic cannot be understood without considering the revival of urban and consumer culture and its increasing detachment from the historical consciousness.<br />
<br />
'''Telling a Story Where There is no Story to Tell'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's work in the 1990s shows how deeply the urban mass culture has penetrated and transformed literature. The novel in the epic mode depends upon some preconceived story pattern which delivers ideological and historical convictions about temporal perceptions of past, present, and future. One symptom of the shift from the novel to the essay is the acute sense of lack of story, the sense that the archetypal stories that writers used to rely on to generate their narratives are no longer convincing.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以尖锐和复仇的笔触重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式提供了意识形态和历史信念，关于对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型是故事的严重缺失，作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
----<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代，以及在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感再现了。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 14:53, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For Wang Anyi this poverty of stories is directly linked to the urban setting. The title of one of her essays on literature “The City Has no Story to Tell” (Chengshi wu gushi) highlights the disappearance of sharable, communicable narratives in the city's amorphous atmosphere and the anonymous urban crowd. This essay makes quite clear the sociological transformations that have given rise to the generic shift from story to non-story, or from narrative fiction to the essayistic mode. In it Wang sets up a contrast between the village community and urban social organization. The tightly knit rural communities, such as villages and small towns, are the nurturing ground for sharable stories. As the social relations are largely those of family, kinship or clan, human contact and communication are more intimate and primarily face to face. Individuals act out their life stories in a pre-given trajectory and within a received social network of work, authority, and hierarchy.<br />
对王安忆来说，这种贫乏的故事与城市环境直接相关。她的一篇文学论文的题目是《城市无故事》，突显了在这座城市模糊的氛围和匿名的城市人群中，共享的、可传达的叙事已经消失。本文从社会学的角度，阐述了社会学的转型导致了小说叙事向非小说叙事、小说叙事向散文叙事模式的转型。在此基础上，王安忆对比了乡村社区与城市社会组织。紧密联系的农村社区，如村庄和小城镇，是共享故事的温床。社会关系主要是指家庭关系、亲属关系或宗族关系，人们之间的交流更为亲密，主要都是面对面的。在一个预先设定的轨迹中，在一个有着公认的工作、权力和等级社会网络中，人们讲诉着他们的生活故事。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 08:24, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
The stories both told and lived, recounted over and again against a backdrop of traditional orientation and self-evident norms. Traditional values and age-old customs shape the stories people tell each other and assure their intelligibility and guarantee cultural continuity. In short, the temporal and spatial perceptions are inherited and sedimented over time and can be repeated in new stories. <br />
<br />
This argument about village community brings to mind Benjamin's critique of the modern novel and re-evaluation of the communal storyteller. The village community is embedded in an inexhaustible fund of stories and exemplified by the culturally cohesive role of the storyteller. Benjamin's familiar argument takes on new significance when the contract between village and city is construed as a metaphoric tension between the self-assured story-telling in the epic mode of the Chinese novel and the disappearance of the story in the city.<br />
<br />
这些故事讲述和生活，在传统取向和不言而喻的规范的背景下一遍又一遍地叙述。传统价值观和古老的风俗习惯塑造了人们相互讲述的故事，保证了故事的可理解性和文化的连续性。简言之，时间和空间的感知是随着时间的推移而继承和沉淀的，并且可以在新的故事中重复。<br />
<br />
关于乡村社区的论点让我想到了本杰明对现代小说的批判和对公共叙事者的重新评价。 乡村社区被埋在无穷无尽的故事基金中，并以讲故事者的文化凝聚力为例。 当乡村与城市之间的契约被解释为中国小说史诗模式中的自我保证的故事讲述与城市中故事的消失之间的隐喻张力时，本杰明的熟悉论点具有新的意义。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
More importantly, the tension foregrounds the accelerated modernization process that has rendered almost obsolete, in less than a decade, the relatively habitual and time-worn socio-psychic infrastructure. It brings into sharp focus the market oriented, amorphous urban setting where the individual becomes atomic individuals, cut loose from the social moorings of kinship, community, and family, from lineage and history. Thrown into the competitive marketplace and transient impersonal relations, the individual has to rely on his or her own ingenuity and resources.. Since they come from different areas and are isolated from each other in the compartmentalized life spheres and specialized work, urban dwellers only have their own vastly different stories to tell, stories which are narrowly biographical and not readily meaningful to other people. There are more stories to tell, it is true, but the apparent multiplication of stories imply the poverty of a communicable story.<br />
<br />
更重要的是，紧张局势预示着加速的现代化进程，在不到十年的时间里，这一进程几乎淘汰了相对熟悉的社会心理基础设施，现在它已显得陈旧不堪。这种局势给以市场导向的形势和未定型的城镇环境带来了极大的关注度，在这里，独立的个体变得微不足道，疏远亲属、社区和家庭关系，疏离血缘关系和历史关系。 人们被迫投入竞争激烈的市场，投身于短暂的没有人情味的关系里，他们必须依靠自己的天赋和资源。因为来自不同的地方，他们与彼此因生活领域和特定工作而相互隔离，住在城市的人只能说说关于自己的截然不同的故事，这些故事只限于谈论自己，所以对于其他人没有可读性，也无意义。的确，是有很多的故事可以说，但是故事的激增也暗示了好传播故事的缺乏。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
更重要的是，紧张局势预示着加速的现代化进程，在不到十年的时间里，这一进程几乎淘汰了相对熟悉的社会心理基础设施。这种局势给以市场导向的形势和未定型的城镇环境带来了极大的关注度：在这里，独立的个体变得微不足道；疏远亲属、社区和家庭关系，疏离血缘关系和历史关系。 人们被迫投入竞争激烈的市场，投身于短暂的没有人情味的关系里，这些人必须依靠自己的天赋和资源。来自不同的地方的他们与彼此因生活领域和特定工作而相互隔离，住在城市的人只能说说关于自己的截然不同的故事，这些故事只限于谈论自己，所以对于其他人没有可读性，也无意义。的确，是有很多的故事可以说，但是故事的激增也暗示了好传播故事的缺乏。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 05:48, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
This is what Wang means by saying there is lack of stories in the city. The endlessly varied confusion and lack of common interest lead to disjoint, fragmentary, anecdotal, performance-driven forms of writing often found in essays written for the consumer's relaxed state of mind, or mindlessness after a nice dinner.<br />
<br />
'''From the Historical to the Essayistic: the Fall of the Intellectual'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's ''The Story of Our Uncle'' illustrates the transition from the historically and ideological oriented literature to a form that could be characterized as essayistic. The novella was written in 1990, a time of drastic change for Chinese society and culture as a whole. From a culture dominated by an ideologically oriented and centralized state China was moving quickly into a brave new world of frenzied economic development, investment, consumerism, and pop culture. Something fundamental had drastically shaken the basic fabrics of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
这就是王先生所说的城市缺少故事的意思。 无穷无尽的各种困惑和缺乏共同的兴趣，导致了不连贯的、零碎的、轶事的、以表现为目的的写作形式，这些写作形式常常出现在为消费者轻松的心境而写的散文中，或者在一顿丰盛的晚餐后的无心之作中。<br />
<br />
'''从历史主义到文章主义：知识分子的堕落'''。<br />
<br />
王安忆的''舅舅的故事''说明了从历史性、意识形态性的文学向可称为散文性的形式过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、投资、消费主义和流行文化的勇敢新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本结构。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 12:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
王安忆的''叔叔的故事''表明了文学的形式由历史导向和意识形态导向往散文导向的过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、充盈着投资、消费主义和流行文化的崭新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本架构。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
''The Story of Our Uncle'' registered a very sensitive aspect of the epoch-making changes in China. Rather than interpret this novella as a literary text, I will look at it as a document tracing a shift in literary and social history. Focusing on a novelist's career, the novella delineates the qualitative shift in the value and function of literature in a time when ideology and politics were giving way to the market, economic development, and consumerism--all under the rubric of modernization. From the vicissitudes of a writer we may see how the novel as a cultural form loses its ground and how literary sensibility shifts to the essayistic. This generic shift provides a glimpse onto the fundamental social transformations in the 1990s.<br />
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《我们叔叔的故事》反映了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其把这部中篇小说解读为文学文本，不如把它看作是一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治逐渐让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的时代，文学的价值和功能发生了质的转变，所有这些均为响应现代化的号召。从一个作家跌宕起伏的人生经历中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失势的，文学情感是如何转向散文主义的。这种常见的转变让我们看到了20世纪90年代的基本社会变革。<br />
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Critics have noticed the presence of essayistic quality in Wang's writing, especially in her fiction.In ''The Story of Our Uncle'', one finds the essayistic prevailing over narrative.<br />
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评论家们已经发现了王安忆散文创作的本质，这一特点在科幻小说中表现突出。在《我们叔叔的故事》中人们发现散文的比重多余叙事。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:47, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《叔叔的故事》记录了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其将这部中篇小说解读为一个文学文本，不如将其视为一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以一个小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的现代化背景之下，文学的价值和功能发生了质的变化。从一个作家经历的沧桑巨变中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失去地位的，文学感召力又是如何向散文主义转变的。这种普遍性的转变让我们看到20世纪90年代社会的根本性变化。<br />
评论家们注意到了王安忆在创作的作品，尤其是她的小说中存在散文性。在《叔叔的故事》中，人们发现散文的成分多于叙事的成分。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
The text reads more like an essay-- rambling, random, analytical, disjoint, gossipy, chatty--than a straight narration, a fact acknowledged by the author herself. In this narrative-essay a young writer on behalf of his generation attempts make a biographical assessment of an older writer they call our uncle. One would be disappointed to expect an engaging action or dramatic story. Though the text retains the outward, apparent shape of a novella it is a hybrid composed of diverse genres, with literary and art criticisms, gossip, conjecture, history, philosophizing, anecdotes, and stories all rolled into one. The narrator suggests that this novella is an essay in the double sense of textual form and playful, explorative literary exercise. He proclaims in the opening paragraph that this is a story assembled out of a hodgepodge of elements, and there is no way to distinguish truth from falsehood.<br />
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这篇文章读起来更像是一篇散文——散漫、随意、有条理、絮絮叨叨、喋喋不休——而不是直接的叙述，这一点作者也承认。在这篇叙述-散文中，一位年轻作者代表他这一代人试图对一位他们称之为叔叔的老作家进行传记性评价。如果有人以为这会是一个引人入胜的行动或者一个戏剧性的故事，那么他就要失望了。尽管文本保留了小说的外在明显特征，但是它是一个由不同体彩杂糅成的混合体，集文学、艺术批判、八卦、猜测、历史、哲学、轶事和故事于一体。叙述者认为，这篇小说是一篇具有双重意义的散文，既有文本形式，又有充满游戏趣味和探索性的文学练习。他开篇就宣称，这个故事是各种元素糅合而成的大杂烩，无法区分真假。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
“Many blanks need to be filled up with imagination and inference,” and the story is filled with “subjective coloring” (181). The subjective, arbitrary, even whimsical character of the text is further associated, as the narrator notes, with the mode of production that writers have adopted as they are geared toward an emergent literary market. Writers, the narrator says, are people who spend their time making up stories. One day “we started circulating his (Uncle's) maxims.” To the laborers like us the maxims are significant, for they are capital in commodity production and can produce surplus value, which can put back to expanded reproduction. ''The Story of Our Uncle'' is thus premised on fragmentary axioms, an arbitrary principle of composition, random fantasy, and the form of commodity.<br />
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“许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始传播他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的构成原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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“许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始流传他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的创作原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
In a strictly formalistic sense, Wang's text complies with the usual comments and generalizations on the essay as a literary form. In Theodore Adorno's well-known essay entitled “The Essay as Form” we find numerous descriptions well suited to an analysis of the essay in the Chinese context. Adorno pits the essay against the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural condition of reification. The essay is envisaged as an ''enfant terrible'' or a serious playboy seeking the utopia space of the pleasure principle. Thus the essay turns up its nose to the notions of totality, completeness, systematicity, the universal and the eternal. It is marked by fragments, excessive fantasy and interpretation, exploration, and experiments. Its supposed form is actually formlessness. Abandoning the rigid conceptual schemata, it seeks and engages the object in its historical specificity and quotidian trivia.<br />
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从严格的形式主义意义上讲，王的文本符合论文中通常的评论和概括的文学形式。 在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《作为形式的散文》中，我们发现了许多非常适合在中国语境下对论文进行分析的描述。 阿多诺将这篇论文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来的社会文化条件化相提并论。 这篇文章被认为是“恐怖的婴儿”或寻求娱乐原则的乌托邦空间的严肃的花花公子。 因此，本文对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性的概念大加赞赏。 它的特点是碎片，过多的幻想和解释，探索和实验。 它的假定形式实际上是无形式。 它摒弃了僵化的概念图式，而是以对象的历史特殊性和“琐事琐事”来寻找和参与对象。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:35, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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从严格的形式主义上讲，王的文本遵循了对散文作为一种文学形式的评论和概括。在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《文章的形式》中，我们发现许多描述都很适合在中国语境下对这篇文章进行分析。阿多诺将该文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来物化的社会文化环境相对比。人们将这篇文章设想为“恐怖的婴儿”或是一个严肃的花花公子在追寻享乐主义的乌托邦。因此，文章对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性加以批判。该文碎片化，充斥着幻想，过度解释，探索性和实验性；没有预设的形式，摒弃了僵化的概念图式；追求写作的历史特殊性和日常性。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
While Adorno's comments are apt and in tune with much of Eileen Chang and Wang Anyi's musings on the essay, the philosophical framework in Adorno that the essay rebels against is different: the essay is up against the high-minded conceptual tyranny of Western philosophical tradition. In the Chinese literary convention the essay is not so clearly defined against something so established. Its polemic pole, I have tried to argue throughout this essay, is to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of revolutionary realism. <br />
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The essay is a literary exploration trying to break out of the conceptual and discursive straitjacket. Adorno quotes Max Bense and says that the essay “is distinguished from a treatise:<br />
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虽然阿多诺的评论很贴切，与张爱玲、王安忆对散文的很多思索是一致的，但散文在阿多诺那里所反抗的哲学框架是不同的：散文是与西方哲学传统的高高在上的概念暴政对抗的。 在中国的文学传统中，散文所反抗的东西并不是那么明确的。 我试图通过这篇文章论证：散文应被认定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：革命现实主义小说。 <br />
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本文是试图突破观念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用马克斯-本塞的话说，散文 "区别于论著。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:00, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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虽然阿多诺的评论是恰当的，符合张爱玲和王安忆对散文的思考，但阿多诺的哲学框架是不同的：散文反对西方哲学传统高高在上的概念暴政。 在中国的文学传统中，散文并没有如此明确地定义反对既定的东西。我试图用本文论证，散文被认为是目的论历史的启蒙运动和马克思主义范式及其文学对应物：革命现实主义小说。<br />
本文是一次试图打破概念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用了马克斯·本塞的话说，“这篇文章有别于一部专著：--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
The person who writes essayistically is the one who composes as he experiments, who turns his object around, questions it, feels it, tests it, reflects on it, who attacks it from different sides and assembles what he sees in his mind's eye and puts into words what the object allows one to see under the condition created in the course of writing. (17)<br />
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The dropping of a grand, complete vision and opting for the incomplete, trivial, and the experimental are what makes for the essay. The German word Versuch, attempt or essay, Adorno writes, is the place where “thought's utopian vision of hitting the bullseye is united with the consciousness of its own fallibility and provisional character” (16). This “indicates . . . something about the form, something to be taken all the more seriously in that it takes place not systematically but rather as a characteristic of an intention groping its way” (16).<br />
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See Wu Liang and Wang Anyi, “A Conversation on Reality and Fiction,” in Wang Anyi, Reality and Fiction (Jishi yu xugou) 325.<br />
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Adorno, 3-23.<br />
散文式写作的人是在实验中创作的人，他把客体转过来，质疑它，感受它，检验它，思考它，他从不同的角度攻击它，把他在脑海中看到的东西组合起来把客体在写作过程中创造的条件下允许人们看到的东西用文字表达出来。(17)<br />
放弃宏大的、完整的愿景，选择不完整的、琐碎的、实验性的，是这篇文章的组成部分。德语单词Versuch，尝试或文章，阿多诺写道，是“思想命中靶心的乌托邦愿景与意识到自身的错误和临时特性相结合的地方”。这“表明……一些关于形式的东西，一些需要更加认真对待的东西因为它不是系统地发生的而是作为一种意图的特征去探索它的方式。<br />
参见吴亮和王安忆《现实与小说的对话》，载于《王安忆:现实与小说》(季实余序购)325页。<br />
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阿多诺,3-23。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:23, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
An intention groping its way into the mysteries of the Uncle's life aptly describes the essayistic quality of Wang's novella. As a text assembled out of disparate materials-- hearsay, gossips, and guesswork, fantasy, and conjecture, the narrative enacts a wide array of pre-given discourses and narrative patterns to grope at the “real” life of the Uncle. These discourses and narratives are in their own turn commented on as objects of inquiry and critique on a “meta” level and treated as options in an experimental writing. As an intellectual the Uncle is typical of hundreds of thousands others persecuted in the political campaigns whose suffering and re-instatement in the post-Cultural Revolution period is now a cliche. But at the very outset the novella unpacks the myth of the suffering intellectual into forking paths of narrative.<br />
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探索叔叔生活之谜的意图恰如其分地描述了王中篇小说的散文主义特质。作为一个由传闻、闲话、猜测、幻想和猜想这样不同的材料组合而成的文本,叙事中出现了大量预先设定的话语和叙事模式，以探索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些话语和叙述在“元”层面上作为探究和评判的对象被评论，并在实验性写作中被视为可选择的事物。作为一名知识分子，叔叔是在政治运动中遭受迫害的数十万人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和恢复现在已成陈词滥调。但从一开始，这部中篇小说就把受苦知识分子的故事解构成了分岔的叙事路径。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:28, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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一种试图探索叔叔生活奥秘的意图恰当地描述了王的小说的本质特征。作为一篇由不同材料-道听途说，流言，猜测，幻想和猜想-拼凑而成的文本，叙事赋予了大量预先给定的话语和叙事模式，以摸索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些论述和叙述依次被评论为“元”层面上的探究和批判对象，并在实验写作中被视为选项。作为一个知识分子，叔叔是成千上万在政治运动中受到迫害的人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和重生现在已经是老生常谈了。但从一开始，中篇小说就将饱受苦难的知识分子的神话展开，开辟了叙事的道路。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
One can make up a narrative of the Uncle on his way to the place of exile, for instance, by recourse to a tragic-sublime scenario of political victims echoing Dostoevesky. Riding in a beat-up truck drudging through the vast, snowy Siberian landscape in the Northwest plateau, the victim/hero would ponder the significance of life and fate with an elderly wise man. One could also cast the Uncle in a lackluster, comic or even grotesque light, reduced to a mere creature of survival, trapped in a narrow village life. Like thousands of other writers, Uncle was persecuted and exiled because of his writing. But this fabled story of the tragic-heroic writer is again playfully retouched into three different versions by Uncles' own retelling after the fact. In the first telling, his persecution is a political story, indicting the tyranny of the political system. Then it is an existential story, intimating the mysterious and ironical workings of fate.Thirdly, it is a prophetic story, in the fashion of an Aesop fable, full of prescience and bodings of catastrophe.<br />
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比如，人们可以利用陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔流亡的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、被白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，和一位智叟一起思考生命的意义。同样，人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，一个在小村庄中艰难求生的人。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事经过叔叔的叙述后，被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度中的暴政。其次，这是一个存在主义故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:15, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
比如，人们可以通过陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔去流亡地的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，他会和一位睿智的老人一起思考生命和命运的意义。人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，沦为一个被困在狭小乡村生活中的求生之物。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事在叔父们在事后的复述后又被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度的暴政。第二，这是一个存在主义的故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性的故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
This intention groping its way into the Uncle's life draws upon various types of narrative patterns and aesthetic resources. This is by no means a literary embellishment for pure rhetorical variety or pleasure. The narration is saddled with the difficulties of understanding and getting the Uncle's life's straight. The difficulty is not the usual generational gap, but reflects different historical experiences and memory that separate the young from the old. This difference not only drives a wedge into the writers as a group, but also gives rise to the divergence of generic practice and the aesthetics informing it. This divergence is the key to understanding the essay and the essayistic.<br />
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进入叔叔生活的这种意图利用了各种类型的叙事模式和美学资源。 这绝不是纯粹的修辞变奏或娱乐的文学装饰。 叙述难于理解和理解叔叔的生活。 困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了将年轻人与老年人区分开的不同的历史经验和记忆。 这种差异不仅使作为一个整体的作家成为楔子，而且引起了通用实践和为其提供信息的美学的差异。 这种差异是理解论文和论文论的关键。<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种对叔父生活的探索，借鉴了各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源。这绝不是一种纯粹的修辞变化或乐趣的文学修饰。故事的叙述充满了理解和理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了不同的历史经验和记忆，把年轻人和老年人分开。这种差异不仅导致了作家群体的分裂，而且导致了一般实践和审美观的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文家的关键。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:06, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这旨在用各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源探索叔叔的生活。这绝不是纯粹为了变换修辞或者获得乐趣而进行的文学修饰，而是叙述着理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是普通的代沟，反映了年轻人和老年人的不同历史经历和记忆。这种差异不仅将作家群分裂开来，而且也导致了共性实践与传达共性实践的美学的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文论的关键。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:27, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
The older generation, having experienced political persecution and historical traumas at the first hand, is deeply grounded in a historical consciousness and a teleological narrative. The Uncle is intensely committed to writing literature as praxis for social change. His meteoric rise to the leading writer in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution indicates that the position of what Gramsci called the “organic” intellectual remains strong, even thriving. The popularity of his novels shows that a work of literature can make a tremendous hit and is an effective medium for criticizing the flaws of the system and raising the social, political consciousness of readers. It revives the legacy of the New Literature of May Fourth and is rightly re-baptized as the literature of the New Period (xin shiqi wenxue). It is the voice of the farsighted and the vanguard in China's modernization drive. Despite all his traumas and sufferings, the Uncle's generation, writers in their forties and over in the narrative time, remains firm in their belief in the organic totality of socio-historical process and the people's capacity in steering the course of history. Literature is simply one vehicle that carries this historical mission.<br />
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老一辈人亲身经历过政治迫害和历史创伤，有着较强的历史意识和目的性叙述能力。叔叔致力于以文学写作推动社会变革。他在 "文革 "后一跃成为领军作家，说明葛兰西所说的 "有机 "知识分子的地位依然稳固，甚至是蒸蒸日上。他创作的小说大受欢迎，这表明一部文学作品可以引起巨大的轰动，是批判制度缺陷，提高读者社会意识、政治意识的有效媒介。他的小说重扬了 "五四 "新文学的遗风，重新受洗为新时期文学。它是有远见之人的发声，是中国现代化进程中的先锋。叔叔那一代四十多岁的作家，在这段叙述时间里，尽管经历了种种创伤和苦难，但他们仍然坚信社会历史进程的有机整体性和人民引导历史进程的能力。文学只是承载这一历史使命的载体。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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老一辈人亲身经历过政治迫害和历史创伤，有着较强的历史意识和目的性叙述能力。叔叔致力于文学写作以推动社会变革。"文革 "后，他在一跃成为领军作家，说明葛兰西所说的 "有机 "知识分子的地位依然稳固，甚至是蒸蒸日上。他创作的小说大受欢迎，这表明一部文学作品可以引起巨大的轰动，它是批判制度缺陷，提高读者社会意识、政治意识的有效媒介。叔叔的小说重扬了 "五四 "新文学的遗风，重新受洗为新时期文学。它是有远见之人的传声筒，是中国现代化进程中的先锋。叔叔那一代四十多岁的作家，在这段叙述时间里，尽管经历了种种创伤和苦难，但他们仍然坚信社会历史进程的有机整体性和人民引导历史进程的能力。文学只是承载这一历史使命的载体。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 17:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The historical consciousness embodied by the Uncle is to find its corresponding form in an epic mode of writing: the realistic novel. The Uncle's general outlook on the world is epic in the Lukácsian sense. The young narrator captures this ''Weltanschauung'' very accurately: <br />
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The political life of the past few decades has filled up his personal experience and life. This enables Uncle to keep his worldview firmly anchored to reality and politics. The state and government encompass the whole world for him and form the vast backdrop for human activity. Patterns of people's behavior and conduct are but representatives of social life. The concept of culture sounds very abstract and empty to him. For him art should also perform real and political functions. (214-215)<br />
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叔叔所体现的历史意识是为了在史诗般的写作方式中找到其对应的形式：写实小说。 在卢卡奇的意味上，叔叔对世界的总体观是史诗般的。这位年轻的叙述者非常准确地捕捉到了这个世界观：<br />
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叔叔过去几十年个人经历和生活被政治所充斥，这使他能够将自己世界观牢牢地依托于现实和政治。 国家和政府围绕着他的全世界，并构成了人类活动的广阔背景，人们的行为方式只是社会生活的代表。对他来说，文化的概念听起来很抽象，十分空洞的，甚至认为艺术还应该发挥现实和政治作用。（214-215）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 17:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
The young generation, in contrast, is not so firmly grounded. Growing up in a period when the dominant ideology is in decline, they are left floating in the winds of various imported ideologies and newfangled isms. Creatures of the newly emergent market and players of nihilistic intellectual fashions, they produce literature without any commitment to a socio-historical mission. Literature is but a playful, aesthetic game unburdened with any responsibility and weighty purposes. Art has become an artful, artsy activity, floating free of socio-historical grounding. Literary activity to them means, more specifically, attending pen conferences, pursuing hot fashions, innovating fresh forms and tastes, brandishing new theories, making up sensational and marketable stories. All this also leads to the enhancement of a writer's charisma and even sexual appeal. Indeed, to the young generation it is old fashioned to see literature as having historical or social significance; literature becomes more and more sexy and commercial.<br />
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相比之下，年轻一代的基础就没有那么牢固。他们成长于主流意识形态衰落的时期，在各种外来意识形态和新式主义的风中飘荡。他们是新兴市场的动物，是虚无主义知识时尚的玩家，他们在生产文学的同时，并没有承担任何社会历史使命。文学只是一种玩味的、审美的游戏，没有任何责任和沉重的目的。艺术已经成为一种艺术性的、艺术性的活动，没有社会历史基础的浮动。文学活动对他们来说，更具体地说，就是参加笔会，追求热点时尚，创新新鲜的形式和口味，标榜新的理论，编造轰轰烈烈、有市场的故事。这一切也会使作家的魅力甚至性魅力得到提升。事实上，对年轻一代来说，把文学看成是具有历史意义或社会意义的，已经是老掉牙了，文学变得越来越有魅力，越来越商业化。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 15:32, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
The story of the Uncle is an allegory of withdrawal from history and the dangers involved, exemplified in his crisis-ridden metamorphosis from a historically grounded writer to a playful artist, from novelist to essay writer. The Uncle's earlier success thrusts him to the status of literary celebrity and stardom: he becomes a prominent figure in the media. As the younger writers pursue fashions and cater to new consumers with playful, entertaining, artsy literary goods, the Uncle feels the need to catch up. His new position as a glamorous writer allows him to become a globetrotter. At the invitation of literary and academic circles and literary institutions around world eager to know a newly opened China, he journeys from country to country giving talks and socializing at literary cocktail parties. Increasingly, sightseeing and superficial impressions of exotic foreign countries become the only materials he can summon: he becomes a tourist and a writer of travelogue.<br />
叔叔的故事寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。叔叔的早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，叔叔觉得自己也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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《叔叔的故事》寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。《叔叔的故事》早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，《叔叔的故事》也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 12:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Going along with the role of a player in an increasingly cosmopolitan, global, and consumer oriented literary market is a new philosophy of writing, which favors a showy, playful, essayistic quality at the expense of the epic, social and historical. The Uncle is reborn, the younger narrator rightly observes, into a new life, and into an enclosed new realm of pure artistic creativity. He addresses serious social problems playfully in the style of black humor and through anachronistic narrative techniques. He becomes more and more detached from the grave political issues of the day. His new outlook is derived from a purely aesthetic principle.<br />
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在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者正确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:50, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和随笔性。年轻的叙述者精确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭式的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，戏谑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与越来越疏远当今严肃的政治问题。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 02:21, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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不断扩张的都市化，全球化，顾客为导向的市场，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性，社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性、和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔再生了，他进入了一个新的生活，进入到一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和 不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般的对待严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Emptied of historical substance and filled up with fragmentary and rambling impressions in his global trips, both life and writing of the Uncle thin out into personal, irrelevant, discontinuous fragments. His writing begins to take on the essayistic quality, and borders on sheer images or simulacra, getting closer and closer to those of the younger generation. Real human relations are “only a literary conceit.” (227), he echoes the younger generation. Within the aesthetic shelter the “Uncle can no longer become excited or moved and is immune to suffering.” Tragic suffering is now only a literary category, and “the awareness of this is the hallmark of Uncle's becoming a pure writer” (225). Parallel with this essayistic quality is the Uncle's changed life style. His is more taken with things he would have considered vulgar, low, or quotidian;<br />
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生活和写作都被历史的内涵掏空，随之被全球旅行中的零碎和漫不经心填满，让叔叔自己变成了个人的、无关紧要的、不连续的碎片。他的写作开始有了散文的气质，并接近于纯粹的影像或模拟，越来越接近年轻一代的人。真实的人与人之间的关系“只是一种文学上的臆想”。(227)，他与年轻一代遥相呼应。在审美的庇护下，“大叔再也不能变得兴奋或感动，而且对苦难免疫”。悲剧性的苦难现在只是一个文学范畴，“对这一点的认识是大叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”（225）。与这种文章化特质并行的是大叔的生活方式的改变。他的更多的是对那些他认为庸俗、低级、庸常的东西的接受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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在他的环球旅行中，历史的物质被清空，而充满了零碎的、漫无边际的印象，关于叔叔的生活和写作都逐渐变成个人的、无关的、不连续的片段。他的作品开始呈现出散文式的品质，接近纯粹的影像或拟像，越来越接近年轻一代的作品。真正的人际关系“只是一种文学幻想”。(227)，他回应了年轻一代。在美学的庇护下，“叔叔不再激动或感动，对痛苦免疫。”悲剧的痛苦现在只是一个文学类别，“意识到这一点是叔叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”(225)。与这种随笔风格相对应的是叔叔生活方式的改变。他更喜欢那些他认为庸俗、低俗或司空见惯的事情;--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
he becomes more listless and yuppish. He has developed a strong interest in women and sexual intrigues and conquests; he indulges in vulgarity and trivial pursuits, exulting in money and showy, exotic collectibles. In short, he metamorphoses from an image of the epic novelist and organic intellectual to a middle class, professional writer, whose favored form is the essay and whose lifestyle takes on the “essayistic” quality of a ramble for self-pleasure.<br />
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The transformation in the Uncle reflects the retreat of literature from a historically grounded medium to a form light-hearted, playful entertainment and a theatrical performance. The problem with this change, as the novella's ending suggests, is that it is self-deceptive. Despite the Uncle's willful creation of an aesthetic cocoon, history manages to intrude in the end as return of the repressed, in the person of his murderous son. His son embodies all the painful memory and disgraceful experience of the Uncle's life, unfit for the epic treatment in his novels and repressed in his ethereal, airtight, essayistic experiments.<br />
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他变得更加无精打采而又热情洋溢。他对女性以及性爱和征服产生了浓厚的兴趣。他沉迷于庸俗和琐碎的追求，对金钱和艳丽的异国情调的收藏品狂喜不已。简而言之，他从史诗般的小说家和有机知识分子的形象变成了中产阶级专业作家，他的偏爱形式是随笔，其生活方式具有自我满足的“随笔”性质。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《叔叔》的转变反映了文学从一种历史根基的媒介退缩到一种轻松、有趣的娱乐和戏剧表演的形式。正如中篇小说的结尾所暗示的那样，这种变化的问题在于它是自欺欺人的。尽管《叔叔》蓄意创造了一个美丽的茧，但由于被压抑者的归还，他的杀手之子最终还是入侵了历史。他的儿子体现了《叔叔》创造中所有的痛苦记忆和可耻的经历，不适合他小说中的史诗般的治疗方式，而对他空灵、透气、杂文主义的实验则表现出压抑。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
The son's attempted murder of his father signifies the revenge of a history that the Uncle is trying to shut off from the serene, trouble-free aesthetic realm. Our concern, however, is not with the interpretation of the story per se, but with the way the Uncle's fate indicates the shift in literary form. If the Uncle's story apparently traces the trajectory of a novelist to a writer who not only writes travelogues and essays but also is imbued with essayistic sensibility, then the essay in contemporary China is a release from the epic form of writing and historical discourse. It is a release into the literary market and consumer taste, a response to the pervasive secularization of life and rising consumerism.<br />
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儿子企图谋杀他父亲的行为象征着一段历史的复仇，而这段历史是叔叔试图将其与宁静、无烦恼的美学领域隔离开来的。然而，我们关心的不是故事本身的解释，而是叔叔的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果“叔叔”的故事明显地将小说家的轨迹追溯到一个作家，他不仅写游记和散文，而且充满了散文情感，那么当代中国的散文就是从史诗形式的写作和历史话语中解放出来的。这是对文学市场和消费品味的释放，是对生活普遍世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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儿子企图谋杀他的父亲这一行为象征着一段极具历史意义的复仇，叔父试图从宁静、无忧无虑的美学领域中脱离出来。然而，我们的关注点不在于对故事本身的解读，而是叔父的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果说《叔叔的故事》追溯了一个小说家转变为作家的轨迹——在写游记和随笔的同时，倾注了散文式的细腻情感——那么当代中国的随笔就是史诗写作和历史话语的一种释放。这是对文学市场和消费者口味的一种释放，是对无处不在的生活世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It comes as the image of a loosening up of the previous, ideologically controlled life, which is now becoming more private, more disjoint and fragmented, more removed from the totalistic social and political process. Yet history has not become the simulacrum to play with, as envisioned by the younger narrator or the Uncle himself as he catches up with the fashions. China’s social reality does not square so nicely with the essayistic playfulness one may wish. Thus the essay as a cultural form is caught in a tension between withdrawal from the burden of history and the possible return of the repressed.<br />
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它是一种对以前的被控制意识形态的生活的解放，它现在变得更私人，更脱节和碎片化，更远离极权主义的社会和政治进程。然而，历史并不是像年轻的叙述者或叔叔自己在追赶时尚时想象的那样可操控的。中国的社会现实与人们所希望的散文式的嬉闹并不那么吻合。因此，散文作为一种文化形式，处于一种从历史的负担中解脱出来与可能回归压迫状态之间的张力之中。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 17:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
它的出现显示出对以前意识形态受控生活的解放，现在的生活现在更私人，更脱节和碎片化，更加脱离了极权社会和政治进程。 然而，正如年轻的叙述者或叔叔本人在赶上时尚潮流时所预见的那样，历史并没有变得任人摆布。 中国的社会现实与人们可能希望的散文式嬉闹不太吻合。 因此，散文作为一种文化形式，陷入了从历史负担的抽身出来与可能回归压迫状态的紧张境地。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 14:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
'''Mulish Essays: the Genre of ''Zawen'' in Contemporary China<br />
'''<br />
<br />
''Mary Scoggin''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
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Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? This paper illustrates the trope of tone through the particularly ,sonorous' work of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his ''zawen''. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for ''zawen'' in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, ''zawen'' depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages. Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, ''zawen'' is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices.<br />
<br />
拗口的文章：当代中国“杂文”的体裁<br />
<br />
玛丽·斯高格<br />
<br />
文章中的语气是一种讽刺的修辞手法;你怎么能通过印刷的油墨来引导声音中所携带的东西呢?本文通过邵云翔的《诗文》来说明这种修辞手法。邵云翔是一位官方诗人，他退休后以将诗歌化为论战体的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，“杂文”独特而又备受围攻的社会文化空间，揭示了“调”在汉语写作中的机制、意识形态和意义。与其他文学体裁相比，“杂文”更依赖于泥土般的喧嚣、忧郁、固执的声音来传达它的信息。像大多数诗歌一样，但又不像大多数小说和戏剧，“杂文”本身是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:36, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, ''zawen'''s ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can find their seat and sit in it, or take offence. While readers love and hate their morally and politically provocative ''zawen-of-the-moment'', writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations.<br />
<br />
诗歌至少需要大声朗读，重复和品尝才能真正达到效果，而与诗歌不同的是，杂文在报纸的背面短暂地露面，读者边看边发出神秘笑声，叹息声或鼻息声，还没等读者找到座位坐下，就迅速将其扔掉。读者对道德和政治上具有挑衅性的“当下杂文”又爱又恨，而作者跨越式的书写杂文，并通过出版机构来建立大量互文性的对话。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 17:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
Eventually they even preserve ''zawen'', long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the ,dagger and spear' is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of social dialogue.<br />
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In contemporary textbooks and manuals of Chinese essay composition, the “miscellaneous essay,” [literally, “mixed essay,” referred to as ''zawen'' hereafter] is presented as a particularly “Chinese” essay genre within a global view of universal literary categorization.<br />
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杂文中的典故，笑话和挖苦的细节常令人茫然，在这些细节被人遗忘之后，“杂文这一体裁最终得以保存”， 读者经常将自身职业价值汇编成一些小册当做是自己的离散描述杂文，然后将分小册发给朋友和仰慕者。 因此，鲁迅的“匕首与长矛”流派不仅是狡猾的政治武器，而且是复杂的自我雕塑，为社交对话的残酷语调所勾勒。<br />
<br />
在当代中国散文写作的教科书和手册中，“杂文”（直译为“杂文”，以下简称杂文）在全球普遍文学分类的全球视野中被视为一种特别的“中国”散文类型。 --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最终，作者们甚至能在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，仍然保留着"杂文"。他们常常把自己职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的话语肖像送给朋友和仰慕者。因此，鲁迅的 "匕首和长矛 "流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br />
在当代中国散文的教科书和手册中，"杂文"[字面意思是 "杂文"，以下简称杂文]被作为一种极具 "中国性"的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最后，在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，他们甚至仍然保存着杂文，常常把他们职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的语录送给朋友和崇拜者。因此，鲁迅的“匕首和长矛”流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br />
在当代中国作文的教科书和手册中，“混杂的文章”，【字面意思是“杂文”，以下简称杂文】被作为一种特别“中国”的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:16, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Lu Xun, the genre's initial back-handed champion, quipped sardonically that although he searched the standard encyclopedia thoroughly, he was unable to locate the genre of “tsa-wen” in any authoritative foreign classification. Lu Xun's sarcasm includes both defiance and self-conscious uneasiness about a writing practice that Chinese circumstances, he felt, rendered peculiar and unseemly upon a world stage. Compare the comments of a recent critic of ''zawen'':<br />
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In Chinese affairs, there is a strange phenomenon that has held true until the present time, and that is; the value of any certain thing has to be established by a foreigner or by some common foreign publication.<br />
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鲁迅是这一文体的最初的反对者。他曾讽刺说，他翻遍了标准的百科全书，但在任何权威的外国分类中都找不到 "tsa-wen "这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既有对一种写作方式的蔑视，也包含了自觉的不安，他认为中国的环境使这种写作方式在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较最近的一位批评家对''杂文''的评论：<br />
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在中国的事务中，有一种奇怪的现象一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 01:56, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鲁迅一开始就反对这一文体。他曾讽刺道，即使翻遍了标准的百科全书，也无法在任何权威的外国分类中都找到 "tsa-wen "这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既含有对这一文体的蔑视，也带着一丝不安，他认为中国当时的环境让这一文体在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较一位批评家对''杂文''最近的评论：<br />
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在中国，有一“怪象”一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
As for this thing called modern Chinese ''zawen'', because its Chinese characteristics are too strong, Westerners truly have a hard time understanding them, and thus have difficulty in researching this subject... the American writer Pearl Buck said something like: 'this thing called ''zawen'' is too peculiar, you really cannot understand it.' That is why only Chinese people themselves can evaluate this phenomenon called zawen. (Yan Xiu in Zhang Hua [all translations by Scoggin unless otherwise noted])<br />
In this passage, Yan Xiu, an eminent writer and critic, articulated Lu Xun's defiance of the foreign authority to categorize essay genre in a relatively explicit way, while also maintaining a typical ''zawen''-esque playfulness of style. He continues his commentary;<br />
至于称这一文体为现代中国“杂文”， 是因为其浓烈的中国特性。西方人理解起来，确实困难。因此杂文研究对他们来说也很难。美国作家赛珍珠曾说过：“这一文体称为“杂文”， 太过独特，这真的太难以理解了。这就是为什么只有中国人自己能评析“杂文”这一事物。（张华笔下的严修[除注释之外，其他所有部分为奚慕里翻译]）<br />
在这篇文章中，作为一个赫赫有名的作家与评论家，严修以一种相对直率的方式,明晰地表达出鲁迅蔑视以外国权威标准对散文体裁分名别类。然而严修也保留了类似“杂文”式，典型的轻松趣味风格。他进一步进行他的评述：--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 01:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
But we do not need to worry about this long period of neglect in which foreigners do not recognize ''zawen.'' Even if a foreigner were to burst his/her mind researching Chinese zawen, I am afraid that they would not be able to research anything out of it even if they researched themselves flat broke and starving. But Chinese people all understand them easily. If they were not able to maintain the abiding appreciation and understanding of Chinese readers, this practice would have been lost. The historical reasons and significance for the creation and propagation of ''zawen'' in China are worth serious research and theorizing (ibid.).<br />
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Bravely dismissing the risk of bankruptcy, I do propose to research and theorize the culture of this funny genre of essay in all of its supposed inscrutability.<br />
但是，我们不必担心长期以来外国人不承认杂文。虽然外国人来研究研究中国的杂文会大打折扣，因为他们无法研究其中的任何内容，尽管他们也研究自己的破产和饥饿。但杂文对中国人来说都很容易理解。 如果外国人不能保持对中国读者的长期欣赏和理解，这种事情便会不复存在。在中国创造和传播杂文的历史原因和意义值得认真研究和理论化（同上）。<br />
虽然没有了破产的风险，但我真的建议去研究和论证这种有趣论文类型的文化，因为它具有所有假定的不可理解性。<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:26, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但我们不必担心这种外国人长期不承认杂文的情况。即使一个外国人产生了其研究杂文的心思，恐怕他们自己研究得身无分文，饿死也研究不出来什么。但中国人都很容易理解他们。如果他们不能保持中国读者对他们的欣赏和理解，这种做法就会失传。杂文在中国产生和传播的历史原因和意义，是值得认真研究和理论化的（同上）。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然长期以来，外国人都不承认中国杂文，但我们也不必为此忧心忡忡。即使一个外国人突发奇想地要研究杂文，恐怕研究到身无分文，饥肠辘辘，他/她也研究不出什么东西，而我们中国人理解起杂文却很轻松。但如果中国读者不能理解或一直赏析杂文的话，那么其也将不复存在了。杂文在中国产生和传播的历史原因与意义就很值得认真地研究并理论化。（同上）。<br />
杂文晦涩难懂，但也是富于趣味的一种散文体裁。因此在免于破产的风险下，我真的建议大家勇敢地研究并对这一文化形成理论。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 01:55, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
One ubiquitous characterization of zawen from textbooks and manuals is built upon the metaphor of the mule. This metaphor suggests a number of qualities, including hybrid vigor and strength, stubborn bad-temper, and resilience in the face of obstacles. Mules kick, spit and bray with distinctive exuberance. ''Zawen'' are often considered an awkward combination of “part-poetry, part politics” (Lin). Cross-bred traits extend the qualities of a mule; ''zawen'' are bred to toil at the most difficult of human labor, they are strong, hard-working and rather famously unloved creatures, best known for their expressive obstinance. <br />
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So how does an essay kick, spit and bray? In Chinese theoretical discussion of ''zawen'' the metaphor moves from kinetics to sound; ''zawen'''s kick is located in its “tone,” a term taken from music, although the sound here is can be distinctly unlovely.<br />
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从教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻暗示了一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的弹性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br />
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那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:44, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻表明了它的一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的耐性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br />
<br />
那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
Elsewhere I have examined the function of “tone” through the lens of the published record of debate over tone between literary editors (see Scoggin 2001). I have posited the idea that approaches to writing ''zawen'' fall into two interdependent strategies, one overt and one covert, both blending the tactics of politics and poetics in perfect measure. Overt ''zawen'' are relatively bold and obvious in their churlish tone, reflecting confidence in a tolerant audience. Covert ''zawen'' are sometimes difficult to identify, disguised or hidden within other genre of writing, but still drawing upon the distinctive tones of ''zawen'' through intertextuality and other tricks. <br />
<br />
Below, I examine the mechanics of ''zawen'' tone through contrasting these two style of ''zawen'' issuing from a single pen, that of poet and noted ''zawen'' writer Shao Yanxiang.<br />
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在其他地方，我通过已发表的文学编辑之间关于语气的争论记录（见Scoggin 2001）来考察“语气”的功能。我认为，杂文的写作方法可以分为两种相互依存的策略，一种是显性的，另一种是隐性的，两者都是政治策略和诗学策略的完美结合。公开的杂文相对大胆和明显的粗鲁语气，反映出对一个宽容的观众的信心。隐性扎文有时很难识别，伪装或隐藏在其他文体中，但仍然通过互文性和其他技巧利用扎文的独特音调。<br />
下面，我通过对比诗人、著名杂文作家邵燕祥这两种杂文的风格，来探讨杂文声调的形成机制。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
The two essays discussed below form opposites sides of a spectrum of variable transparency, and vastly differing publishing circumstances, although they were composed only months apart by the same individual, one before and one after a specific political event in China. I argue here that unifying the two ''zawen'' is a particular subset of modal tropes, qualified as the verbal equivalent to a mule's kick, bite or bray. The expression of this unclearly delineated but distinctive subset of modal tropes is the single central mission of ''zawen'' as a genre in Chinese literature and society. Chinese theoretical debates over “tone” specifically address the function of this kind of modal trope. While sometimes as bald and direct, as in the overt ''zawen'' “Pei pei pei! ”?discussed below, many zawen conceal their weapons, depending upon contextual circumstances of publishing to pack their punch, as does the essay “East Station,” also discussed below.<br />
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下面讨论的这两篇文章形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章是由同一个人撰写的，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸”?中，许多杂文隐藏他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如文章《东站》，也将在下面讨论。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:09, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
下面讨论的这两篇文章从相反的角度形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章由同一个人撰写，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸！”?中，许多杂文隐藏起他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如将在下面讨论的文章《东站》。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 11:34, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Both types of ''zawen'' should be read “ethnographically,” in concrete social and historical circumstances. After covering some of the primary textual elements of ''zawen'', I will demonstrate the significance of more subtle contextual gestures of ''zawen'', which must be read out of the process of submitting and publishing ''zawen''. Through the contrast of these two essays, I will explicate and generalize about the formation and mechanics and of tone in modern Chinese literary history, and offer a thesis upon the reception of Chinese literature in Western scholarship as well.<br />
<br />
杂文的两种类型都应该置于具体的社会和历史环境下，以“民族志”的方式解读。在介绍杂文一些基本的文章要素后，我会揭示杂文更细微的语境姿态的意义，而这个只能从提交和出版杂文的过程中解读出来。通过对比这两篇文章，我会我将对中国现代文学史上基调的形成、机制和基调进行阐述和概括，并就西方学术界接纳中国文学这件事发表一篇论文。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
An Demonstrative Sample – “'Pei Pei Pei!'?”<br />
''<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there should be no more “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place. (Shao 1993, 181)<br />
So begins an essay entitled “呸呸呸!”? composed in February of 1989. I will return to the circumstances of publication shortly, but first I will demonstrate the trope of tone through this representative sample ''zawen.<br />
''<br />
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<br />
一个“呸呸呸！”的示例<br />
一个文学圈外的朋友让我给他找来一些呸呸呸的文章来读一读，我只好面无表情地看着他，无话可说。他就解释说，他在报纸上看到某省领导在一次宴会上宣布，各地不应再说“呸！呸！呸！”了，所以很明显到处都在说呸！呸！呸！。(邵1993，181) 1989年2月创作的一篇题为《呸呸呸！》的文章是由此开始的。关于发表时的情形，我将在不久后再谈，但首先我会通过这篇有代表性的杂文样本来解释语气的特例。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
A word like “Pei!” contains what we can call a modal trope, a figure of speech that captures mood and emotion, expressing not only subjunctive or declamatory mood, as adverbial modal tropes such as “could” and “should” may do in English, but also more subtly embedded mood in the semantics of lexical items (the meanings in words) expressing outrage, joy, command, sarcasm, threat, pathos, irony (Friedrich, 30-32). Usually modal tropes work together with other functions of language but in the case of “pei!” the modal trope is more nearly pure, it stands primarily for the emotional tone it communicates. A parallel sample in English might be something like “tut, tut, tut!” although “tut” fails to pack the censorious reproach of the Chinese “pei!”<br />
<br />
像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的心情和情绪，不仅表达了虚拟语气或宣告语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中，用以表达命令，讽刺，威胁，悲伤，讽刺的情感（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。一个类似的英语例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的语气和情感，不仅表达了虚拟语气或感叹语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦、命令、讽刺、威胁、伤感、反讽的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。英语中一个类似的例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:39, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
In the case of this title, modal functions are reinforced by several formal tropes. Note the repetition (three pei's!) and the complex punctuation consisting of an exclamation point and a question mark, separated by quotation marks. In the case of “Pei pei pei!”?, the ''zawen'''s own voice is not the primary expression of the tone of disgust. The quotation marks invoke disgust only to distance it, while the question mark further challenges it. The title alone demonstrates modal function with very little distraction; one character, two repetitions and three punctuation marks move this title in several modally intense directions at once with almost no referential content at all.<br />
<br />
就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意引号将”呸！呸！呸！“以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在”呸呸呸“的例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要是由”杂文“本身表达出来的，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:32, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意重复“呸！呸！呸！”以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在“呸呸呸”这一例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要由“杂文”本身表达，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:20, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
“Pei pei pei!”? performs a transparent metadiscursive comment upon ''zawen'', in this case defending the extracurricular genre favored by declasse intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang, himself, a “retired” poet who had resigned with bitterness from his career at the central Chinese poetry journal ''Shikan'', and devoted his post official career to writing zawen. Upon learning of this unnamed “provincial leader's” complaint about “pei pei pei”-ing, and sensing that he himself bore some responsibility for this reportedly lamentable state of affairs, Shao writes that he discovered that the provincial leader had indeed characterized a kind of caustic, sarcastic disparaging discourse about the party, the nationality and the people, as “pei pei pei-ing all over the place” and that he had further warned that this kind of talk was spreading a mood of despair and hopelessness.<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸！”是一种显而易见对杂文的不着边际的评价，这种情况下支持课外的流派是下层知识分子，例如邵燕心，他本身是怀着悲痛的心从中国核心诗歌期刊《诗刊》辞职，并全身心将写杂文作为其正式职业。在看到某不知名的省级干部“呸呸呸”的不满评价，同时也感受到自己对这种令人大失所望的事所担负的责任，邵写下他所发现的，这位省级干部的确对党、民族以及人民写有挖苦、讽刺、非难的文章，就像“到处都在呸呸呸”一样，他进一步发出警告，这样的言论正传播一种绝望沮丧的氛围。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:54, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
In the remainder of this essay Shao ridicules said provincial leader's complaint as circular, admitting no culpability on the part of his own fellow ''zawen''-writing social critics. <br />
<br />
The tone of “Pei pei pei!”? is that of pointed irony, expressed recursively upon three levels. The first level is located in the words themselves, including the use of “pei” I have described above. This “first order” irony, as I have described it (Scoggin 1997), is an elementary type of sarcasm, a part of the conventional rhetoric of any language, written or spoken, and not usually misunderstood by a competent interpreter.<br />
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在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，递进的传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员误解。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 09:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，以递进的方式传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员所误解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:46, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
Other examples of this level of tone in “Pei pei pei!”? would include the attitude of “stupidity” Shao Yanxiang assumes when he claims that he looks for pei pei pei ing “all over the place” but cannot find any at all, and the repeated use of expressions he lifted from the pointedly unnamed “provincial leader's” talk, including the primary charge of “mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal” Shao is refuting, and also the leader's assertion of “discipline and rectification,” which Shao has skillfully turned into a counter charge. <br />
<br />
A second level of irony requires contextual knowledge on the part of the reader. This includes assumptions that would be obvious to most readers.<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸!”？中这种程度的语气的例子包括，邵彦祥在“到处”寻找呸呸呸，却一无所获时所采取的“愚蠢”的态度，以及他从完全不知名的“省级领导”的谈话中反复使用的表达方式，包括主要的“嘲笑、讽刺和轻蔑的解雇”，邵逸祥反驳道，还有领导对“纪律严明”的断言，邵巧妙地把这句话变成了反击。<br />
<br />
第二层次的反讽需要读者的语境知识。这包括对大多数读者来说显而易见的假设。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“呸呸呸！”中这种音调水平的其他示例吗？其中包括”愚蠢”的态度，邵燕翔宣称当他在“到处”寻找呸呸呸的时候，却在哪儿也找不见它了，以及从完全不知名的“省领导的”的讲话中，他指出了那些重复的使用，包括邵伟反驳的主要指控“嘲弄，嘲讽和轻蔑”，以及领导人对“纪律和整顿”的主张，邵伟已巧妙地将其反驳。<br />
<br />
第二层次的反讽需要需要该部分读者的语境知识。这包括了对于大多数读者来说都显而易见的假设。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:06, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
For example, Shao Yanxiang claims that he has never heard of the idea that “literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” But just such a position has clearly been long-standing socialist policy for many kinds of public writing, including media news and literature. References to historical events in terms like the cultural revolution tones of “newspaper [published] by all the people” and Han Shaogong's controversial Post-Mao short story “Ba Ba Ba” fall somewhere in between the first and second levels of ironic tone. <br />
<br />
A third level, which I have labeled “indexical irony,” makes use of immediately contextual information such as the actual publishing outlet of the essay (in this case, the mainstream ''Literature Journal'' essay column “Literature and the People's Lives,” which Shao mentions at the end of the article) and Shao's own writing persona.<br />
<br />
例如，邵彦祥声称他从未听说过“文学出版物应在稳定人民思想，增进信仰，不使人民意志消沉方面有所帮助”这一思想。 但是，这种立场显然已经成为包括媒体新闻和文学在内的许多公共写作的长期社会主义政策。 对历史事件的引用，例如“全民[报纸]的文化大革命”和韩少功备受争议的毛泽东短篇小说“八八八”，都介于第一和第二讽刺语调之间。<br />
<br />
第三个层次，我称之为 "索引性反讽"，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏 "文学与百姓生活"）和邵自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:13, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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比如，邵燕祥声称，他从来没有听说过 "文艺刊物要对稳定民心、增加信仰、不挫伤民心意志有帮助 "的观点。 但就这样的立场，显然是包括媒体新闻和文学在内的多种公开写作的长期社会主义政策。 像 "全民办报（出版）"的文革调子和韩少功的争议性后毛短篇小说《巴巴》等词语对历史事件的提及，都属于第一和第二层次的反讽调子。 <br />
<br />
第三层次，我称之为 "索引性反讽"，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵逸夫在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏《文学与人民生活》）和邵逸夫自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:17, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
''Zawen'' often make extensive use of this third, intimately contextualized level. In this case Shao claims that he can find no “pei pei pei” articles, but many readers would recognize that he himself is well known for writing ''zawen'' that would certainly qualify.<br />
<br />
In “Pei pei pei!”? Shao Yanxiang has deliberately sought out an accusation that he then counters with withering acerbity. Complaint, combat and disgust are just the beginning of the range of contentious moods that ''zawen'' represent. ''Zawen'' accuse, retaliate, needle, and snarl; but as I will demonstrate shortly, they can also moan and sigh with considerable subtly. Either way they clothe all this, quite often, in word games of subterfuge and indirectness, which -- beyond the intellectual puzzle of circumlocution also common in other genres of verbal art -- carries the weight of ''zawen'''s mission in the singular feature of tone.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”常常广泛运用第三层次，即与语境化紧密联系的层次。在这种情况下，邵燕祥声称他找不到“呸呸呸”的文章，但许多读者都知道，他本人以写“杂文”而闻名，这肯定是符合条件的。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸!”? 邵燕祥故意找人指责他，然后用尖酸刻薄之语加以反驳。抱怨、战斗和厌恶只是“杂文”所代表的一系列有争议情绪的开始。“杂文”是指责、报复、针锋相对、咆哮的；但正如我稍后将演示的那样，它们也可以相当巧妙地呻吟和叹息。不管怎样，他们常常把这一切穿插在诡辩和间接的文字游戏中，这一点——除了在其他语言艺术流派中常见的迂回曲折的智力谜团之外——承载着“杂文”的使命，即声调的独特特征。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:01, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
As a ''zawen'' writer, the “provincial leader's” complaint is exactly the sort of accusation intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang are accustomed to facing. His defense links the ''zawen'' mission to many others we could find in diverse settings; he is also answering, for example, Spiro Agnew's famous condemnation of “nattering nabobs of negativism” in American public discourse, and displaying the cross-cultural breadth of a “Jeremiad,” evident in the travel-worthy allusion of the very term, rooted in biblical texts. In this and other ''zawen'', Shao defends the contemporary Chinese genre of zawen as genre of protest and complaint. He borrows the insult of a critic to distinguish thoughtless emotional battering from the carefully aimed spar, which is both his own ideal and the standard mission of the genre of ''zawen.''<br />
作为一个“杂文”作家，对于来自“省领导”的批评，像邵彦翔这样的知识分子已经习惯面对。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们可以在不同环境中找到的其他任务联系起来;例如，他还解释了斯皮罗·阿格纽(Spiro Agnew)为什么要谴责美国公共演讲中著名的”喋喋不休的消极主义者，并说明了这种悲哀在跨文化上，在这个源自圣经的术语的典当中的广泛性。在这篇杂文和他其他的作品中，邵表示当代中国的杂文是用来表达抗议和不满的文体。他借用了批评家的侮辱言论来区分无意识的情感伤害和有意的争吵，这既是他自己的理想，也是“杂文”应该表现的。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 15:08, 11 December 2020 (UTC)”<br />
<br />
作为一名“杂文”作家，“省领导”的抱怨正是像邵燕祥这样的知识分子习惯面对的那种指责。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们在不同环境中可以找到的许多其他任务联系起来；例如，他还回答了斯皮罗·阿格纽（Spiro Agnew）在美国公共话语中对“消极主义的喋喋不休”出名的谴责，并展示了"耶利米德"的跨文化广度，这一术语在源于圣经文本的关于旅行的字词中显而易见。 在《杂文》和其他杂文中，邵燕祥为当代中国的杂文流派做辩护，认为杂文是抗议和抱怨的流派。他借用批评家的侮辱来区分思想上的情感打击和精心策划的争吵，这既是他自己的理想， 也是 “杂文” 流派的标准使命。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 09:05, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
'''A Restrained Sample – “East Station”'''<br />
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I have outlined how one essay demonstrates the function of ''zawen'' in a particularly transparent way, but some of the best and most effective zawen are covert operations. On the opposite side of spectrum of transparency, we can place a relatively understated and “essay-like” ''zawen'', also by Shao Yanxiang. “East Station” was submitted for a national ''zawen'' competition in a southern evening newspaper in 1994. It was judged too “sensitive” to publish by the zawen editor, but nevertheless it was privately noted by the editors as the unofficial winner of the competition. At first glance there is very little to mark it as a ''zawen'' at all, not to mention a seditious ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
受约束的样本–“东站”'''<br />
<br />
我已经概述了一篇文章如何以一种特别透明的方式展示“ 杂文”的功能，但是一些最好，最有效的杂文是秘密行动。 在透明度范围的另一面，我们可以放一个相对低调的，也像邵燕香一样的“散文式”“ 杂文”。 1994年，“东方站”在南方晚报上提交给全国“ 杂文”竞赛。它被杂文编辑认为过于“敏感”而无法出版，但编辑私下指出它是非官方的比赛获胜者。乍一看，几乎没有什么可以将其标记为“ 杂文”的，更不用说煽动性的“ 杂文”了。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:47, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
It is a rather lyrical survey of historical images centering upon refugees, migrants, political and literary figures on their passages to and from Beijing. It does, however, contain a few of the indications of first level irony that traditionally mark a ''zawen'', such as a “quotation” placed for its jarring effect, as in the opening passage below.<br />
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Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer East Side of Front Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
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此文是以流民，移民，政治和文学人物往返北京为中心的历史形象的抒情研究。然而，它确实包含了一些传统上标记“杂文”的第一层讽刺的暗示，例如为了其刺耳效果而放置的“引语”，如下面的开头段落所示。<br />
三十年前的北京，如果提到“东站”，大家都会知道是指位于正门外东侧的北京东站。如今，这座半西化建筑风格的不起眼的建筑，夹在喧嚣闹市的高楼大厦之间，支撑着一块“铁路工人俱乐部”的小牌子，已是“古文物”，昔日的繁华辉煌早已一去不复返了。<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
The somber opening paragraph is in part marked as a zawen by the appearance of snapshot “quote,” in which what might have been a significant icon of Beijing history is reduced to a cheesy “Railway workers club” sign hanging on a architecturally half-breed building not even worthy of preservation. Other ironic comments of this sort include Shao's sarcastic reference to Guo Moruo;<br />
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And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time, he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor.<br />
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沉闷的开场白部分是由快照“引文”的出现而标记为杂文的，其中可能是北京历史上的一个重要标志，被简化为一个俗气的“铁路工人俱乐部”标志，悬挂在一座半成品建筑上，甚至不值得保存。 其他类似的讽刺评论包括邵逸夫讽刺郭沫若；<br />
1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主党人齐聚北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎，他们流下的泪水是喜悦的。当时，他写了一首诗“为了这个荣誉，人民的洒了多少鲜血。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
沉闷的开场白部分是由快照“引文”的出现而标记为杂文的，其中可能是北京历史上的一个重要标志，被简化为一个俗气的“铁路工人俱乐部”标志，它悬挂在一座半成品建筑上，甚至不值得保存。 其他类似的讽刺评论包括邵逸夫讽刺郭沫若；<br />
1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主党人齐聚北京时，他们因受到隆重的欢迎而流下泪水，这是喜悦的泪水。当时，他写了一首诗“为了这个荣誉，人民洒了多少鲜血。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I do not know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
In a similar but more deeply contextualized vein would be Shao Yanxiang's allusion to Tu Fu's escape during the An Lu Shan rebellion during the Tang Dynasty contained in the quoted term “fortuitous rescue.” Shao's general structure in this piece is a recurring cyclical allegory that parallels the Japanese, the Nationalists and the Communists in bitter condemnation of the last, as only one more invasive army disturbing the lives of ordinary Chinese people. The People's Traffic Police also take their place in this cycle, a silly reminder that we are still in the realm of ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
想到这一点，眼泪就掉了，开心的笑声无法表达出来。” -我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的任何收藏中都没有。<br />
<br />
在引述的“幸运的救援”一词中，邵衍祥对唐复安禄山叛乱期间杜甫的逃亡的暗示与之相似但更为深刻的脉络。 邵军在这篇文章中的总体结构是一个反复出现的周期性寓言，它与日本人，国民党和共产主义者在最后一个人的严厉谴责中并驾齐驱，因为只有一支侵略军干扰了普通中国人民的生活。 人民交警也在这个周期中取代了他们的位置，愚蠢地提醒我们，我们仍然处在“杂文”领域。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 05:37, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
Obviously this kind of first and second-level rhetorical sarcasm and historical irony alone is not enough to define an essay as a ''zawen'', but the difficulty of assigning an essay its genre is also no obstacle; ambiguous “mixedness” is part of ''zawen'''s identity. This covert zawen depends most fundamentally upon indexical irony, to an extent that surpasses “Pei Pei Pei!”?, above. One crucial feature that makes “East Station” a ''zawen'' is the entirely untextual fact that Shao Yanxiang submitted it in a competition specifically designated for ''zawen'' in a provincial evening newspaper. The editors did not reject the piece as “non-''zawen'',” on the contrary, they complained that it contained too much of the requisite ''zawen'' pique. In order to understand this, we must again go beyond the actual words of the piece.<br />
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仅从一级和二级讽喻修辞及历史讽刺角度分析显然不足以将一篇文章定义为“杂文”，但将一篇文章分类的难题也不是什么障碍；含糊“混杂”是“杂文”的特点之一。杂文的隐蔽性更多地依赖于索引性讽刺，在某种程度上来说，它超越了“呸呸呸！”。把《东站》这篇文章归为“杂文”的一个关键因素是由于其完全无文本性这一事实，邵燕祥在地方晚报“杂文”特辑上发表这篇文章。编者也不否认这篇文章不是一篇“杂文”；相反地，他们抱怨这篇文章涵盖太多“杂文”必不可少的气息。为了解这一点，我们必须再次透过文字本身来看这篇文章。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:49, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
In a late night conversation in which the managing editor and two guests including myself drank beer and discussed the ''zawen'' competition to which “East Station” was submitted, the editor mused about the publication that wasn't. She said;<br />
<br />
Actually Shao Yanxiang submitted two manuscripts, but I had to return one. (Reaching around to a drawer) Well, I wanted to return it to him, but then I couldn't bear to. The original is still here, I wonder if you will understand? It requires some background...At the time it was the head editor that rejected the manuscript. He also felt badly, but there was no question but that it could not be printed, because it would certainly cause trouble...This happens with your friends, but I really felt uncomfortable about this one.<br />
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在那个深夜，总编辑与包括我在内的两位客人喝了啤酒，我们还讨论了杂文竞赛，有本参赛的书叫“东站”。想到那本未出版的书。 编辑陷入了深思，她说：<br />
<br />
实际上邵炎祥上交了两份手稿，但我必须退回一份。 （她接着走到抽屉边）是的，我想把这份还给他，但我还是不忍心。 原稿还在这里，我想知道你们是否会明白？ 这需要对当时的背景有一些了解...当时是首席编辑拒绝了手稿。 他也感到难受，但无疑这本书不能被印刷出来，因为到时候肯定会引起麻烦……他是你们的朋友，但是我真的对此感到不舒服。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
Because this essay was just written so well. He just wrote about the East Station, but he used Beijing East Station to talk about his view on everything. (Scoggin Fieldnotes) <br />
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She continued to discuss the essays that were just too “that way” (''neige le'') as they came in for the competition. “One day the police came and looked through that box all afternoon!” she added. The managing editor's two guests that evening jumped on her comment, “They what!?” But she retained the appearance of serenely refusing to interpret this police visit as a sinister gesture.<br />
It was just manuscripts, why should they look at those? They said they were just reading, there were two of them, I really don't know, I guess they enjoyed reading them too.(ibid)<br />
<br />
因为这篇作文实在是写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但是他用北京东站来谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br />
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她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太"那样"了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，主编的两位客人突然评论道：“他们干什么！”但她平静地拒绝将这次警察访问解释为一种险恶姿态的外貌。<br />
这只是手稿， 他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在读书， 有两个， 我真的不清楚， 我想他们也喜欢读吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:17, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因为这篇文章写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但他用北京东站谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br />
她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太"那样"（奈格乐）了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，总编辑的两位客人突然说道，“他们在干什么！？”但她仍然保持着平静的样子，拒绝把这次警方的访问解释为一种邪恶的姿态。<br />
这只是手稿，他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在看书，有两个，我真的不知道，我想他们也喜欢看吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:14, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
When she finally found the manuscript (tucked away where snooping police would not have found it) she decided to give it to me. She said she had called Shao Yanxiang to tell him that they could not print it, and even though he had said he understood, she still hated to bring the matter to his attention again by sending the essay back to him, and now it seemed too late. Since I was also acquainted with him, and clearly admired him, giving the manuscript to me as research material seemed to her to be a fitting conclusion to the whole matter. <br />
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In the original manuscript of “East Station” is signed, as is the custom, with the date it was composed at the bottom, “September 13, 1989.” Although it was submitted to the newspaper in 1994, in a private note scrawled to the editors, Shao added; “Please don't cut or change this date.<br />
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当她终于找到手稿时（藏在窥探警察找不到的地方），她决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，他们不能打印。即使他说，他理解，她仍然不愿意再次提请他注意的问题，把文章给他，现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也认识他，显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我作为研究材料，在她看来是整个事情最合适的结果。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在原稿上签着“东站”，按照习俗，与日期“1989年9月13日”一起在底部。虽然1994年它提交给了该报，但用一份私人便条向编辑们草草写了字，但邵补充说：“请不要剪掉或更改此日期。”--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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终于她找到了手稿，并且决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，这本书不能印刷出版。邵燕祥说他理解，但她还是不愿意把手稿还给他，以免让他再次想起这件事，但现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也和他熟识，并且显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我当做研究材料，在她看来是最好的选择。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with 'more that thirty years ago' at the beginning of the essay.” The emphasis upon these dates forces a new consideration of the essay as a whole. Suddenly the parallel between Nationalist, Japanese and Communist cycles of refuge and expulsion he mentions are rendered a sinister reference to a modern “rebellion” in the spring and summer of 1989. The date heightens the threat of Shao's concluding two sentences; “Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.” The scrawled note links 30 years, 1989, “today,” and the defiant “inches of proof” that mark East Station as a zawen, even beyond the micro structure of submission channels. For all its elusively distant tone, East Station suddenly became a pointed, angry, and, even in 1994, unpublishable ''zawen''.<br />
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新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的'三十多年前'相吻合"。对这些日期的强调，迫使我们对文章的整体进行新的考虑。突然间，他提到的国民党、日本和共产党的避难和驱逐周期之间的平衡，被恶意渲染成1989年春夏的现代 "叛乱 "。这个日期强调了邵的最后两句话：“今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。" 这张潦草的纸条将30年、1989年、"今天 "和不顾一切的 "寸土寸金 "联系在一起，这标志着东站作为一个杂文，甚至超越了提交渠道的微观结构。尽管东站的语气难以捉摸，但它突然变成了一个尖锐的、愤怒的、甚至在1994年还无法出版的杂文。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:15, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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新火车站于1959年开始运营，与本文开头的“三十多年前”相适应。” 对这些日期的强调迫使我们对论文作为一个整体进行新的考虑。 他提到，国民党，日本人和共产党人的避难和驱逐循环之间的相似之处突然变成了对1989年春夏的现代“叛乱”的阴险参考。这一日期加剧了邵的结论的威胁。 今天也将成为历史。 北京的每一寸土地都将提供其历史的证明。” 散乱的笔记将1989年的30年（今天）与挑衅的“几分证据”联系起来，这标志着东站成为杂文，甚至超出了提交渠道的微观结构。 尽管遥不可及，但东站突然变得尖锐，愤怒，甚至在1994年，也无法发表“杂文”。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
'''A Larger Trend: Revealing Ugly Truth through Troubled Tones'''<br />
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It is almost a matter of definition, then, that discordant, troubling tones are the characteristic, even of the most beautiful ''zawen''. I have not illustrated “ugly” ''zawen'' here, but they do exist, and in profusion. Many ''zawen'' are suffused in a preachy, pedantic tone that is sometimes quite off-putting to Chinese and non-Chinese readers alike. And yet, like the larger category of essays in Chinese literature, ''zawen'' remain a popular staple in the literary supplements of Chinese newspapers, and many prominent writers turn later in their career to writing ''zawen''. In contemporary history the “mule” genre of ''zawen'' has also played a significant political role far beyond its humble posture (see Scoggin 1997).<br />
<br />
一个更大的趋势。通过烦恼的语气来揭示丑陋的真相。<br />
那么，这几乎是一个定义的问题，不和谐的、令人不安的音调是特征，即使是最美丽的杂文也是如此。我在这里没有说明 "丑陋 "的杂文，但它们确实存在，而且数量很多。很多文都充斥着一种说教的、迂腐的语气，有时让中国和非中国的读者都很不喜欢。然而，就像中国文学中更大的散文类别一样，杂文仍然是中国报刊文学副刊中的热门主打，许多著名作家在其职业生涯的后期都会转向写杂文。在当代历史上，"骡子 "文体也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了它的卑微姿态（见Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''一个更大的趋势：用混乱的声音揭示丑陋的真相'''<br />
这几乎是一个定义的问题，那么，不和谐的、麻烦的音调是特点，即使是最美丽的杂文也如此。我在这里没有说明“丑陋的”杂文，但它们确确实实存在，而且数量繁多。许多杂文充斥着一种说教、迂腐的语气，这对中国和外国读者来说有时是相当令人讨厌的。然而，与中国文学中较大的一类散文一样，杂文仍然是中国报纸文学副刊的主要内容，许多著名作家在后来的职业生涯中都转向写杂文。在当代历史上，“骡子”类型的杂文也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了其谦卑的姿态（see Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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那么，几乎是一个定义问题，不和谐、令人不安的音调是特征，即使是最美丽的扎文也是如此。我在这里没有说明“丑陋”的扎文，但它们确实存在，而且大量存在。许多杂文充斥着一种说教的、迂腐的语气，有时会让中国和非华裔读者相当反感。然而，就像中国文学中更大的散文类别一样，扎文仍然是中国报纸文学副刊上广受欢迎的主打作品，许多知名作家在职业生涯的后期转向写作扎文。在当代历史上，扎文的“骡子”体裁也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了其卑微的姿态(见1997年的斯科金)。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
What is it about this genre that draws prominent writers, and commands significant attention of the Chinese readership? The answer lies, I think, in assumptions about the mechanics of tone rooted in Chinese literary history. To examine this problem we need to leave particular zawen behind and examine a larger picture that views Chinese literature via the globalized perspective that contemporary Chinese critics take.<br />
<br />
''Zawen'' as a category causes problems for Chinese as well as non Chinese classification, but there is a revealing divide between Western and Chinese treatment of zawen. With few exceptions, ''zawen'' has been neglected as a subject of the study of Chinese literature from outside of China until recently (the Achern conference on the Modern Chinese Literary Essay being a rare exception, with several papers devoted to zawen.)<br />
<br />
这种类型吸引了杰出的作家，并引起了中国读者的极大关注？我认为答案在于中国文学史的机械性假设。要审视这一问题，我们需要抛开特定的杂文，从当代中国批评家的全球化视角审视中国文学。<br />
“杂文”作为一个范畴，给汉语和非汉语的分类都带来了问题，但中西方对“杂文”的处理有着明显的分歧。“杂文”是近年来国外华文文学研究中一个被忽视的课题，但也有少数例外（阿奇恩中国现代文学随笔会议是一个罕见的例外，有几篇论文专门讨论了扎文）。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 13:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
While the problem of the status of zawen is not important in itself, I propose difficulties with this particular genre can reflect larger issues of significance to the study of Chinese literature and culture more generally. ''Zawen'' can highlight some special features of Chinese writing that are latent in other, more respectable forms of Chinese literature and culture. My research on ''zawen'' showed many instances of zawen being held up as a unique outgrowth of Chinese particularities, such as a fondness for brevity in verbal art, a tendency to take intellectuals more seriously than they are taken in contemporary societies elsewhere, as well as a few “perversions” that are supposedly unique to China, such as political tyranny that is strikingly detail-oriented, or collective aversion to verbal performance that is too straightforward (Scoggin 1997).<br />
尽管杂文现状问题本身不是很重要，但是在更大层面上，即站在研究中国文学与文化的角度上看，克服掉研究这种特别类型的困难还是有很大意义的。“杂文”可以突显中国写作的一些独特特征，这些特征潜在于中国文学与文化中的其他更为体面的类型里面。在我对于“杂文”的研究里，展现了很多可证实杂文作为中国人性格发展结果的例子，比如说，喜爱口头表达的简洁，较比现代社会，以前的文人墨客被看得更重，以及一些中国独有的“反常”现象，比如明显关注细节的政治暴政或者对于过于直白的口头表现的集体厌恶。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 08:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Some of these claims for Chinese exceptionalism may be overblown; but I think that the genre, driven by what I argue is its central mission of tone, makes observable certain strains and practices that have acted as stumbling blocks to international research on other aspects of Chinese culture. <br />
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Chief among those obstacles to the study of Chinese literature is what I call the “bad literature” complaint.[ For recent affirmations of this complaint, see Huters 1990, McDougall 1997, Link, 2000. Earlier views in American sinology tie "bad literature" directly to the effects of political tyranny. ] Summarizing several quite different lines of argument, the suggestion is that with all the promise of Chinese literature holds as a naturally poetic language, with rich, revered and well-preserved traditions, with the particular visual and grammatical advantages of the Chinese character and linguistic structure, and further with dedicated literary “troops” to use the modern Chinese metaphor for institutions of organized and supported writers, modern Chinese literature has failed to produce truly great literature.<br />
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这些对中国例外论的主张也许有些夸大其词。但我认为，在我所说的语调中心使命的推动下，这一体裁产生了一些明显的张力和做法，它们成为了国际上对中国文化其他方面研究的绊脚石。<br />
在中国文学研究的这些障碍中，最主要的是我所说的“糟糕文学”抱怨。[最近对这一投诉的肯定，见胡志德1990，麦独,1997，林克，2000，美国汉学早期的观点将“糟糕文学”与政治暴政直接联系在一起。]总结几条截然不同的论据，我们的建议是，尽管中国文学的所有希望都是一种自然诗意的语言，有着丰富、受人尊敬和保存完好的传统，具有汉字和语言结构的独特视觉和语法优势，而且还具有专门的文学作品“军队”，用现代汉语比喻制度中有组织、有支持的作家，中国现代文学未能产生真正伟大的文学作品。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Obviously this generalization is subject to objection at many, if not all of its points. I would argue, however, that the consistency with which similar arguments emerge, defensible or not, points to themes of some significance. Complaints frequently accrue over the following literary practices;<br />
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1)Indulging in churlish tones, including hectoring, scolding and otherwise “yelling” in print<br />
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2)Adhering to one or another “politically correct line” <br />
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3)Participating in personal squabbles and vendettas, sometimes involving extraliterary persecution of both writers and targets <br />
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4)Exhibiting an “obsession” with China, and an oversized sense of responsibility for its fate<br />
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显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都遭到反对。然而，我要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br />
1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br />
2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br />
3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br />
4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都会遭到反对。然而，我（在此）要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br />
1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br />
2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br />
3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br />
4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:03, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
Interestingly, these complaints of “bad literature” are usually not strongly refuted by Chinese literary critics. Fair, true or not, this sort of summary criticism of the Jeremiah complex in Chinese literature in general is relevant to my discussion because these very faults that warrant the most notice are deliberately magnified in the genre of ''zawen'', and may be, I believe, essentially outgrowths of an almost unconscious commitment to the type of tone that defines the ''zawen'' genre most purely. I argue that what has happened here is that readers and analysts have failed to recognize a literary strategy that reflects deeper ideas about how tone is supposed to operate in verbal practice.<br />
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有趣的是，中国文学评论家通常不会强烈反驳这些对“烂文学”的抱怨。不管是否公平与真实,在中国文学中，这种耶利米情结的总结批评大体上和我的研究是相关的,因为这些最值得注意的错误在" 杂文"中被故意放大了。我认为,这本质上也许是纯粹对定义“杂文”体裁语气类型的无意识承诺的发展。我认为，这里的问题在于，读者和分析人士未能认识到一种文学策略，这种策略反映了语气在口头练习中应该如何发挥作用的更深层次的观点。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:08, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
These “off” tones are not just flaws and mistakes resulting from tyranny or exaggeration, nor are they mere signs of amateur literary expression, the struggles of a culture trying to modernize. Instead they are held to be nearly involuntary markers, not of beauty, but what we will have to call for lack of a better word, “truth,” revealed by critical examination of shortcomings and problems that appear to stem from, again for lack of a better word, “culture.” Culture, in the high modern ideology adopted more or less wholesale in contemporary Chinese theoretical systems is opposed to the neutral modernity of newspaper editorials and literary short stories and the other canonical genres of modern writing practices.<br />
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这种坏文学不仅仅只是暴政或者夸张修辞之下的残缺产物，也不只是一种业余文学的表达或者一种挣扎着现代化的文化的表现。取而代之的是，它们被认为是近乎非自愿的标记，不是美感，而是我们必须呼吁缺少一个更好的词“真相”，这是通过对缺点和问题的严格审查而发现的，再次是由于缺乏 更好的词是“文化”。 在当代中国理论体系中或多或少采用了高度现代意识形态的文化，反对报纸社论和文学短篇小说以及现代写作实践的其他典型流派的中性现代性。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 04:42, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这些“低沉”的语调并不仅仅是专制或夸张造成的缺陷或错误，也不仅仅是一种业余文学的表达或者一种文化试图现代化的表现。相反，他们被认为几乎是无意识的标记，不是关于美，而是我们将不得不呼吁的，缺少一个更好的词——“真相”，这是通过对缺点和问题的批判性研究揭示的，这些问题似乎源于，同样缺乏一个更好的词——“文化”。 在当代中国理论体系中或多或少采用了高度现代意识形态的文化，反对报纸社论和文学短篇小说以及现代写作实践的其他典型流派的中性现代性。<br />
--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 05:18, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
Culture is not general, it is particular and peculiar, and Chinese culture exerts a powerfully perverse influence upon most genres of literature practiced in China.<br />
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Examining tone in the broader context of Chinese culture reveals some of particular ways that social exchange, reference and the other mundane duties that plain (neutral, modern) words are supposed to carry out, must be crosscut with characteristically Chinese tone in order to communicate with the authority of truth, in explicit defiance of social requirements for polite and face-saving locutions held to be necessary in a uniquely Chinese way. Thus, complaint about “bad literature,” from a Chinese perspective may not be a mere reflection of failure but, rather, an expression of protest, a modal trope, mule's kick that works with stubborn tenacity to reveal unpleasant truths.<br />
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文化不是普遍的，而是特殊又独特的，中国文化对中国过去大多数流派的实用文学产生了强大的反常影响。<br />
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在更广泛的中国文化语境中考察语气揭示了一些特定的社会交换的方式，必须以具有中国特色的格调横切，参照语和普通词语（中性，现代）词语应该承担的角色必须与具有特色的汉语语调相交汇以便与真理的权威沟通。显然，这无视以独特的中国方式所必需的礼貌和爱面子的社会要求。因此，从中国人的角度来看:对“不良文学”的抱怨可能不仅仅是失败的反映，而是一种抗议的表达，一种情感化的的比喻，一种用顽强的韧性来揭示令人不快事实的骡踢。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
……而中国文化对以往在中国文学中应用过的体裁有这颠覆性的影响。<br />
考察语气在更广泛的中国文化语境中揭示了一些特殊的方式，为了与真理的权威进行交流，社会交换、引用和其他一些应使用朴实的（中性的、现代的）词语的普通的义务中，必须与典型的汉语语调相交。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 06:01, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
''Zawen'' provide frequent commentary on precisely this issue. Lan Ling, a major opponent of “New Tone” zawen theory provides a characteristically provocative commentary on writing “the ugly truth” through zawen. In an essay that asks why such a fuss is made when a “upright and esteemed elderly writer” pronounces that he intends now to speak/write “the truth,” (he refers to Ba Jin, see ''Suiganlu'') Lan Ling demonstrates the difficulty of establishing truth through his own experience:<br />
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It was several decades ago that they “struggled” me saying I was “reactionary.” I responded, “I am fundamentally not reactionary (''fandong''), in fact, I am actionary (''zhengdong'').” They said, “There you go with sophistry, you are lying, who has ever heard of such a thing as 'actionary'?” … But if what I said was false, that of course meant that what they said was true, and thus my political label was accomplished: “reactionary.” After several decades this conclusion was overturned and rectified, so now what I had said became the truth. (Lan, 85).<br />
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''杂文''正是在这个问题上经常进行评论。 蓝翎是 "新调 "杂文理论的主要反对者，通过写杂文 "丑陋的真相 "，提出了富有争议评论。 在一篇文章中，他问道，为什么当一个 "正直而受人尊敬的老作家 "宣布他现在打算说/写 "真理 "时，人们会如此大惊小怪，(他指的是巴金，见''随感录'')，蓝翎以自己的经验证明了确立真理的困难。<br />
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那是几十年前，他们 "斗争 "我，说我是 "反动派"。我回答说："我根本不是反动的，事实上，我是行动的"。 他们说："你又在狡辩了，你在撒谎，谁听说过'行动派'这种东西？" ......但如果我说的是假话，那当然就意味着他们说的是真的，这样我的政治标签就完成了。"反动派" 几十年后，这个结论被推翻和纠正了，所以现在我说的话成了真理。 （兰，85）。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 05:52, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
The irony and false fatalism of this ''zawen'' is characteristic of its style. In this essay he claims to give up distinguishing the truth of his own speech; “No matter how difficult it is, this miserable person [I] still want to speak, and as for whether it is true or not, let someone else go analyze it.” (Lan, 85) Lan Ling reveals that he has created, in the heat of struggle, a misnomer; there is no such word as “actionary.” But, in the end, in its awkward and involuntary way, his retort rings true, what way is there to be, if not reactionary? Displaying all four characteristics of the “bad literature” complaint I have listed above, this piece is still an admired ''zawen''. It is the moody, but honest, kick of the mule.<br />
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这种“杂文”中的反讽和错误的宿命论是其风格的特点。在这篇文章中他宣称放弃了甄别言论中的真伪；“不管有多困难，这个可怜的人[我]仍然想说，至于说的真假，就让别人去分析去吧。”（兰，85）兰陵表示，在激烈的斗争中，他出现过用词不当的情况；就比如没有像“actionary”这样的词。”但是最后他的反驳以笨拙和不自觉的方式听起来像是真的，即使不是反动派的话，还能是哪种呢？这篇文章展示了我以上所列举的“不良文学”的全部的四个特点，它仍然是一篇受人敬佩的“杂文”。它令人悲伤，但是真诚又执拗。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这类杂文的风格特点是讽刺和虚假的宿命论。在这篇文章中，他声称要放弃辨别自身言论的真假，"无论多么困难，这个可怜的人（我）还是要说，至于说的是不是真的，就让别人去分析吧"。(兰，85)兰陵透露，他在斗争的热潮中，创造了一个误区，没有 ’行动力‘这个词。”但是，最后，他以笨拙和不由自主的方式作出的反驳，听起来又像真的，如果不是反动性，还能有什么方式呢？这篇文章表现出我上面所批判列举的 "劣质文学 "的四个特征，但它仍然是一篇令人钦佩的杂文。它是有情调的，却诚实有执拗。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 09:09, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
''Tone in Historical Context''<br />
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As evidence that it is the modal trope that inspired the genre of zawen from its inception, I conclude this essay with a brief look at historical manifestations of tone. It is key, and often part of the Chinese subtext, that the notion of tone (discussed alternately ''diao, yin, yun'') ultimately originates beyond words, in music. Even as a metaphor that must obliterate the acoustic qualities of sound when applied to written Chinese, tone maintains ties to the power of something that is in, or is like, sound, emphasizing physical, oral, informal and emotional qualities that are not part the rational process of exposition, this is the “poetry” of ''zawen''. Tone plays a role in a tremendous range of social events that surround and comprise writing. It occurs in the figure of music as a central metaphor in the most influential theories of literature and poetry.<br />
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历史背景下的音调<br />
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为了证明这是情态修辞启发了扎文这一体裁的产生，我在这篇文章的结尾简要介绍了音调在历史中的表现。音调的概念（也是人们讨论的“调”，“音”，“韵”）最终源于音乐中的文字，这很关键，而且这也经常是中文潜台词的一部分。即使它作为一个隐喻，在应用于中文书写时，它必须消除声音的声学品质，但语气仍与声音中或类似声音的事物保持联系，强调客观，口头，非正式和情感方面的品质，而这并不是声音的一部分。理性的阐释过程，这就是杂文的“诗”。音调在围绕和组成写作的众多社交活动中发挥着作用。它出现在音乐人物中，成为最有影响力的文学和诗歌理论中的中心隐喻。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:32, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
For example, spoiled music can signal a larger or more abstract disturbance; in the classic novel Dream of the Red Chamber a heroine breaks a string on a instrument and sees her impending death; in a well known folk story a high ranking official Yu Boya hits a sour note and knows that a potential assassin is lurking in the woods, listening. Music figures centrally in the Confucian Great Preface to the Book of Odes:<br />
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The affections emerge in sounds; when those sounds have patterning they are called “tones” [音] The tones of a well-managed aged are at rest and happy; its government is balanced. The tones of an age of turmoil are bitter and full of anger; its government is perverse. The tones of a ruined state are filled with lament and brooding; its people are in difficulty (Translated in Owen).<br />
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例如，被破坏的音乐能预示更大或更抽象的不安。在经典小说《红楼梦》中，女主人公弄断了乐器上的一根弦，看到了自己即将到来的死亡。在一个广为人知的民间故事中，高官俞伯牙拨弄出了一个尖锐的音符，便知道有一个刺客正潜伏在树林里。音乐在儒家的《诗经大序》中占有核心地位。<br />
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情感显现在声音里，当这些声音有了图式，就叫 "音"。在太平盛世里，音调是安然而欢快的，政通人和。在动荡年代里，音调是苦涩而充满愤怒的，政府是不作为的。破国的音调充满了哀叹和忧郁，人民处于水深火热之中（欧文译）。</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201207_trans&diff=11624220201207 trans2020-12-20T05:26:15Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The story plays with the analogy of zhang and mu. By infusing them into an imaginary “curtain,” the framed narrative engenders dialogic interplay between the narrator and the bridegroom, between the bride and the spectator, and between the public and private spaces. Zhang and mu mean different things, though they converge in the compound zhangmu. Traditionally, the word zhang denoted a canopy hung around a bed and was used to isolate an inner space in bedroom, so it can hardly be identical with the meaning of curtain. However, indirectly, it reached to the sense of “curtain” through a translation of Jerrold D. William’s (1803-57) Mrs. Caudle’s Curtain Lectures, a fiction of early nineteenth-century England. In 1915 Liu Bannong translated the title into “Zhangzhong shuofa” and published it in Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie.[ Liu Bannong, “Zhangzhong shuofa,” Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie, vol. 2, no.3 (March, 1915). Zhou should (June, 1922).]<br />
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这个故事与“帐”和“幕”的比喻类似。通过将他们注入想象中的“窗帘”,框架化的叙事手法在叙述者和新郎之间，新娘与观众之间，以及大众与私密空间之间引发了交流互动。帐和幕有不同的含义，尽管两者可以组成帐幕这个词。“帐”这个字从传统意义上来说是表示悬垂在床边的罩篷，以及被用来隔离出卧室的内部空间，因此“帐”与“窗帘”的意思是不同的。然而，在杰罗德·威廉姆斯在19世纪初期创作的一本小说，《考德尔太太的帷幕演讲》的译文中，“帐”有了接近“窗帘”的感觉。1915年，刘半农将标题译为《帐中说法》，并在中华小说界发表。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 07:46, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The “curtain lectures” refer to Mrs. Caudle’s poignant complaints and derision at her husband, mixed with familial trivialities and comic effects. <br />
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However, the overlap of zhang and mu was crucially related to a widely circulated myth about the Chinese origins of cinema, which was perhaps invented by Zhou himself. When Western-style movie theaters began to appear in late-1900s Shanghai, he was one of the earliest moviegoers. Like other Chinese at his time he also regarded film as a kind of “shadow play” (yingxi), meaning the performance on a screen. According to Zhou, the origins of “shadow play” can be found in the famous story in the Han Dynasty (206-24, B.C.), which tells of the Emperor Wu watching lady Li, dancing and singing, through a semi-transparent curtain.<br />
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“窗帘讲话”指的是考德尔夫人对于丈夫的尖酸抱怨和嘲弄，具有家庭琐事的特点和喜剧效果。<br />
然而，帐和幕的重叠之处与广泛流传的中国影院起源的神话故事具有关键的联系,这神话故事很可能是周瘦鹃自己编造的。20世纪90年代后期，西方式的电影院开始在上海出现，周瘦鹃是最早一批常客之一。与同时代的其他中国人一样，他将电影看成一种“皮影戏”（影戏），意为屏幕上的表演。周瘦鹃认为“皮影戏”的起源可以追溯到汉朝（公元206-24年）最著名的故事中，故事讲述了武皇帝通过一个半透明的帘子看李姓女子唱歌跳舞。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 10:55, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
As the anecdote goes, to console his loss of the favorite lady, a sorcerer made a curtained room and asked the emperor to stay at a distance. In the night, called by the sorcerer, the spirit appears behind the curtain, amidst the candle-light, to perform as if she is alive.[ Zhou Shoujuan, “Tan yingxi” (On shadow play), in Ziluilan ji (Collections of violet) (Shanghai: Dadong shuju, 1922) 13-14. Its earlier version “Yingxi hua” appeared in the Free Talk (Ziyou tan), the literary page in Shenbao (June 20, 1919): 15.] Notwithstanding the historical merit of Zhou’s interpretation, what is significant here is that he reads history with a cinematic imagination, by which the terminology in everyday life changes - as occurred here the meaning of zhang (curtain) is substituted by that of mu (screen). <br />
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In the mid-1910s Saturday and The Pastime (Youxi zazhi) magazines often appeared Zhou’s “film fiction” (yinxi xiaoshuo) - his accounts of what he had seen in the movie theaters.<br />
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正如轶闻流传的那样，为了抚慰他痛失挚爱，一位巫师把一个房间装上帘子，要求皇帝保持一定距离。夜幕降临后，在巫师的召唤下，灵魂出现在窗帘后，在烛光中晃动，仿佛她还活着。[周瘦鹃，“谈影戏”，《紫罗兰集》(上海: 大东书局, 1922) 13-14。 它的早期版本“影戏话”出现在《申报》(1919年6月20日): 15的文学专栏《自由谈》中] 尽管周瘦鹃的诠释具有历史意义，但此处的重要意义在于他以电影般的想象力来理解历史，通过这种想象力，日常生活中的专门用语发生了变化——在这里，“帐”的含义被“幕”替代。<br />
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20世纪10年代中期，《礼拜六》和《游戏杂志》经常刊登周瘦鹃的“影戏小说”——即他对自己在影院观看过的影片叙述。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 09:21, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
By the time he wrote this love confession, Zhou published a novella The Intimate Beauty (Hongyan zhiji), in which the hero recalls his lover on the “screen memory”: after he closes his eyes, he sees her beautiful image on a “snow-white screen” (xuebai de bumu) and hears her delicate voice; when he opens his eyes, they vanish and yet leaves a three-inch photograph in his heart.[ Zhou Shoujuan. Hongyan zhiji (Zhonghua tushuguan, 1917) 64.] However, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” has no description of watching film, yet the narrative itself is framed by the curtain; what was shown on the “screen” was verbalized and the text was visualized. With both meanings of zhang and mu, the “curtain” can be changed into a “screen,” onto which is projected the inner space of a wedding chamber in which the author makes his confession.<br />
在他写这篇爱情告白的时候，周出版了中篇小说《亲密之美》(《红颜之记》)，在这部小说中，主人公在“屏幕记忆”中回忆起了他的爱人:他闭上眼睛，在“雪白的屏幕”上看到了她美丽的形象，听到了她柔美的声音;当他睁开眼睛时，它们消失了，却在他的心里留下了一张三英寸的照片。(周秀娟《红颜智记》(中华图舒观1917)。然而，《九花帘幕》并没有对看电影的描述，叙事本身却被帘幕框住了;“屏幕”上显示的是语言，文字是可视化的。“窗帘”可以变成“屏风”，在“屏风”上投射出婚房的内部空间，作者在这里坦白。<br />
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写下这篇爱情告白时，周寿娟已出版了一篇小说《亲密的美人》(《鸿雁集》)，男主人公以 "屏风记忆 "的方式回忆爱人：闭上眼睛后，在 "雪白的屏风"上看到了她的美丽形象，听到了她的娇声；睁开眼睛时，这些形象消失了，却在心里留下了一张三寸照片。 [ 周寿娟.鸿雁志集（中华图画馆，1917）64.]然而，《九花帘里》没有看电影的描写，但叙事本身却被帘子框住了，"屏风 "上显示的东西被口头化了，文字也被视觉化了。有了 "张 "和 "亩 "两个意思，"幕 "就可以变成 "屏"，在 "屏 "上投射出作者告白的婚房内部空间。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:37, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was visually imagined and represented in terms of the spaces divided into the inside and the outside, with the beholder within the curtain and the imagined beholders without. When Zhou fulfills his promise to his friends that he will show them his “love talk” in the Pictorial Story magazine, he makes a written tableau in Diderot’s sense, in which the beholder is absent and yet always implied.[ Jay Caplan. Framed Narratives: Diderot’s Genealogy of the Beholder (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985) 16. ] Here, we refer to the notion of “beholder” not only because of the visual nature of Zhou’s fiction, but also because it helps my imposition of the complex “subjectivity” in this paper.<br />
《九朵花的窗帘》以外部空间和内部空间的划分给人们视觉上的想象与呈现，旁观者在窗帘内，而想象中的旁观者则在窗帘外。周在兑现对其朋友承诺说他将会在《画报故事》杂志中给他们展示“爱情谈话”时，就按照狄德罗的感觉画了一幅画，在这幅画里没有旁观者，但却总是暗含其中。[杰伊·卡普兰。边框叙事：狄德罗的《旁观者的家谱》（明尼阿波利斯：明尼苏达大学出版社，1985年）16。]我们在这里提到周的小说中“旁观者”的概念，不仅仅是因为其视觉特点，也是因为它加深了我对这篇文章复杂的“主观性”的理解。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 01:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
At this juncture, if we look beyond this story merely as a signal of style change in Zhou’s love story from the tragic to comical, we might be curious at the positivity of the male voice as well as the brightness of the private space. In view of the erotic-sentimental tradition of the male gaze in private space, what does this love talk mean historically? Not only does it relate to the transformation of gender roles as well as the legitimacy of the private space in Chinese literature.<br />
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This transformation occurred when this male gaze is empowered ideologically and technologically. Ideologically, it is imbued with the Republican ideal of nationhood and selfhood; technologically, it is, in this case, facilitated by the structural optical perception linked to the modern inventions such as photography and cinema.<br />
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在这个关头，如果我们不仅仅将这个故事当作周氏爱情小说从悲剧到喜剧风格转变的信号，我们可能会对男性声音的积极性以及私密空间的明亮感感到好奇。考虑到男性在私密空间中凝视色情的传统，这种爱情谈话在历史上意味着什么？它不仅与性别角色的转变和中国文学中私人空间的合法性有关。<br />
当这种男性凝视在意识形态和技术上得到授权时，就会发生这种转变。从意识形态上讲，它充满了共和党关于民族和自我的理想；从技术上讲，摄影和电影等现代发明相关的结构性光学感知使它变得容易。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 04:34, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
While depicting a tableau by freezing a moment in the past, Diderot disturbs his narrative by arranging the beholder as a part of the tableau. As Jay Caplan interpreted, the beholder is presented for the “psychological reason”: he functions as compensation to the loss which the family suffers as portrayed in the tableau.[ Ibid., 20-37.] In Zhou’s case, the beholder is called for the moral reason as his presence is neutralized to legitimize his love discourse in the private space. Especially the term qinghua “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” can be traced back to his short story published in 1913. It describes a young couple meeting and then whispering at a public place, unaware of someone who takes a snapshot of their intimate scene.[ Zhou Shoujuan. “Qinghua” (Love talk), Youxi zazhi 5 (1913).]<br />
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在通过暂停过去某个时刻来描绘一个场景时，狄德罗把旁观者设为场景的一部分，打乱了他的叙述。正如杰伊·卡普兰所解释的那样，旁观者的设定主要是出于“心理原因”，即他可以弥补场景中该家庭所遭受的损失。[ 同上, 20-37.] 在周廋鹃看来，旁观者的出现是出于道德原因，因为为使他的爱情故事在私人空间合法化，他的存在被中和了。特别是《九花帘幕》中情话一词，可以追溯到他1913年出版的短篇小说。该小说描述了一对年轻夫妇的会面，然后在公共场合窃窃私语，却没有意识到有人拍摄了他们的亲密场景。[ 周廋鹃. “情话” (Love talk), Youxi zazhi 5 (1913).]<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
It reads like a joke, yet this reportage intriguingly justifies the privacy in the public space that is a controversy of the time. The beholder plays roles of witness, voyeurist, and more importantly, sympathizer. In portraying the photographic evidence with the story of the beholder, Zhou also becomes a sympathetic beholder. <br />
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The dialogic characteristic of this love discourse lies not only in the consumerism of literary pleasure as the core of the Butterfly periodical culture, but also in the collective ethos of Butterfly community. In explicating how a bourgeois “love community” is born from the literature of intimate sphere in eighteenth-century England, Habermas says: “Subjectivity, as the innermost core of the private, was always already oriented to an audience.”[ Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Trans. Thomas Burger with the Assistance of Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge and Mass.: The MIT Press, 1991) 49. ]<br />
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这篇报道读起来像个笑话，但它为当时的一个争议，即公共空间的隐私进行了有趣的辩护。旁观者扮演着目击者，窥阴者，更重要的是，同情者的角色。在用旁观者的故事来描绘照片证据的过程中，周瘦鹃也成了一个有同情心的旁观者。<br />
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这种情话的对话性，不仅体现在以文学享乐消费主义为核心的享乐时代文化中，还体现在享乐社会的集体精神中。哈贝马斯在阐述十八世纪英国亲密领域文学如何诞生一个资产阶级“爱情共同体”时指出:“主体性作为私人领域最深处的核心，一直是面向受众的。”[尤尔根·哈贝马斯, 《公共领域的结构转型:对资产阶级社会范畴的探究》. 托马斯·伯格, 弗雷德里克·劳伦斯协助 (剑桥, 马萨诸塞州.: 麻省理工学院出版社，1991)49. ]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 02:16, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Zhou’s pillow talk is more than a playful response to his friends’ voyeurist curiosity, it is fulfilled as a promise of love discourse. It might embody that “the ideas of freedom, love, and cultivation of the person that grew out of the experiences of the conjugal family’s private sphere were surely more than just ideology.”[ Ibid., 48. ]<br />
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As the pillow talk unfolds, a complex subjectivity emerges. Against its ideological and technological backdrop, it is rhetorically and aesthetically embodied by a double voice, the poetics of persuasion and linguistic theatricality. The latter part of the story talks more about his family history. “When I was six years old, I became an orphan.” With this pathological tone, Zhou narrates how his father dies at that time and how his widowed mother single-handedly rears up four children by her hard work as a seamstress.<br />
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周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他说给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
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随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:31, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明,男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
<br />
随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大的往事。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:24, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
This family story is particularly heart-rending, yet it is more than that. He goes on, “When my father died, it happened in the year of 1900. The capital Beijing was totally in chaos, and thus, unexpectedly, the familial disaster and national humiliation fell on a boy of six years old.” A sense of tragic sublimation is effectively rendered as the boy is depicted as both victim and victor in these historical disasters, owing much to the rhetoric that makes the familial and national disasters “happen” to meet, and “thus” they “both” fall on the boy. The sentences sound as if it happened simultaneously when his father died and Beijing fell, and this narration enormously affects the reader.<br />
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这个家庭故事实在令人伤心，但不仅如此。 他继续说道：“父亲去世，是在1900年，首都北京一片混乱。始料未及的是，家庭灾难和民族耻辱都落在了一个六岁的男孩身上。” 当男孩在这些历史性灾难中被描述为受害者和胜利者时，一种悲剧性的升华感油然而生，这在很大程度上归因于修辞的艺术，使家庭和民族灾难“碰巧”交织在一起，“因此”它们“都”落在了那个男孩上。 这些句子听起来好像是在父亲去世和北京沦陷时同时发生的，这种叙述极大地影响了读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 03:23, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这个家庭故事尤其令人伤心，但不仅如此。他继续道：“1900年，父亲去世。首都北京完全处于混乱之中，出乎意料的是，家庭灾难和民族耻辱同时落在了一个六岁的男孩身上。”当男孩在这些历史性灾难中被描绘成受害者和胜利者时，一种悲剧性的升华感油然而生，这很大程度上归因于修辞的使用，使家庭和民族灾难“碰巧”相遇，“因此”他们“都”跌落在那个男孩上。这句话听起来好像是在他父亲去世和北京沦陷时同时发生的，这种叙述极大地影响了读者。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:03, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
However, strictly speaking, there is some slippage between fact and fiction: according to Zhou’s chronicle, his father died 22 days after the fall of Beijing.[ Wang Zhiyi, ed., Zhou Shoujaun yanjiu zhiliao (Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1993) 20.] The dramatic simultaneity not merely refers the narrative strategy mixed with sentimentalism and patriotism, it reflects his own trauma as projected onto the screen memory of his childhood. Compared with other versions about his father’s death, this expression is most theatrical. <br />
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Zhou’s childhood memory stores the collective traumatic experiences. The 1900 national catastrophe - the Boxers Uprising and the European Allies’ invasion in Beijing - becomes the emblem of national shame that had deeply imprinted on the Chinese minds. By such theatrical representation of his screen memory, Zhou’s love talk not merely appeals to his bride, the wedding chamber itself is transformed into a public space.<br />
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然而，严格来说，在事实和小说之间会存在一些误差：据周瘦鹃的生平记载，北京沦陷22天后，其父便亡，[王智毅，《研究资料研究资料》 (天津人民出版社，1993)20]。 戏剧性的巧合不仅指向与情感主义和爱国主义相融合的叙述策略，也将周瘦鹃的精神创伤投射到其童年的屏幕记忆之上。这种表达极具戏剧色彩，使得其余种种对其父亲之死的叙事版本黯然失色。<br />
周瘦鹃的童年伤痕累累。1990年国难当头，义和团起义，欧洲列强入侵北京，国家屈辱深深植根在中国人心中。周瘦鹃戏剧性展现其屏幕记忆，表明其甜言蜜语不仅仅说给他的新娘子听，婚房也成为了公共场所。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，严格来说，在事实和小说之间会存在一些误差：据周瘦鹃的生平记载，其父在北京沦陷22天后逝世。[王智毅，《周瘦鹃研究资料》 (天津人民出版社，1993)20]。 戏剧的同时性不仅指与情感主义和爱国主义相融合的叙述策略，也将周瘦鹃的精神创伤投射到其童年的屏幕记忆之上。这种表达极具戏剧色彩，使得其余种种对其父亲之死的叙事版本黯然失色。<br />
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周瘦鹃的童年伤痕累累。1990年国难当头，义和团起义和欧洲列强入侵北京这两大屈辱，深深植根在中国人心中。通过这种戏剧性的屏幕记忆表达，周瘦鹃的甜言蜜语不仅吸引了他的新娘，婚房也成为了公共场所。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:41, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Now the narrator is more aware of the presence of the public beholders. Aiming more at arousing collective pathos there inserts the scenario of his father’s death, which is also an intense moment for the author to test his rhetoric of theatricality. “When my father was dying, he was like a madman. Suddenly he jumped down from the bed and rushed out, raising his head toward heaven and shouting at the top of his lung, ‘My three sons, be heroes, join the army and fight!’ After these words, he returned to the bed and soon stopped breathing.”<br />
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现在，叙述者更加意识到了公众旁观者的存在。 插入父亲去世的情景更多地是为了激起集体的悲痛，这也是作者检验自己的戏剧性描写能力的一个关键点。 “当我父亲去世时，他就像一个疯子。他突然从床上跳下来，冲了出去，抬起头向着天堂，高喊着说：“我的三个儿子，成为英雄吧，去参军作战！”说完这些话之后，他回到了床上，很快停止了呼吸。”--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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现在叙述者更加意识到公众旁观者的存在。插入他父亲死亡的场景，更多的是为了唤起集体的悲怆，这也是作者检验其戏剧性修辞的一个紧张时刻。“我父亲快死的时候就像是个疯子。他突然从床上跳下来，冲了出去，抬头望天，声嘶力竭地喊道:“我的三个儿子，要成为英雄，参军作战！”说完这些话，他回到床上，很快停止了呼吸。”--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 08:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
Permeated in the narrative of his family history are the characteristics of theatrical rhetoric: The period of his childhood is frozen, and his voice pretends to be childish; heavily emotionally charged words such as “tears,” “sorrow,” “bitter” are frequently appear between lines. Ordinary episodes are intensely represented with emphasis on the theatrical manners, gestures to deliver emotions at the highest pitch. The sentiments attached to the episodes tend to be collectively identified, such as his father’s death linked to the national calamity. There is excessive use of the adverbs to accumulate the force of persuasion and theatrical effect. No less noticeable is the role played by the narrator himself, who seems never hesitant to use the rhetoric of excess.<br />
<br />
在他的家族史叙事中渗透着戏剧修辞的特点:他的童年时期毫无生趣，声音假装稚嫩；字里行间经常出现“眼泪”、“悲伤”、“痛苦”等充满感情色彩的词语。普通的情节通过戏剧性的方式，传递情感的手势以及高昂的音调得以强烈地表现出来。与这些事件相关的情感往往是为集体认同的，比如他父亲的死与国家灾难有关。副词的过度使用是为了增强说服力和戏剧效果。同样引人注目的是叙述者自己扮演的角色，他似乎会毫不犹豫地过度使用修辞。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 08:52, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他的家族史叙述中充斥着戏剧性修辞的特征：他的童年时期很冷清，声音故作幼稚。 字里行间行间经常出现一些带有强烈情感的词，例如“眼泪”，“悲伤”，“苦涩”。 普通的情节以戏剧性的方式表现出来，强调最高音调传递情感的手势。 这些情节所附带的情感往往会为集体识别，例如父亲因国家大祸而去世。 过多使用副词来增强说服力和戏剧效果。 叙述者本人扮演的角色同样引人注目，他似乎会毫不犹豫地过度使用修辞。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:18, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Perhaps no modern readers would feel comfortable at the author’s praise of his mother for her traditional virtue; she twice cuts off a piece of flesh from her arm and cooks it as a medicine for her ill mother and husband. “From now on, we should remember what she did and do our best to be filial to her. We should erect, in our hearts, a stele for her filial piety, and a monument for her widowhood; by this means we can make her late life a happy one.” When he repeats this to his bride as a family legend and spiritual heritage, the use of rituals to enhance his language performativity nonetheless turn the persuasion into the grotesque. But we need to be cautious at the accusation of Zhou’s promotion of the “feudal rites” (fengjian lijiao), for the rituals are only used as symbolic value serving the new social structure and ideology in the early Republican era.<br />
<br />
也许现代读者没有人会对作者赞扬他母亲的传统美德而感到舒适；她两次从自己手臂上割下一片肉，然后熬成药，（喂给）她生病的母亲和丈夫。“从现在开始，我们应该铭记她的付出，然后尽我们最大的努力去孝顺她，在心里，我们应该为自己的孝道竖立碑石，为她的守寡树立纪念碑；通过这种方式，我们能让她过上幸福的晚年生活”。当他把这个作为家族传奇和精神遗产反复像新娘提起时，然而通过使用礼制来提高他的语言表现力使得这种劝说变得很荒唐。但是，在指称周提倡“封建礼”（封建礼教）时，我们需要保持谨慎。因为在民国初期，这些礼制只是被作为一种象征性价值来服务新的社会结构和意识形态。<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
According to the author’s love gospel, love must be mutual; this idea is embodied here through the narrative process itself: the act of telling the bride about his past as a token of trust aims to ask her to understand and trust him. While informing her of his intellectual paths in order to invite her to embrace his spiritual world, the pillow talk reveals its cultural meaning. Among other things, the story reveals himself as a human being who is promising yet ordinary, enduring yet fragile, and at the same time his family economy as unstable as unpredictable, indicating that they live in a hard time. It means that while sharing his bitter past and hopeful future, she must take up her duty and responsibility for him and his family.<br />
<br />
根据作者的爱情信条，爱情必须是相互的。这个观念也体现在作品的叙述过程中：新郎把自己的过往告诉了新娘，代表自己信任新娘，想要新娘理解并信任他。为了邀请她信奉他的精神世界，他告诉了她自己的智慧之路，同时这段枕边细语也反映出背后的文化内涵。在其他方面，这个故事也揭示了他是一个充满希望却又普通平凡，忍耐力强却又十分脆弱的人，同时，他的家庭经济难以预测，并不稳定，这也表明他们生活在一个艰难的时期。整个故事意味着：新郎分享了自己艰苦的过去，表达了对未来的希望，新娘就必须肩负起责任，对丈夫和家庭负责。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:58, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
根据作者的爱情信条，爱情必须是相互的。这个观点可以通过叙述过程本身体现出来：新郎把自己的过往告诉了新娘，代表自己信任新娘，想要新娘理解并信任他。为了邀请她进入自己的精神世界，新郎告诉了她自己的智慧之路，同时这段枕边细语也反映出背后的文化内涵。在其他方面，这个故事也揭示了他是一个充满希望却又普通平凡，忍耐力强却又十分脆弱的人，同时，他的家庭经济难以预测，并不稳定，这也表明他们生活在一个艰难的时期。这意味着新郎在分享他艰苦的过去和憧憬充满希望的未来的同时，新娘必须承担起对新郎和他的家庭的责任。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 08:16, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
Zhou’s rhetoric of persuasion also implies that the bride is also at the center of a nuclear family, who must be subject to the new ethics. As the narrator further describes how he becomes a nationally famous novelist, due to his talent, diligence and proliferation in the “time of fiction in its full swing.” His jubilant voice echoes that of the beginning of the story while talking about how his family economy is drastically improved and afterwards the Zhous moves from the shabby old city area to the decent French concession. The narrator continues: “Ah, my phoenix lady, I have fully told you about my past. Having heard of this, you can understand what I have achieved so far is due to my bloody struggles with the hardships and difficulties, not to mention my mother who experienced as harder as thousands times than mine.”<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的说服性演讲也暗示了新娘在核心家庭中的中心地位，且新娘必须要遵守新的道德准则。正如叙述者在进一步叙述时说，自己成为一名享誉全国的小说家是因为自身的天赋、勤奋和在这个“小说的全盛时代”的有效推广。他兴奋的语调回应着故事开头关于他家里是如何富起来以及之后他从这个褴褛的旧城市搬到体面的法租界的叙述。叙述者继续说道：“哦，我的凤凰女神，我已将我的过去完完整整地告诉了你。听了这些，你就能明白，到今天为止我所取得的成就都是因为我面对困难进行的艰苦奋斗，更不用说我母亲，她所经历的比我要难一千倍。”--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:51, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃说服性的修辞也正暗示出新娘在核心家庭中的中心地位，而且新娘必须遵循新道德。正如叙述者一步步描述的那样：他凭借着自身的天赋和勤奋，借助“小说全盛时代”的发展契机，成为了一名享誉全国的小说家。故事开始时，他谈到自己的家庭是如何快速致富，之后又从破旧的老城搬到像样的法租界，兴奋的语调在空中回荡。叙述者继续谈到：“哦，我的凤凰女神，我已经把我的过往全部告诉你了。听完后，你就能明白我现在的成就都源于自己与困难艰苦奋斗，更别提我那比我经历了千倍困难的母亲了。”--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The sentimental imploration conveys the bourgeois ethics no less than a “modern apocalypse”: this is a hard time yet it is promising and fair: everyone can get what he deserves by God’s gift as well as hard work. <br />
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Inscribed with such allegorized trauma, the pillow talk implies a fatal bond between the individual, family and country, and thence elicits the “community of love.” Under the persuasion she is more than a wife and a lover - she is treated at the same time as a citizen. By the device of double curtain stated above, the narrative space is imbued with the authorial anxiety before the private and public beholders, indicating that the private realm by no means becomes autonomous without being identified with peoplehood and nationhood.<br />
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这种感情用事传达出的资产阶级伦理不亚于一个“现代启示录”：这是一个艰难的时期，但也是充满希望和公正的：每个人都可以通过上帝的恩赐和辛勤工作得到他应得的。<br />
<br />
枕边话中镌刻着这种寓言般的创伤，暗示着个人、家庭和国家之间的一种深刻的联系，因此引发了“爱的共同体”这一概念。在这种概念下，女性不仅仅是妻子和情人——同时也被视为公民。通过上述两种阐释，叙事空间在私人和公众的注视下，作者会充满焦虑，这表明私人领域在没有被人民和民族认同的情况下绝不会变得自治。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 03:44, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A Republican subjectivity is embodied in this domestic space by a speech act of persuasion, and it is the sentimentalism that naturalizes all social relations, blurring the private and public boundaries, and it ultimately functions in identifying them with the nationhood. In a sense, this peculiar love talk using the first person genre amalgamates diary, love-letter, autobiography and confession and displays a particular revelation of the community of love.<br />
<br />
Although the latter half of this monologue is basically dominated by historical references, Zhou’s strategy of using stylistic conventions such as verbal ornaments or rhythmic parallelism shifts to an appeal to cultural convention, such as ritual and tradition. Tradition is used as both value and form. Like the scars left on the mother’s arms, ritual is infused into the narrative to such an extent that the procedure of writing is culturally encoded.<br />
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共和国的主体性在这个家庭空间中通过一种劝说的言说行为体现出来，正是这种情话将所有的社会关系自然化，模糊了私人与公共的界限，它最终的功能是将其与国民性相认同。从某种意义上说，这种使用第一人称体裁的奇特情话，将日记、情书、自传和告白融为一体，显示出对爱情共同体的特殊揭示。<br />
<br />
虽然这段独白的后半段基本以历史的引用为主，但周国平利用语言装饰或节奏并列等文体惯例的策略，转向对仪式和传统等文化惯例的呼吁。传统既是作为价值，也是作为形式。就像母亲手臂上留下的伤疤一样，仪式被注入到叙事中，以至于写作的程序被文化编码。<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
Compared to the characteristic of pursuing modern fashion in the first half of the story, here Zhou reveals more of his cultural conservatism. Rooted in the traditional “Teaching of Affection,” his love discourse aims at solving complex problems in a modern society; what separates Zhou from his contemporaries is that he does not intend to make his philosophy of love a perfect, unified one. In the “community of love” lies a paradox. Habermas says: “The jeopardy into which the idea of the community of love was thereby put, up to our own day, occupied the literature as the conflict between marriage for love and marriage for reason, that is, for economic and social considerations.”[Habermas, 47.]<br />
<br />
与故事的上半部分追求现代时尚相比，这里体现的更多是周瘦鹃的文化保守理念。 他的爱情话语植根于传统的“情感教学”中，旨在解决现代社会中的复杂问题。 与同时代作者不同的是，周瘦鹃无意让自己的爱情哲学完美无缺、完全统一。 因为在“爱的共同体”中存在一个悖论。 正如哈贝马斯所说：“直到今天，爱的共同体带来的风险还一直给文学界造成着困扰，因为在这其中一直存在一个矛盾，那便是因爱而婚，还是因理（经济和社会考量）而婚。”[Habermas, 47.]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:23, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
As shown by Zhou’s own love story, he never forgot his first lover named “Violet,” and thus we come to realize that behind this pillow talk is the rueful truth: for him this is a “marriage for reason,” not a “marriage for love.” As he says to his bride, since he failed in the first love, he never had intention of making a family, and he married her in order to make his mother happy. Probably this loving experiment with baihua is a compromise for better communicating with the bride who is almost illiterate.<br />
<br />
正如周瘦鹃自己的爱情故事所展现的，他从未忘记过自己的初恋“紫罗兰”，因此我们逐渐意识到，这段感情的背后是一个残酷的事实：对他而言，这是“为了结婚而结婚”，而非“为了爱情而结婚”。 就像他对新娘说的那样，在初恋无疾而终后，他再也没有组建家庭的打算，他娶她是为了让母亲开心。在这段感情实验中使用白话文可能是与一字不识的妻子更好沟通的一种折中方式。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 07:03, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Eileen Chang and the Modern Essay'''<br />
<br />
Nicole Huang<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In her preface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meanings of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure-it should be like words written on water, or 'flowing words,' as 'liuyan' would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of 'rumors' or 'gossip'-a second literal meaning of the word 'liuyan'-flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
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黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年出版的《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层含义：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”的内涵，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
<br />
黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年在日本侵占的上海出版的散文集《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层隐喻：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，或者说流言的字面意义“飘走的话语”，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”或“绯闻”的内涵——流言的第二个字面意义——自由自在地四处漂流，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
<br />
黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，在1994被年日本占领的上海出版的《流言》的标题是来自于英语谚语“written on the water”。她还阐述了该隐喻背后的深层含义：她不希望自己的作品像水一样流过即逝，或者就像“流言”的字面意思一样，短暂的存在最终消逝；但是她希望他的作品可以像“谣言”一样-另一个“流言”的字面意思，可以迅速传开，被大众所知。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 07:52, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Chang's use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang's long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form.<br />
<br />
张爱玲的自反性语言开辟了一个新的途径，使得好奇的读者或者评论家都可以仔细的观察到整个创作性作品的形成过程。因而一个极度具有创造性思维的女性作家第一次像一篇文章一样被解码。张爱玲极具特点的标题创造体现了她努力的在不同的写作体裁边缘尝试，正因如此，形成了批判性/学术性和质疑性的个人文章的区别。此处她的写作背后的命名机制不仅只是双关那么简单。这个标题不仅展现了一个新的写作风格，同时也顺势的表达了再创造的文学形式的体裁风格。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 07:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of 'gossip' or leisurely talks, Chang's naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer's commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation. <br />
<br />
I argue that Chang's experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is channeled into her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay. The choice of the essay form is central to Chang's aesthetic vision.<br />
<br />
尽管言语被描述为像流淌着的水，而杂文类型却被比作“闲话”或悠闲谈话的流畅构造，但张爱玲在这里对自己写作的命名不仅提供了对文学写作实践的评论。 更重要的是，应将文体的重命名理解为女作家对中国近代历史上特定时期的文化生产状况的评论，其特征是战争和占领引起的巨大动荡和破坏。<br />
<br />
我认为张爱玲的时间，空间和上海被占领这样的特殊历史环境的经验被用在她重新定义现代论文的通用身份的尝试中。 论文形式的选择对于张爱玲的审美观至关重要。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 08:46, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然文字被描述为像流动的水，散文体裁被比作“闲谈”或闲谈的流畅结构，但张爱玲在这里为自己的写作命名，这不仅仅是对文学创作实践的评论。更重要的是，散文体裁的更名应该理解为中国近代史上对一个特定时期的文化生产状况的评论，这一时期是以战争和占领造成的巨大动荡和混乱为特征的。<br />
<br />
余以为张爱玲对上海被占领的时间、空间和特定的历史环境的体验，是她尝试重新定义现代散文的共性特征。散文形式的选择是张氏美学视野的核心。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:05, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然用词像流水一样流畅，这种散文体裁可与“流言蜚语”或闲散的言语的流畅结构相比，但是张对她的作品的命名不仅仅展现了对文学创作实践的点评，更重要的是，这应该被理解为女性作家对中国现代史中某个特定时期的文化生产状况的评述，而这个时期，受战争及外国侵略的影响，是颠覆且破碎的。<br />
<br />
我认为张在时间、空间及上海被占领后的历史背景上的体验促成她尝试去重新定义现代散文的一般特性。散文形式的选择是张的美学观的核心。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 10:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
The writer's self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. The essay is made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenges the literary conventions, searches for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promotes herself as an important cultural figure. <br />
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The modern essay also serves to contribute concrete forms to a life that appears void of any structure; in other words, Eileen Chang uses the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one's imagination and fantasy can anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation.<br />
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作家在1940年代上海都市文化领域的自我定位，体现在她对文体的选用上。人们将散文视为一个重要的话语场所，女作家可以在散文中公然挑战文学传统，在文学写作和日常生活的实践中寻找其他选择，并把自己作为一个重要的文化人物来宣传。<br />
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现代散文的作用还在于为看似空洞无物的生活贡献具体的形式，换言之，张爱玲用现代散文的形式建构了一个可理解的世界，人们可以在此想象和幻想。对日常经验的详细描述，也就是对物质世界的文化意义的表述，不仅表现出一种动态的内在生活，也表现出一种新的社会身份的形成。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 07:58, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
My paper highlights two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang's essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness. I argue that the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for the woman writer in her entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, a woman writer as an individual can become a concrete historical subject within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
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本文着重论述了张爱玲散文创作中概念化的两个方面的生活：一是现代公寓空间作为城市景观的边缘场所；二是时尚作为一种重要的物质意识形式的话语。笔者认为，散文体裁不仅成为女性作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个无止境的、持续的过程，而且成为文学世界与更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定和不断变化的试验场。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为一个具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众之间的界限进一步模糊，传记的偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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本文着重论述了张爱玲散文创作中概念化生活的两个方面：一是现代公寓空间作为城市景观的边缘场所；二是时尚话语作为一种重要的物质意识形式。笔者认为，散文体裁不仅成为女性作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个开放的、持续的过程，而且成为文学世界与更广泛的社会领域之间边界不稳定和持续变化的试验场所。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为一个具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众之间的界限进一步模糊，传记偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:46, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In her perface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meaning of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure – it should be like words written on water, or ‘flowing words,’ as ‘liuyan’ would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of ‘rumors’ or ‘gossip’ – a second literal meaning of the word ‘liuyan’ – flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.[ See Chang, Nightmare in the Red Chamber (Taipei: Huangguan, 1977). The book, containing Chang’s essays on authorship, themes, structure, character portrayal, and linguistic construction of the most renowned vernacular narrative of pre-modern China Dream in the Red Chamber (Honglou meng), is representative of her literary and artistic pursuits during her American years (1955-1995).]<br />
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张爱玲（1920-1995）在对《红楼梦》的演说中回想起流言，这是她1944年在日本占领的上海发表的散文集的标题，源于英语谚语“写在水上。”她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不希望自己的写作能忍受–就像在水面上写的单词或“流淌的单词”一样，“流言”的字面意思是暂时徘徊并最终流失。但她也希望她的写作能被赋予“谣言”或“八卦”的精神（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，并引起广泛的听众。[参见Chang，Nightmare in the红楼（台北：皇馆，1977）。这本书包含了张的文章，涉及到《红楼梦》中前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她在文学和艺术上的追求。美国年（1955-1995）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 06:52, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张爱玲（1920-1995）在《红楼梦魇》一书的前言中谈到，“流言”意思源于英文谚语“写在水上，这也是她一部散文集的名字，出版于1944年在日本占领的上海后。她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不指望自己的作品渊远流长–就像“在水面上写的文字”或“流淌的文字”一样，一如“流言”的字面意思，暂时徘徊并最终流逝，但她也希望她的写作能带有“谣言”或“八卦”的意味（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，获得广泛的关注。[参见张爱爱玲，《红楼梦魇》（台北：皇冠出版社，1977）。这本书是张爱玲在美时期（1955-1995）对前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事小说《红楼梦》的研究成果，包含多篇文章，涉及《红楼梦》的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她的文学和艺术追求。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:26, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Chang’s use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang’s long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form.<br />
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张爱玲对自我反省语言的运用为好奇的读者/批评家提供了一个窗口，让他们得以深入了解正在创作中的作品的内在过程，因此，女作家的创作心理成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了，张爱玲通过长期努力在不同写作类型之间寻求界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人论文之间的区别受到了质疑。在这里，她作品命名背后的机制不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。标题不仅代表了一种新的散文写作风格，也代表了一种突出这种再造文学形式一般身份的相应方式。<br />
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张爱玲对自我反省性语言的运用为好奇的读者/评论家提供了一个窗口，通过这个窗口，他们可以观察到创作过程中相当详细的过程，因此女作家的创作心态成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了张爱玲长期以来努力探讨不同文体之间界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人散文之间的区别受到质疑。在这里，她的作品命名方法不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。这个标题不仅表明了一种新的散文写作风格，而且也代表了一种相应的方式来突出这种革新的文学形式的共性特征。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 10:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
During the writing process, the essay writer creates a structure of both containment (language captures the sentiments of a particular moment) and opening (language is unlimited because it lacks definite meaning or substance); and during the reading process, the immediacy and the transitoriness of the messages conveyed in these linguistic structures are first to be comprehended.<br />
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While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of ‘gossip’ or leisurely talks, Chang’s naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer’s commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation.[ For a standard historical account of cultural activities in occupied Shanghai, see Ke Ling, Zhuzi shengya (My Writing Career) (Taiyuan: Shanxi renmin chubanshe, 1986); also see Poshek Fu, Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai, 1937-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).]<br />
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在写作过程中，散文作者创造了一个兼含遏制（语言要抓住具体某个时刻的情感）与开放（由于缺乏具体的含义或内容，语言是无限制的）的结构；阅读过程中，在这些语言结构中所表现的信息转瞬即逝的特点首先为读者所理解。<br />
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用词像流水一样流畅，这种散文体裁可与“流言蜚语”或闲散的言语的流畅结构相比，张对她的作品的命名不仅仅展现了对文学创作实践的点评，更重要的是，这应该被理解为女性作家对中国现代史中某个特定时期的文化生产状况的评述，而这个时期，受战争及外国侵略的影响，是颠覆且破碎的。[关于上海占领区的文化活动的标准性历史记录，参见柯灵《煮字生涯》（太原：山西人民出版社，1986）； 另见傅葆石的“Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai”, 1937-1945 (斯坦福: 斯坦福大学出版社, 1993).]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 10:10, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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Eileen Chang launched her writing career during the early 1940s, and her most important works, including the essays collected in Written on Water and the short stories collected in Chuanqi (Romances), were completed between 1943 and 45. Chang’s fictional writing has been subjected to abundant critical scrutiny since the late 1960s and early 1970s when scholars such as C.T. Hsia and Shui Jing started to reclaim the significance of Eileen Chang and promote her as one of the finest and the most original writers in the scene of twentieth century Chinese literature.[ See Shui Jing’s Paozhuan ji (Casting a Brick to Attract Jade) (Taipei: Sanmin shuju, 1969) and Zhang Ailing de xiaoshuo yishu (The Fictional Art of Eileen Chang ) (Taipei: Dadi chubanshe, 1973), as well as C. T. Hsia’s Aiqing, Shehui, Xiaoshuo (Love, Society, and Fiction) (Taipei: Chunwenxue chubanshe 1970), both published in Taipei. The three books were published in the midst of a renewed infatuation with the woman author shared by readers in Chinese-speaking communities outside of mainland China after 1949.] But the study of Chang’s essay writing is a different story.<br />
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张爱玲的创作生涯始于20世纪40年代初，她的重要作品包括散文集《流言》和短篇小说集《传奇》，均创作于1943年至45年间。虽然自20世纪60年代末70年代初以来，张爱玲的小说创作一直受大众批评，但是当时夏志清和水晶等学者已经开始重新认识张爱玲的意义，并称她为“二十世纪中国文学界最优秀、最具原创性的作家之一“【详见水晶的《抛砖记》（台北：三民书局，1969）和《张爱玲的小说艺术》（台北：大地出版社，1973）以及夏至清的《爱·社会·小说》（台北：纯文学出版社，1970），均在台北出版。这三本书的出版之时，正值1949年后中国大陆以外的华语读者对这位女作家重新产生迷恋之时。】但对张爱玲的散文写作的研究则是另一番景象。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:02, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Since the most popular essays by Chang were written during the same period as her fictional writing, namely, between 1942 and 45, and some of her essays conveniently provided the concrete historical and biographical background against which the plot in her fictional writing was possibly designed, Chang’s essay writing has so far been read as the best commentaries to her fictional writing, particularly to the short stories collected in the acclaimed Romances.[ Wu Fuhui, among many others, argues that Eileen Chang’s essays are only interesting when read together with her short stories. He uses the essay entitled ”Jingyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes) as an example, arguing that the essay should be read as providing the necessary historical context to our understanding of Chang’s highly acclaimed novella Qingcheng zhi lian (Romance Among the Ruins). I disagree with Wu because the emphasis of the essay clearly lies elsewhere: it presents a social gallery of figures – a group of female college students, all from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds, whose brilliance of personality is brought out by the war. The novella, however, focuses more on the falling apart and the reconstructing of the beauty legend. Here the generic distinctions between fiction and essay are instrumental in piecing together the meanings of these two literary texts. See Wu’s preface toZhang Ailing sanwen quanbian (A Complete Collection of Eileen Chang’s Essays) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang wenyi chubanshe, 1995).] While such an approach to Chang’s essays can provide a coherent discussion of Chang’s literary writing as an entirety, it may overlook the specificities of the essay genre in the Chinese context and may also downplay the cultural significance of such formalistic experiments.<br />
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由于张爱玲最受欢迎的散文写于她的小说创作的同一时期，即1942年至45年之间，而且她的一些文章方便地提供了具体的历史和生平背景，她的小说创作中的情节有可能是在这样的背景下设计的。因此，张爱玲的散文创作至今被解读为对她的小说创作，特别是对广受好评的《罗曼史》中收录的短篇小说最好的评论。[吴福辉等人认为，张爱玲的散文只有在与她的短篇小说一起阅读时才有意思。他以《灰烬中的故事》一文为例，认为这篇文章为我们理解张爱玲备受赞誉的小说《倾城之恋》（又名《废墟中的浪漫》）提供了必要的历史背景。我不同意吴的观点，因为这篇文章的重点显然在别处:它呈现的是一个人物的社会画廊——一群来自不同文化和民族背景的女大学生们，她们因战争而焕发出个性的光辉。然而，他的中篇小说更多地关注的是美人传奇的分崩离析和重构。 在这里，小说和散文之间的一般区别有助于拼凑这两种文学文本的意义。参见《张爱玲散文全集·张爱玲散文集》（杭州:浙江文艺出版社，1995）吴氏序。]这样的研究方法虽然可以从整体上对张爱玲的文学写作进行连贯的讨论，但却可能忽略了中国语境下的散文体裁的特殊性，也可能淡化这种形式主义实验的文化意义。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:07, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Chang’s experiments with the modern essay serve to position her at a critical moment of literary transformation in modern China. While women writers had actively participated in both fictional and poetic writing since the early decades of this century, the essay genre had been monopolized by male writers. Three major essay traditions had already been canonized when Eileen Chang took up the essay as a vital means of representation. The ‘minor essay’ (xiaopin wen) tradition, represented by Zhou Zuoren and Lin Yutang, is characterized by a light and relaxing tone, a simple and elegant diction, political disengagement, wit, and a leisurely mood.<br />
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张爱玲在现代散文领域做出的尝试实践将其置于现代中国文学转型的关键时期。尽管自世纪初的几十年起，女性作家便积极进行小说与诗歌写作，散文领域却被男性作家独占了。当张爱玲把散文作为一种重要的表现手段时，三种主要的散文传统已被神圣化。其中包括以周作人、林语堂为代表的小品文传统，其特点是语调轻快，用词简雅，政治疏离，风趣幽默，心境悠闲。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:11, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
The ‘miscellaneous essay’ (zawen) tradition, represented by Lu Xun and several generations of followers, including a group of leftist writers residing in Gudao (Isolated Island) Shanghai (1937-41), highlights intellectual sharpness and rhetoric eloquence, advocates active engagement with reality, and maintains the belief that literary writing should be employed as a powerful tool for social criticism and political intervention. And finally, the ‘refined essay’ (meiwen) tradition, represented by Zhu Ziqing and many writers from both the Literary Studies Circle (Wenxue yanjiu hui) and the Creation Society (Chuangzao she) since the 1920s, advocates linguistic experiments, whose goal is to create a language of refinement and elegance, and imageries that embody highly aesthetic and sensual qualities.[ Most standard literary histories published in China do not attempt to distinguish between different styles of modern essay writing. The zawen (the miscellaneous essay) tradition is often highlighted as the mainstream style for its definition of literature as social and political critique. These standard literary histories do acknowledge the lyrical qualities of xiaopin wen and meiwen but fail to situate the practice of these alternative essay writing styles in their cultural and intellectual contexts. See Wang Yao, Zhongguo xinwenxue shigao (History of the ”New Literature” in China), Tang Tao and Yan Jiayan, Zhongguo xiandai wenxueshi (Modern Chinese History), and Qian Liqun et al., Zhongguo xiandai wenxue sanshinian (Thirty Years of Modern Chinese Literature).]<br />
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杂文派的代表人物有鲁迅及其几代追随者，包括一群上海孤岛时期（1937-41）的左翼作家。他们强调知识分子的敏锐和修辞口才，倡导积极接触现实，并坚持认为文学写作应用作社会批评和政治干预的有力工具。最后是美文派，诞生于20世纪20年代，代表人物是朱自清以及来自文学研究会和创造社的许多作家。他们倡导语言实验，旨在创造一种精致优雅的语言，以及体现高度审美和感官品质的意象。[中国出版的大多数标准文学史并不试图区分不同风格的现代散文作品。杂文经常被视作主流文体，因为它把文学定义为社会和政治批判。这些标准的文学史确实承认了小品文和美文的抒情品质，但未能将这些另类散文的写作风格实践置于他们的文化和知识背景中。参考王耀，《中国新文学史稿》，汤涛、严家炎，《中国现代文学史》，钱理群等，《中国现代文学三十年》。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:04, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
Most of the women writers in 1940s Shanghai experimented with essay writing. In fact, women produced a larger quantity of essays than any other literary genre. In addition to Eileen Chang, many women writers of the period, including Su Qing (1917-1982), Guan Lu (1908-1982), Pan Liudai (1922-?), and Shi Jimei (1920-1968), also discovered the generic fluidity embedded in the essay form. Compared to their experiments with other literary genres, such as fiction, drama, and poetry, it is in women’s essay writing of the period that the discourses of female gender and sexuality, issues of the domestic sphere, and the structures of social institutions such as marriage are most vigorously challenged and thoroughly reformulated. The essay genre is the most powerful literary form adopted by women writers such as Eileen Chang in their efforts to constantly redefine the boundaries between life and work, and to meticulously weave the space of private life together with the space provided by literary writing.<br />
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在20世纪40年代，上海大部分女作家都尝试了散文写作。事实上，比起其他的文学体裁，女性写了更多的散文。除了张爱玲，许多当时的女性作家，包括苏青(1917-1982)、关露(1908-1982)、潘柳代(1922-?)和史集梅(1920-1968)也发现了散文形式中通用的流动性。比起尝试其他文学体裁，例如：小说，戏剧，诗歌，在这个时期的女性散文写作中，女性性别与性的论述，国内领域问题，社会制度结构如婚姻，受到了极大的挑战以及被彻底的重新制定。散文体裁是最有力的文学形式，女性作家如张爱玲使用这种文学体裁去不断重新定义生活和工作的界限，将私人生活的空间与文学写作提供的空间精心编织在一起。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:16, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
In the following sections, I will argue that the woman writer’s experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is not only mirrored in her representation of individual experiences of the war, the occupation, and the everyday, but also in her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay and to reinvent a kind of prose language that most vividly captures the transitional as well as eccentric nature of the essay genre. I will also argue that the choice of the essay form is central to Chang’s aesthetic vision.<br />
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我在接下来的章节里会指出女性作家（指张爱玲）对于时间，空间和上海被占领这个特定历史环境的经历不仅反映在她对战争、占领和日常生活的个人经历的再现，也反映在她对于重新定义现代散文的尝试中，她试图重新创造一种散文体语言，这种语言可以最为清楚的捕捉到散文体裁的过渡和古怪的本质。我还将点明散文形式的选择是张爱玲审美视野的中心。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 08:07, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在下面章节中，我将证明这个观点，上海被侵占，这位女作家处于这样的时间，空间以及特殊环境下，她的经历不仅反映在她对战争、占领和日常生活的描述中，而且体现在她的意图中，她试图重新定义现代散文的通用身份，重塑一种散文语言，这种语言能极生动地展现散文体裁的过渡以及古怪性质。我也会证明文章形式的选择对张爱玲的审美视野至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:51, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在接下来的章节里，我会指出张爱玲对于时间、空间和上海被占领的特定历史背景的经历，不仅反映在她对战争、占领和日常生活的个人经历的再现里，也反映在她重新定义现代散文的尝试中，她试图重新创造一种散文体语言，这种语言可以最为清楚地捕捉到散文体裁过渡和古怪的本质。我还将点明散文形式的选择是张爱玲审美视野的核心。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:30, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The female writer’s self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. I will analyze Chang’s essay writing of the period to demonstrate how the genre was made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenged the literary conventions, searched for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promoted herself as an important cultural figure. The uniqueness of this body of literary texts lies in the fact that it presents a version of women’s literature set within the context of the wartime occupation while interacting with urban commercial and print culture in 1940s Shanghai.<br />
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在1940年代的上海都市文化领域中，张爱玲作为女性作家的自我定位主要体现在她对体裁的运用上。我将通过分析张爱玲的那个时代的散文作品来展示体裁如何成为一个重要的话语场，在这个场内，张爱玲公开挑战文学传统、追寻文学创作和日常生活实践中的其他选择、促使她自己成为一位著名的文化人物。这部文学作品的主体部分的独特性在于它展现了1940年代上海战争占领期交织着都市商业和印刷文化的背景下的女性文学版本。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:36, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪40年代的上海都市文化领域中，张爱玲作为女性作家的自我定位主要体现在体裁运用方面。我将通过分析张爱玲的那个时代的散文作品，从而来展示体裁如何成为一个重要的话语场，在这个场内，张爱玲公开挑战传统文学，追寻文学创作和日常生活实践中的其他选择，这也促使她成为一位著名的文化大师。这部文学作品的主体部分的独特性在于，它展现了20世纪40年代上海战争占领期间，都市商业和印刷文化的背景下的女性文学。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在20世纪40年代，女作家张爱玲在上海城市文化领域中的自我定位体现在她对该类题材的运用上。 我将分析张爱玲的这段时期的散文写作，以展示该流派如何成为一个重要的话语场所，在那儿女作家公开挑战文学习俗，在文学写作和日常生活实践中寻找替代品，并将自己提升为重要的文化人物。 这部文学作品的独特之处在于，它展现了战时职业背景下的女性文学作品，同时与20世纪40年代的上海商业和印刷文化交流互动。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 08:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在20世纪40年代，女作家在上海城市文化领域的自我定位，在她对文体的挪用中得到了体现。我将分析张爱玲这一时期的散文写作，以证明这一体裁是如何成为一个重要的话语场所的。在这里，这位女作家公然挑战文学惯例，在文学写作和日常生活实践中寻找替代方案，并将自己提升为一个重要的文化人物。这套文学文本的独特性在于，它呈现了一个以战时占领区为背景的女性文学版本，同时与1940年代上海的城市商业文化和印刷文化互动。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 15:07, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Essay and the aesthetics of liminality'''<br />
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How, then, does Eileen Chang write the experience of war and turbulence into the transformed form of the modern essay? While the sense of impending massive destruction is omnipresent in her essay writing of the 1940s, the representation of the specific historical situation is not delivered through any direct social and political reference to the immediate present; instead, the presence of history is often concealed under the masquerade of an aesthetic vision put together by a meditative inward gaze, an orchestra of city sounds, and an imagined border of the urban civilization endangered:<br />
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''散文和边际美学'''<br />
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那么，张爱玲如何将战争和动荡的经历写入现代散文的转变形式中呢？ 尽管在20世纪40年代，她的文章中彰显着无处不在的巨大的毁灭感。但这并不是通过直接的社会和政治因素作为参考来直接描述特定的历史情况。 相反，历史的存在通常隐藏于美学感官的掩饰下。这些美学观感由冥想的内心凝视，城市声音的管弦乐队和想象中的城市文明边界共同构成：<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 19:51, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Alone I sit next to a candle, thinking about the past and the present. What I have been busy doing for the last two years will probably be shattered soon. …… I should have a sense of it.<br />
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I was alone on the dusky balcony after Su Qing left. Suddenly I saw a tall building far away, on whose edges hung a great swatch of rouge-like redness. At first I thought it was the reflection of the setting sun on the windows, but on second glance, I realized that it was a full moon, rising crimson above the city. I thought to myself, “so this is what they mean by turbulent times.” In the evening mist, the borders of Shanghai were gently rising and falling in the distance, resembling layered mountain peaks, although there are no mountains surrounding our city.<br />
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我独自坐在蜡烛旁，思考着过去和现在。我这两年一直在忙的事情可能很快就会被破灭。我应该有这样的感觉。<br />
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苏青走后，我独自站在昏暗的阳台上。突然，我看到远处的一幢高楼，它的边缘挂着一大片红晕。起初我以为是夕阳映在窗户上的倒影，但再一看，我意识到这是一轮满月，在城市的上空升起一片绯红。我对自己说，“这就是他们所说的动荡时代。在晚霞中，上海的边界在远处徐徐起伏，就像层层叠叠的山峰，尽管我们的城市周围没有山。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:27, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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我独自坐在蜡烛旁，思考着过去和现在。我这两年一直在忙的事情可能很快就会破灭。我应该做好准备。<br />
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苏青走后，我独自站在昏暗的阳台上。突然，我看到远处的一幢高楼，它的边缘挂着一大片红晕。起初我以为是夕阳映在窗户上的倒影，但再一看，我意识到这是一轮满月，在城市的上空升起一片绯红。我对自己说，“这就是他们所说的动荡时代。在晚霞中，上海的边界在远处徐徐起伏，就像层层叠叠的山峰，尽管我们的城市周围并没有山。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:48, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
I pondered the fate of many people, including myself. I began to have a melancholy sense of what we call destiny. Such intimations normally connote self-involvement and self-pity, but I now think that they might suggest something altogether more broad. When the peace and security of the future finally do arrive, they will no longer belong to us; at the present moment each of us can only strive to comfort ourselves……[ See ”Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing), in Tiandi yuekan (Heaven and Earth Monthly) 19 (April, 1945).]<br />
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This impressionistic silhouette of the city is none other than the dramatic presence of modern history itself. Here, history is visualized, flattened, and inevitably spatialized. The image of the city and the force of history intermingle into one performative moment, instantaneously captured by the ‘I,’ the woman writer, who sits on the balcony of her private home, looking out into the distance, watching the border of the city rise and fall, observing the currents of history come and go, as if the entire setting was a mere act in a long and winding chuanqi (romance) play.<br />
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我思考了很多人的命运，包括我自己。我开始对我们所谓的命运感到忧郁。这种暗示通常意味着自我参与和自我怜惜，但我现在认为，它们可能意味着一些更广泛的东西。当未来的和平与安全最终到来时，它们将不再属于我们;此时此刻，我们每个人只能努力安慰自己。（见《我看苏青》，载于一九四五年四月的《天地月看》十九章）<br />
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这个印象主义的城市剪影不是别人，正是现代史本身戏剧性的存在。在这里，历史被可视化、扁平化，并且不可避免地被空间化。城市的形象和历史的力量混合在这表演的一刻。与此同时，被“我”这位女作家捕捉到。这位女作家,坐在她的私人住宅的阳台,望向远处,看边境城市的兴衰,观察历史潮流的来来去去,整个背景好似一场漫长而曲折的传奇（浪漫）剧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 07:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
History in Eileen Chang’s representation becomes a narrative which rejects any deep structure or profound meaning. Characterized by chaos and reversal, history appears to be no more than a shadowy presence in our consciousness:<br />
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In this era, the old things are falling apart, while the new ones are still in formation. Before the high tide of the era arrives, all certainty is but an illusion. We feel that everything in our everyday life is out of order to a terrifying degree. An individual belongs to a certain historical era, but our present era is sinking like a shadow; therefore we feel we have been deserted. In order to prove our own existence, we want to grasp onto something that is real, something fundamental. We then seek help from our ancient memory, the memory of human beings who have lived through various times in history.<br />
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张爱玲笔下的历史成为一种拒绝任何深层结构或深层意义的叙事。历史以混乱和反转为特征，在我们的意识中似乎只不过是一个影子：<br />
在这个时代，旧事物正在分崩离析，而新事物还未形成。在时代的高潮到来之前，所有确定的东西都只是一种幻觉。我们觉得我们日常生活中的每件事混乱不堪，令人害怕。每个人都属于某个历史时代，但我们现在的时代正在像影子一样消失，我们觉得自己被遗弃了。为了证明我们自己的存在，我们想要抓住一些真实的东西，一些基本的东西。然后，我们从我们古老的记忆中寻求帮助，即曾经经历过不同时期的人的记忆。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 09:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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张爱玲笔下的历史成为一种拒绝任何深层结构或深层意义的叙事。历史的特点是混乱和逆转，历史只不过是我们意识中的一个影子:<br />
在这个时代，旧事物在瓦解，而新事物正在形成。在时代的高潮到来之前，所有的确定事物不过是一种幻觉。我们感到日常生活中的每件事都是混乱不堪的。每个人都属于一个特定的历史时期，但是我们现在的时代像一种影子;因此，我们感到被遗弃了。为了证明自己的存在，我们想要抓住一些真实的东西，一些重要的东西。接着，我们从我们古老的记忆中寻求帮助，也就是那些经历了不同历史时期的人的记忆。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张爱玲笔下的历史成为一种拒绝任何深层结构或深层意义的叙事。历史具有混乱性和反转性，不仅仅是存在于我们意识中的一个影子：<br />
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这个时代，旧事物在分崩瓦解，新事物在不断形成。在时代高潮到来之前，所有确定的事物不过是一种幻觉。让人害怕的是，我们意识到我们日常生活发生的一切都失去秩序。每个人都属于某个特定的历史时期，但我们现在的时代正在像影子一样消失。因此，我们感觉自己被遗弃了。为了证明自己的存在，我们想要抓住一些真实并重要的东西。接着，我们从我们古老的记忆中寻求帮助，也就是那些经历了不同历史时期的人类的记忆。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 08:13, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
Looking back helps us regain more clarity and closeness than we might gazing far into the future. We then have a strange feeling about the reality that surrounds us. We begin to suspect that this is an absurd and antiquated world, gloomy and bright at the same time. Between memory and reality, there often arise unbearable discrepancies, resulting in a perplexing but subtle agitation, an intensified but indefinable struggle.[ See ”Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), in Written on Water, 1944. This translation is based on an earlier version by David Wang. See Wang, ”Fin-de-siècle Grandeur: Contemporary Women Writers’ Vision of Taiwan,” Modern Chinese Literature 5.4 (1992) 45-65.]<br />
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回首过去而不是遥望未来有助于我们重新获得更清晰、更亲近的感觉。然后我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑这是一个荒诞而古老，阴暗而光明的世界。在记忆与现实之间，常常会产生难以忍受的差异，从而产生一种令人费解却又微妙的骚动，一种剧烈但难以言喻的斗争。[《写在水上》，1944年。此翻译是基于王大卫的早期版本。见王，“台湾当代女性作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4（1992）45-65。]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:15, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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回顾过去可以帮助我们重新获得比凝视遥远的未来更清晰和亲近的感觉。我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑，这是一个荒谬而陈旧的世界，黑暗与光明同时并存。在记忆和现实之间，常常会出现难以忍受的差异，导致一种令人困惑但微妙的激动，一种加剧但难以定义的挣扎。参见《自己的写作》，载于《水上记》，1944年。这个译本是根据王大卫的早期版本翻译的。参见王，“世纪末的宏伟:台湾当代女作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4(1992)45-65。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
Here, history is no longer presented as a linearly progressing course; instead, it is broken into numerous fragments which can be reorganized and attributed with fresh meanings. The passage quoted above demonstrates Eileen Chang’s fascination with various liminal sites, in time or in space. Throughout her writing career, Chang has created many liminal sites, such as the illusory realm between memory and reality, the brief moment between past and present, and the intersection between life and work, fiction and poetry, stage movements and everyday events. The best of Chang’s writing often captures these transitional moments or sites, and the subjectivity in question is often taken over by a deep sense of uncertainty:<br />
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在这篇文章中，历史不再被视为一个线性发展的过程。相反，它被分为许多片段，人们可以重新组织并赋予其新的含义。上面引用的这篇文章显示出了张爱玲对时空中边缘点的着迷。在她的整个写作生涯中，张爱玲创造了许多边缘点，例如记忆与现实之间的虚幻境界、过去与现在的短暂衔接点、以及生活与工作、小说与诗歌、舞台动作和日常事件之间的交汇点。 张爱玲著作的出彩之处往往在于，捕捉到了这些过渡节点，使得主观性常常被一种深深的不确定性所取代：--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:56, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在这篇文章中，历史不再被视为一个线性发展的过程。相反，它被分为许多片段，能够被重新组织和赋予新的含义。上面引用的这篇文章显示出了张爱玲对时空中不同阈限点的着迷。在她的整个写作生涯中，张爱玲创造了许多阈限点，如记忆与现实之间的虚幻状态、过去与现在的短暂衔接点、以及生活与工作、小说与诗歌、舞台动作和日常事件之间的交汇点。 张爱玲最好的作品往往捕捉到了这些过渡瞬间或者节点，这使得主观性的问题常常被一种深深的不确定性所取代：--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 07:30, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
An individual can afford to wait, but an era is transient (''cangcu''). Things are being torn apart, and an even larger destruction is on its way. Someday our civilization, no matter how glorious, will become the past. I often use the word “desolation” (''huangliang'' 荒涼) because there is a premonition of impending danger underlying my thought. <br />
At such a ‘transient’ moment in history which will probably ‘sink’ like a ‘shadow’ in an instant, how, then, should an individual, in this case, a woman writer, position herself?<br />
Make yourself famous as early as possible! If success comes too late, it will not be as enjoyable. …… Hurry! Hurry! Otherwise it will be too late! Too late!<br />
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一个人可以等待，一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天我们的文明，不论多么辉煌，都将成为过去。我经常使用“荒凉（desolation）”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着即将降临之危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:32, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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一个人或许等得起，但一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天，我们的文明不论曾经多么辉煌，都终将成为过去。我常使用“荒凉”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
These short, choppy sentences deliver a sense of urgency. To choose to define oneself through writing is then related to the woman writer’s understanding of the particular historical situation in 1940s Shanghai. It is a sense that the era is only a transitional moment in human history – the end is imminent and a new historical landscape will take shape. The imperative to make oneself famous then has to do with an urgent need to “occupy” a space in a swiftly dimishing landscape and to hold on to a moment that is constantly slipping away. Eileen Chang’s writing then highlights a very personal moment at a time when any individual voice is likely to be shattered by the grips of the modern warfare and eventually engulfed by the ruins of history.<br />
这些简短、不连贯的句子给人一种紧迫感。选择通过写作来定位自己，与张爱玲对20世纪40年代上海特殊历史境遇的认识有关。这给人的感觉是，这个时代只是人类历史的一个过渡时刻，结束迫在眉睫，新的历史景观即将形成。因为迫切需要在瞬息万变的情况下“占据”一个空间并抓住某个转瞬即逝的时刻，所以必须成名。张爱玲的作品强调了一个非常私人的时刻，在这个时刻，任何个人的声音都可能被现代战争的猛烈冲击所粉碎，并最终被历史的废墟所吞没。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 05:59, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些简短、起伏不定的句子给人一种紧迫感。选择通过写作来定义自己，则关系到女作家对20世纪40年代上海特定历史境遇的理解。这是一种感觉，这个时代只是人类历史上的一个过渡时刻--末日即将到来，一幅新的历史景观将会形成。因此，让自己出名的当务之急是迫切需要在迅速变暗的风景中“占据”一席之地，并抓住一个不断溜走的时刻。张爱玲的作品则突出了一个非常个人化的时刻，在这个时刻，任何个人的声音都可能被现代战争的控制所粉碎，最终被历史的废墟吞没。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 04:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Here the woman writer is going against her time by seeking an appropriate literary form and an adequate literary language to capture the essence of this fleeting moment in modern Chinese history. The new form and new language should be adequate to represent the dream-like world, the fragmented time, and the vanishing horizons of urban civilizations.<br />
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Chang’s choice of the essay genre is then consistent with her unique vision of history and her fascination with what I would call ''the aesthetics of liminality''. One cannot find a more appropriate literary genre than the modern essay to capture the liminal qualities of that specific historical milieu. The essay is a genre that is positioned between the careful structuring of fiction and the free flow of poetry. The essence of essay writing lies exactly in its lack of essence or its eccentricity. The modern essay is a genre that is itself transitional.<br />
在这里，女作家试图通过寻找一种合适的文学形式和语言来捕捉现代中国历史上这一刹那的本质，来与她的时代抗衡。 这种新的形式和语言应足以表现出这似真似幻的世界，零散的时间和正在消逝城市文明。<br />
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因此，张选择的散文风格与她独特的历史观和她那种，我称之为“阈限美学”的魔力相吻合。 没有什么比现代论文更适合于捕捉某一特定历史环境的阈限特征的文学体裁了。 散文是一种介于构造严谨的小说和节奏自由的诗歌之间的体裁。 散文写作的本质恰恰在于它的古怪或缺乏本质。 现代论文是一种本身具有过渡性的体裁。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:49, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
The liminal qualities of the modern essay are further enhanced in various textual strategies Chang uses to challenge generic identities in literary conventions. For instance, Chang’s essay entitled “Shuangsheng” (Duet) represents one of the most intrepid literary experiments undertaken during the period. The influence of the roundtable talk, a prominent genre in popular culture, had penetrated the realm of literary writing. In “Duet,” literary writing takes the form of a mini roundtable talk. At the beginning of the essay, like most of the roundtable talks recorded in popular journals of the time, the surroundings and the atmosphere are provided in a painstakingly descriptive language. The conversation takes place in a coffee shop, where Eileen Chang, the narrator, and Mo Meng (named Yan Ying elsewhere), Chang’s female companion, indulge themselves in coffee and pastry while starting their rambling chat about anything and everything:<br />
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张爱玲在挑战文学传统的属类时用了许多文本策略来进一步加强现代散文的阈值特征。举例来说，张爱玲一篇名叫《双生》(双重奏)的散文即代表了这个时期最大胆的文学实验之一。圆桌谈话是当时流行文化中最突出的类别，且它的影响遍布文学写作的整个领域。在“双重奏”中，文学写作以迷你圆桌谈话的形式展开。在散文的一开头，就像当时期刊记录的绝大多数圆桌谈话一样，环境和气氛的描写都煞费苦心。谈话发生在一个咖啡店，在这里，张爱玲作为叙述者，与莫萌(其他地方被称之为严莹)，她的女伴，一起沉浸在咖啡馆的氛围中，边吃边谈论几乎任何事情。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:37, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
张爱玲在挑战文学传统的属类时用了许多文本策略来进一步加强现代散文的阈值特征。举例来说，张爱玲一篇名叫《双生》(双重奏)的散文就代表了这个时期最大胆的文学尝试之一。圆桌谈话是当时流行文化中最突出的一类，它的影响遍布文学写作的整个领域。在“双重奏”中，文学写作以迷你圆桌谈话的形式展开。在散文的一开头，就像当时期刊记录的绝大多数圆桌谈话一样，环境和气氛的描写都煞费苦心。谈话发生在一个咖啡店，在这里，张爱玲作为叙述者，与莫萌(其他地方被称之为严莹)，她的女伴，一起沉浸在咖啡馆的氛围中，边吃边谈论几乎任何事情。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 10:05, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Having seated ourselves, we started chatting about a variety of things in great detail. When our topics became more weighty, she [Mo Meng] said: “You know what, this seems a lot like a roundtable discussion.”<br />
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Within the space provided by the essay, the two women then continue to talk about a variety of topics: the language of love in both China and the West, the construction of romance in different cultural contexts, gender relationships inside and outside wedlock, fashions for women of different age groups, and the distinctiveness of the Japanese mentality. The fragmentary and all-inclusive qualities (''san'') of modern prose style (''sanwen'') had already been fully elaborated by Eileen Chang; the format of a roundtable talk coincides with the need to push the limit of modern prose style to its most eccentric, unrestrained, and far-ranging extreme.<br />
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坐下后，我们开始详细讨论各种事情。 我们的话题变得越来沉重时，她（莫萌）说：“你知道吗，这很像是一场圆桌会议。”<br />
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然后，在文章提供的空间中，两位女士继续谈论各种话题：中西方的爱情语言，不同文化背景下的浪漫史建构，婚内外的性别关系， 不同年龄段的女性，以及日本人心态的独特性。 张爱玲已经充分阐述了现代散文风格的零散和包容的特质。 圆桌会议的形式与将现代散文风格的局限性推向最古怪，无拘无束，范围广泛的极限相吻合。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 07:32, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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坐下后，我们开始详细讨论各种事情。 当我们的话题变得更加重要时，她（莫萌）说：“你知道吗，这很像是一场圆桌讨论。”<br />
然后，在论文提供的空间中，两位女士继续谈论各种话题：中西方的爱情语言，不同文化背景下的浪漫史建构，婚内外的性别关系， 不同年龄段的女性，以及日本人心态的独特性。 张爱玲已经充分阐述了现代散文风格（“散文”）的零散和包容性。 圆桌会议的形式与将现代散文风格的局限性推向最古怪，无拘无束，范围广泛的极限相吻合。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 07:54, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
For a discussion of the roundtable talk as an important cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai, see Nicole Huang, ''Written in the Ruins: War and Domesticity in Shanghai Literature of the 1940s''. The roundtable talk became an instrumental cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai. It was a new form of showcasing women writers by placing words (voices) and images (descriptions of their presence, and photographs) all on display. Major newspapers and journals of the period all used this strategy to advertise their publication, promote their circles of new writers, and take part in the construction of an expanded community put together by publishers, editors, writers, artists, and readers.<br />
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The structure of this essay also bears resemblance to that of a one-act play. The beginning passages can be viewed as stage descriptions. The action takes place in one quiet afternoon when two protagonists are engaged in a highly performative dialogue, and theatrical effect is enhanced when dramatic moments arise from time to time throughout the recorded conversation.<br />
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对于圆桌谈话作为20世纪40年代上海的一个重要文化风尚的讨论，可参见Nicole Huang“写在废墟上：20世纪40年代上海文学中的战争与家庭生活”。圆桌谈话促进了上世纪40年代上海的文化风尚。这是一种通过言语（声音）和画面（关于仪态的描写以及照片）的共同作用来表现女性作家的新形式。当时的主流报纸和期刊都利用这一策略来宣传自己的出版物，推广自己的新作家圈子，并参与到建设一个由出版商、编辑、作家、艺术家和读者共同组成的不断扩大的社群中。<br />
这篇文章的结构也与独幕剧有相似之处。开头的段落可以被视作舞台描写。故事发生在一个寂静的午后，当时两个主角正在进行一场极具表演性的对话，在对话中，戏剧性的时刻不时出现，戏剧性因而得到增强。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:02, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
“Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing) presents Chang’s further effort to test the generic boundaries of the modern essay. The author effortlessly switches back and forth between her characterization of Su Qing and a close-up of the narrative self gazing inward. At one point in the essay, the author/narrative self pauses and admits that, in this essay devoted to Su Qing, she has actually devoted much more space to self-portrayal. Most of the time, the essay reads like an internal monologue: the narrative self is immersed in a constantly flowing display of numerous intimate moments. The free flowing of a sequence of random thoughts and the switch back and forth between different personas are fictional and theatrical devices used to further widen the representative capacities of the modern essay.<br />
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“我看苏青”（我看苏青的方式）展现了张对现代散文的大致边界的进一步尝试。作者毫不费力地在苏青的人物塑造和自我审视的特写之间来回切换。在这篇文章中，作者/叙事者自己一度停顿，并承认，在这篇专为苏青写的文章中，她实际上花了更多的空间来描绘自己。大多数时候，这篇文章读起来像一段内心独白:叙事的自我沉浸在无数亲密时刻的不断流动中。随意性思维的自由流动和人物角色之间的切换，是进一步拓展现代散文代表能力的一种虚构和戏剧手法。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 07:13, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我看苏青”（我看苏青的方式）展现了张爱玲对现代散文的属类边界的进一步探索。作者毫不费力地在苏青的人物塑造和自我审视的特写之间来回切换。在这篇散文中，作者/叙事者自己一度停顿，并承认，在这篇专为苏青写的文章中，她实际上花了更多的空间来描绘自己。大多数时候，这篇文章读起来像一段内心独白:叙事的自我沉浸在无数亲密时刻的不断流动中。随意性思维的自由流动和人物角色之间的切换，是进一步拓展现代散文代表能力的一种虚构和戏剧手法。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:43, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
While “The Way I See Su Qing” imports fictional devices into the form ‘minor essay,’ an earlier essay entitled “Siyu” (Whispers) demonstrates an even more radical experiment, that is, to turn the genre into a new form of autobiographical writing. The title of the essay takes on double meanings: while ‘''siyu''’could mean ‘private talks,’ it could also mimic the lowered and fragmented voice used in talking about the most intimate moments in one’s private life. The narrative voice in the essay whispers, murmurs, and gossips. Nothing substantial is presented; instead, segments of life, tinted with the haziness of childhood memory, are organized in the re-invented prose form, like a stream of thoughts or a random layout of scenes. The technique used here closely resembles montage: segments of the past are presented like flashbacks, and moments of free-association further remind the reader of the constantly blurred boundaries between memory and reality, past and present.<br />
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虽然《我看苏青的方式》将虚构的手法运用到“小品文”中，但之前的一篇题为“私语”的文章展示了一个更为激进的做法，那就是把这种体裁变成一种新的自传体写作形式。这篇文章的标题有双重含义：虽然“私语”可以指“私人谈话”，但它也可以模仿在谈论私人生活中最亲密的时刻时所使用的低沉而支离破碎的声音。文章中叙述性的声音在窃窃私语，低语着聊着闲话。没有什么实质性的东西被呈现出来，相反，生活的片段，带着童年记忆的朦胧，被重新创造的散文形式组织起来，像是一股思绪或一个随意布置的场景。这里所使用的技术与蒙太奇非常相似：过去的片段像闪回一样呈现，而自由想象的瞬间则进一步提醒读者记忆与现实、过去与现在之间不断模糊的界限。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:37, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《我看苏青的方式》将小说手法引入了小品文，而早期的一篇题为《私语》的文章则展示了一种更为激进的尝试，即将小品小说体裁转变为一种新的自传体写作形式。这篇文章的标题有双重含义:“私语”既可以指“私人谈话”，也可以模仿人们谈论私人生活中最亲密的时刻时所使用的低低的、破碎的声音。文章中叙事性的声音在窃窃私语，低声谈论，没有提出实质性内容;相反，生活的片段，带着童年记忆的模糊色彩，被重新设计的散文形式组织起来，就像一连串的想法或随机的场景布局。这里使用的技巧与蒙太奇非常相似:过去的片段以闪回的方式呈现，自由联想的瞬间进一步提醒读者记忆与现实、过去与现在之间不断模糊的界限。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 07:16, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The essay entitled “Tongyan wuji” (A Childish Discourse) presents another example of writing autobiography within the space of the modern essay. Sometimes the way that moments of childhood memory are narrated resembles the use of close-ups in film-making. The following episode even makes a direct reference to cinema:<br />
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I stood in front of the mirror and watched my trembling face, with tears falling down in streams. My face looked like a close-up in a movie. I told myself, grinding my teeth: “I want revenge. One day I will take my revenge.”<br />
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Each sub-section in this essay – ‘Money,’ ‘Fashion,’ ‘Food,’ ‘Gentleman,’ and ‘Brother’ – can be viewed as one filmic long take, and there is no direct connection between them. The entire essay is put together by a series of long takes. Within the space of the modern essay, there appear to be many of these extended fictional or cinematic moments. Sometimes, description of details of clothing, or simply the pattern on a piece of fabric, can contribute to the shaping of a dramatic moment, the formation of a narrative structure. The following passage from the same essay is a good example:<br />
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题为《童言无忌》的文章提出了在现代论文空间内写自传的另一个例子。 有时，讲述儿童时期的回忆的方式类似于在电影制作中使用特写镜头。 以下情节甚至直接参考电影：我站在镜子前，看着我颤抖的脸，眼泪落下。 我的脸看起来像电影中的特写镜头。 我咬紧牙关，告诉自己：“我要报仇。有一天，我会报仇。”本文中的每个小节-“钱”，“时尚”，“食物”，“绅士”和“兄弟”都可以看作是一部影片，他们之间没有直接联系。 整篇是由一系列长篇故事组成的。在现代文章中，似乎有许多扩展的虚构或电影时刻。有时，服装细节的描述，或者只是一块织物上的图案的描述，都可能有助于形成戏剧性的瞬间，形成叙事结构。以下来自同一篇故事的文章就是一个很好的论证：--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 07:45, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Japanese printed fabrics. Each bolt is a work of art. Each time I bring one home, before handing it over to a tailor, I repeatedly unroll it and bask in the image. A small Burmese temple is half shielded by the leaves of a palm tree; rain is falling incessantly through the reddish brown haze of the tropics. A pond in early summer, the water coated with a layer of green scum, above which float duckweed and fallen lilac petals, purple and white. Seemingly a fitting scene for a song lyric set to the tune “Laments of the South of the Yang-tze” (Ai Jiangnan)……<br />
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Reading some of these highly aesthetic moments in Chang’s essay writing, we might argue that it is within the space provided by the modern essay and by means of cinematic devices that the fragmentation of conventional fictional language becomes inevitable.<br />
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日本的印花面料。每一根螺栓都是一件艺术品。每次带回家，在交给裁缝之前，我都会反复展开，沐浴在画面中。一座缅甸小庙被棕榈树叶半遮半掩，雨水透过热带的红褐色雾气，不停地落下。初夏的池塘，水面涂上一层绿色的水垢，上面漂浮着鸭舌草和落下的丁香花瓣，紫白相间。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景......<br />
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解读张爱玲散文写作中的一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文所提供的空间里，并且借助电影手段，传统小说语言的碎片化才成为必然。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:56, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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日本织锦。每一匹日本织锦都是一件艺术品。每当我将一匹日本织锦带回家，我会反复展开织锦，醉心于上面的图案，然后才会交给裁缝。一座缅甸小佛寺在棕榈树叶的遮蔽下若隐若现；热带地区红褐色的雾霭之中，细雨绵绵。初夏的一方池塘里覆盖着一层绿色水垢，上面漂浮着被风吹落的丁香花瓣，白的紫的都有。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景……<br />
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阅读张爱玲的散文作品，尤其是其中一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文提供的空间里，并借助电影手段，传统小说语言的断层化已成必然。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:10, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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日本的织锦，每一匹都是一件艺术品。每次我将它带回家，把它交给裁缝之前，都会反复展开并沉醉于上面的图案。一座小小的缅甸寺庙在棕榈树叶的遮挡下若隐若现，热带地区的红褐色的薄雾中，细雨绵绵。初夏，池塘的水面上涂着一层绿色的渣滓，上面漂浮着浮萍和飘落的丁香花瓣，紫白色相间。这样的场景配上一曲《哀江南赋》的调子似乎是最合适不过了……<br />
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读到张爱玲的散文写作中的一些极具美感的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文所提供的空间中，通过借助电影制作手段，传统小说中语言的碎片化已变得不可避免。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:55, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
'''Essay and the making of a new prose language'''<br />
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Few writers in twentieth-century China are as persistent as Eileen Chang was in constantly experimenting with new literary language. In her essay entitled “Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), Chang retrospectively remarks on her use of a new fictional language in the novella ''Lianhuantao'' (Linked Rings):<br />
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I adopted the language from traditional fiction on many occasions when writing the novella ''Chain of Rings''. In the story, Cantonese people and foreigners who lived fifty years ago speak like figures walking out of [the world of] ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' (Jing Ping Mei), …… My original intention was: I already created a considerable distance in space by writing about a romanticized Hong Kong from the point of view of a Shanghainese; I also created a distance in time by writing about the Hong Kong of fifty years ago. Therefore I intentionally adopted an antiquated diction to represent such a doubled displacement (''shuangchong juli''). ……<br />
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'''散文与新散文语言的生成'''<br />
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在二十世纪的中国，很少有作家像张爱玲那样坚持不懈地尝试新的文学语言。在她题为“自己的文章”一文中，张爱玲回顾了她在中篇小说《连环套》中使用一种新的虚构语言：<br />
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我在写中篇小说《连环扣》时，曾多次采用传统小说的语言。在这个故事里，广东人和五十年前生活在香港的外国人说话就像从“金瓶梅”走出来的。（景平美），……我的初衷是：我从上海人的角度写了一个浪漫的中国，在空间上创造了相当大的距离，在时间上我写的是一个关于香港的五十年前的故事。因此，我有意用一个过时的词来代表这样一个双重位移（“双重距离”）。……--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 08:43, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
To situate the story in both a remote time and a distancing space endows the writer with abundant freedom in her choice of language. By returning to traditional literature to search for imaginative inspiration and expressive resources, Eileen Chang has redefined, on the discursive level, the cultural as well as political connotations of the modern vernacular language. For a modern reader who has considerable knowledge of the May Fourth literature, Chang’s fictional language presents the reader with a remote system of referentiality by using diction and narrative tone characteristic of those used in classical Chinese novels such as ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' and ''Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
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将故事设定在一个遥远的时空，给与作家更多语言上选择的自由。张爱玲从传统文学中寻找独创性灵感和表达方式，可以说她重新定义了现代白话的文化和政治内涵。对五四文学非常了解的现代读者来说，张爱玲的语言风格借鉴了中国古典小说《金花瓶中的梅花》和《红楼梦》中措辞和叙事语气，向读者呈现了古香古色的韵味。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 05:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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将故事设定在一个遥远的时空，给与作家更多语言上选择的自由。张爱玲从传统文学中寻找独创性灵感和表达方式，从话语层面上重新定义了现代白话的文化和政治内涵。对五四文学非常了解的现代读者来说，张爱玲的语言风格借鉴了《金花瓶中的梅花》和《红楼梦》等中国古典小说中的措辞和叙事口吻，向读者呈现了古香古色的韵味。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
What, then, are the characteristics of Chang’s linguistic experiments in her essay writing of the period? The titles of both the essay collection ''Written on Water'' and the essay “Whispers” can be viewed as the author’s own commentaries on the language she has chosen for the transformed essay genre. While literary language is compared to voices whispering, murmuring, or gossiping, and while words can eventually flow away just like water, the practice of writing then is a process of both embracing and breaking away from words, and the meanings that are presented no longer contribute to a system of enclosure. Chang’s naming highlights the indeterminacy of literary language and directs the reader’s attention to the uncertainty embodied in both the structure of the essay and the language that it employs.<br />
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In the opening passage of the essay “Tan nüren” (Talking about Women), collected in ''Written on Water'', in a whimsical and relaxed tone, Eileen Chang cites a characterization of ‘women’ presented in a small pamphlet written by an English author:<br />
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那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言实验上有什么特点呢？ 散文集''写在水面上''和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言的评论。 文学语言被比喻为声音的窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张先生的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者注意到文章的结构和所采用的语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
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张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言研究方面的特点是什么？ 散文集《写在水面上》和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言评论。 文学语言被比喻为窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张爱玲的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者去注意文章的结构和所采用语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
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张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Westerners refer to sinister and cruel (''yinxian kebo'') women as ‘cats.’ I ran across a pamphlet recently, written in English, entitled ''Cats'', which does nothing else except condemn women. It is not that what is said in it has never been expressed by other people. Interesting remarks (''juanyu'') concerning women are scattered everywhere and it is just not easy to collect them all together. But here this pamphlet is really a compilation (''ji qi dacheng'') [of what has been said about women]. <br />
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Chang then invites her readers to accompany as she glances through a group of quotes she has selected and translated from that pamphlet, much of which is a condemnation of women’s erotic potential. Not a single word of explicit judgment is offered throughout the essay by Chang, nor are the assumptions contained in this pamphlet about the gendered character of each individual expressly challenged. After reading Chang’s essay, a reader might wonder to what extent has the ‘real’ author behind the masquerade of the narrative internalized such an ‘othered’ male view?<br />
西方人把阴险刻薄的女人称为 "猫"。我最近看到一本小册子，是用英语写的，册子标题是《猫》。这本册子里面除了谴责女人，没有其他的内容。册子里所提的内容，也有别人提起过。有关女性的有趣言论到处都是，但是要把它们收集在一起实在不容易。不过，这本小册子确实是[关于女性的]言论的汇编(集大成)。<br />
然后，张爱玲邀请读者陪着她一起读一读自己从那本小册子中选取和翻译的一组评价，其中大部分是对女性潜在情欲的谴责。在整篇文章中，张爱玲没有作出一句明确评判，也没有对这本小册子中提出的关于每个人的性别特征的假设提出明确反驳。读完了张爱玲的文章后，读者可能会问，戴了面具的叙事手法，其背后的 "真实 "作者又在多大程度上内化了这种 "他者 "的男性观？--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:54, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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西方人把阴险刻薄的女人称为 "猫"。我最近看到一本英文小册子是用英语写的，标题是《猫》。这本册子里面除了谴责女人，没有其他的内容。册子里所提的内容，也有别人提起过。有关女性的有趣言论到处都是，但是要把这些言论收集在一起实在不容易。不过，这本小册子确实是[关于女性的]言论的汇编(集大成)。<br />
然后，张爱玲邀请读者陪着她一起读一读自己从那本小册子中选取和翻译的一组评价，其中大部分是对女性潜在情欲的谴责。在整篇文章中，张爱玲没有作出一句明确评判，也没有对这本小册子中提出的关于每个人的性别特征的假设提出明确反驳。读完了张爱玲的文章后，读者可能会问，戴了面具的叙事手法，其背后的 "真实 "作者又在多大程度上内化了这种 "他者 "的男性观？--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 03:28, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西方人把阴险刻薄的女人称为“猫”。最近，我读到一本英文小册子，标题为“猫”，其内容除了谴责女人外，别无其他。这种内容别人也有提及过。关于女性的有趣言论到处都是，但要收集到一起实属不易。而这本小册子确是关于女性言论的汇编。<br />
后来，张爱玲邀请读者陪她浏览那本小册子的翻译选段，大多都是对女性潜在情欲的谴责。在整篇文章中，张爱玲没有作出任何批判，也没有对这本小册子中提出的关于每个人性别特征的假设提出明确反驳。读完她的文章之后，读者也许会问，在戴了面具的叙事背后，“真正的”作者又在多大程度上内化了这种“他者”的男性观？--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:25, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
And to what extent is Chang’s translation ‘faithful’ to the original text? The original author’s name remains unmentioned in Chang’s essay, making it difficult to assess the extent to which the original ‘male’ narrative voice has been twisted or distorted by Chang’s rendition. The narrative voice appears to be a composite in those quotes and is even more so in the rest of her essay. One approach to reading Chang’s essay is then to regard the quotation as an integral part of the whole essay, to view it as Eileen Chang’s own linguistic construction, a construction which already contains her critique. Within these quotes, the message is complicated, and presented in several levels. Some of the quotes are reminiscent of an archetypal ‘male’ voice:<br />
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张爱玲的翻译又在多大程度上忠实于原文呢？原作者的姓名从未出现过，以至于我们无法检测在其译文中有多大程度曲解了原文男性的声音。在那些引用举例中，叙事声音以合成的形式出现，就连她文章的其他部分更是如此。所以读张爱玲文章的一种方法是把这些引用内化于整篇文章，并把其看作是张自己的语言构架并且包含了她自己的批判评论。在这些引用里，信息是复杂的，并且表现为多个层次。其中一些引用是对原本男性声音的回忆联想。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:44, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张爱玲的翻译又在多大程度上忠实于原文呢？原作者的姓名从未出现过，我们无法得知她的译文在多大程度上曲解了原文中男性的口吻。这些叙事口吻以合成的形式出现在引文，甚至在她文章的其他部分。所以读张爱玲文章的一种方法是把这些引文内化于整篇文章，把其看作是包含批判思考的她自身的语言构架。在这些引文里，信息很复杂，表现为多个层次。其中一些引文是对男性声音原型的回忆联想。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 05:39, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
This kind of fictional and temporal distance is also characteristic of Chang’s short stories written during the period. David Wang argues that the fictional world presented in the short stories in ''Romances'' points to a remote system of referentiality for modern readers by interweaving many ”unreal” elements such as the fantastic, the grotesque, the decadent, and the dark romanticist. See Wang, ”Nü zuojia de xiandai guihua: cong Zhang Ailing dao Su Weizhen” (Modern Ghost Narratives by Women Writers: from Eileen Chang to Su Weizhen), in ''Zhongsheng xuan-hua: sanshi yu bashi niandai de Zhongguo xiaoshuo'' (Heteroglossia: Chinese Fiction of 1930s and 1980s).<br />
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这种虚构性和时代性的距离，也是他在这一时期创作的短篇故事的特点。王大卫认为，《浪漫》这一短篇故事中所呈现的虚构世界，通过交织许多“虚幻”的元素，如奇幻、怪诞、颓废、黑暗的浪漫主义，为现代读者指明了一个遥远的指称体系。参见王的《女作家的现代鬼故事:从张爱玲到苏伟真》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》(杂注:中国三十、八十年代小说)。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:11, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种虚构和时代的距离，也是这一时期张爱玲创作短篇故事的特点。王德威认为，《浪漫》这一短篇故事中所呈现的虚构世界，通过交织许多“虚幻”的元素，如奇幻、怪诞、颓废、黑暗的浪漫主义，为现代读者指明了一个遥远的指称体系。参见王的《“女”作家的现代“鬼”话——从张爱玲到苏伟贞》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》(杂注:中国三十及八十年代小说)。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:01, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虚构的时代距离感也是这一时期张爱玲短篇故事的特点。王德威认为《浪漫》这一短篇故事中呈现的虚构世界，通过交织许多“非真实”元素，例如：奇幻、怪诞、堕落和黑暗浪漫主义，为现代读者指明了一个距离久远的指称系统。参见王的《“女”作家的现代“鬼”话——从张爱玲到苏伟贞》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》（杂注:中国三十及八十年代小说）。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:59, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种虚构与时间的距离，也是张这一时期短篇小说的特点。王大卫认为，浪漫小说短篇小说所呈现的虚构世界，通过交织奇幻、怪诞、颓废、黑暗的浪漫主义等“不真实”元素，为现代读者指明了一个遥远的参照系。见王，《“女”作家的现代“鬼”话——从张爱玲到苏伟贞》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》(杂注:中国三十及八十年代小说)。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 11:47, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
“The physical construction of women is so exquisite; therefore, their spiritual construction is incomplete. This is predictable. We just cannot be over-critical of them [women].” <br />
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“If you do not seduce a woman, she would say that you are not a man; if you do, she would say that you are not a man of the upper-class.” <br />
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“The only difference between a woman and a dog is: a dog is not as spoiled as a woman is; a dog does not wear jewelry; and – thank God! – a dog does not speak!”<br />
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The expected readers of the pamphlet ''Cats'' are married middle-class men. According to Eileen Chang, the original author admits that, “a man, after having just fought with his wife, would feel comforted if he reads this pamphlet before he goes to bed.” Functioning as a psychological therapy, the expected reading process should yield pleasure which soothes grievances and unhappiness in one’s ‘actual’ life.<br />
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“女人的身体构造如此精巧，所以她们的精神构造是不完整的。这是可以预见的。我们不能对她们（女性）过分挑剔。”<br />
“如果你不勾引女人，她会说你不是男人；如果你这样做，她会说你不是上流社会的男人。”<br />
“女人和狗的唯一区别是：狗不像女人那样娇惯；狗不戴首饰；还有——感谢上帝！–狗不会说话！”<br />
短篇小说《猫》的预期读者是已婚中产阶级男子。据张爱玲所言，钱钟书认为，“一个男人刚和妻子吵架后，如果在睡觉前读这篇小说，他会获得慰藉。”预期阅读过程作为一种心理治疗，应该会产生愉悦，从而缓和一个人“实际”生活中的不快。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“女人物质方面的构造实在太合理化，精神方面未免稍差，那也是意想中的事，不能苛求。”<br />
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“如果你不调戏女人，她说你不是一个男人；如果你调戏她，她说你不是一个上等人。”<br />
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“女人与狗唯一的分别就是：狗不像女人一般地被宠坏了；它们不戴珠宝；而且——谢天谢地！–它们不会说话！”<br />
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短篇小说《猫》的预期读者是已婚中产阶级男子。据张爱玲所言，钱钟书认为，“一个刚和太太吵过嘴的男子，上床之前读这本书，可以得到安慰。”作为一种心理疗法，阅读过程中的预期会产生愉悦，从而缓和一个人“实际”生活中的悲伤和不快。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:24, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Within this reading process, through the mediation of a narrative language, the imagined male reader takes upon the implicit point of view built in the assumed male author’s account, manipulates and appropriates the construction of the female image, and displaces his sense of anger, repression, and alienation, or his frustrated desire for control and domination, onto such a constructed image. For a married man, the unsuccessful threats toward his wife in real life can then be successfully prosecuted on a textual level.<br />
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在这一阅读过程中，通过叙事语言的中介，想象中的男性读者接受了假定男性作者叙述中的隐含观点，操纵和挪用了女性形象的建构，转移了他的愤怒、压抑和疏离感，或是他对控制和支配的挫败欲望，变成了这样一个构建的形象。对于已婚男人来说，现实生活中对妻子的不成功的威胁可以在文本层面上成功地继续下去。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:32, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Such a female erotic image depicted in a seemingly unambiguous male text could generate a variety of culturally coded specific meanings and gendered differences. However, the tone of Chang’s language seems to invalidate the possibilities of applying an ideologically charged critique of these messages. Her narrative tone is relaxed, whimsical, playful, humorous, and somewhat ironic. The message transmitted in these quotes is impure, it has been reworked, and already contains a ‘look.’ This ‘look’ is interwoven with a sense of irony. This is even more explicit in some of her other quotes:<br />
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一个看似毫不含糊的男性文本中所描绘的一个这样色情的女性形象，可能会引发各种文化编码的具体含义和性别差异。然而，张爱玲的语调似乎使对这些信息进行意识形态化批判的可能性失效。她的叙述基调是轻松，异想天开，顽皮，幽默，并有点讽刺。在这些引语中传递的信息是不纯洁的，它已经被改写了，并且已经包含了一个“看呐”。这个“看呐”与一种讽刺感交织在一起。这一点在她的一些其他语录中更为明确：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:32, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
“A man can flirt with a bar waitress in the squalid bar without losing his reputation; yet an upper-class woman is not even allowed to blow a kiss at a postman from afar. We can then draw an inference that men are different from women – no matter how low they [men] bend their backs, it is never difficult for them to stand up straight again.” <br />
“Generally speaking, women do not need the variety of stimulants in their lives that men do. Therefore, we should tolerate a man if he transgresses boundaries during his leisure time, in order to enliven his weary body, [to expel] his worries, [and to accomplish] his unrealized aspirations.”<br />
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“一个男人可以在肮脏的酒吧里和女招待调情而不会失去他的名誉；然而，一个上层社会的女性却不允许向远方的邮差飞吻。所以我们可以推断出男人和女人是不同的，无论他们（男人）的腰弯的多低，对他们来说，要重新站起来从来都不难。”<br />
“一般来说，女人不像男人那样需要各种各样的兴奋剂，因此，我们应该容忍一个男人在闲暇时间越界，为了活跃他疲惫的身体，驱逐他的忧愁，实现他已经未尽的愿望”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 13:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“一个男人可以在肮脏的酒吧里和女招待调情，却不会失去名誉；然而，一个上层社会的女性却不允许向远方的邮差飞吻。所以我们可以推断出男人和女人是不同的，无论男人的腰弯的多低，对他们来说，要重新站起来都不是什么难事。”“一般来说，女人在生活中不需要像男人那样需要各种刺激物。因此，我们应该容忍一个男人在闲暇时越界，为了活跃他疲惫的身体，驱逐他的忧愁，实现他已经未实现的愿望。”--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 03:43, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
These quotes should be understood as mainly Eileen Chang’s own rendition. Through the ironic tone, the message becomes twisted, distorted, highly dramatized, and thereby transformed into parody and ridicule. If Eileen Chang does seek to tease out this assumed male voice, such an attempt proceeds through the creation of a narrative distance, a sense of innuendo, a skillful rewording of the male voice, and not through any explicit charges or critiques. The reader is left to herself to read between the lines, to speculate about the hints, and to screen out the mixed messages.<br />
<br />
这些引言应主要理解为张爱玲自己的演绎。 通过讽刺的语气，信息变得扭曲，变形，极度戏剧化，从而变成了模仿和嘲讽。 如果张爱玲确实想挑逗这种假定的男性声音，这种尝试则需要通过建立叙事距离，无影无踪的感觉，对男性声音的熟练措辞，而不是通过任何明确的指控或批评来进行。读者需要自己逐行细读，来推测线索，冰筛选出混合的消息。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:43, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Despite the absence of an explicit criticism toward this unambiguous male voice, Eileen Chang’s presentation has revealed the fact that the male denunciation of the public effects of a female eroticism is itself manifested in an eroticized form. Such an eroticized form has been dramatized to the extreme by Chang in her skillful rewording. A reader would ponder whether this male denunciation addresses the danger of the placing women in public display or is itself a public display of women as eroticized subjects? Eileen Chang’s appropriation of the male denunciation of female eroticism becomes a doubled affirmation of the much textualized eroticizing potential of female images, which makes it difficult to pin down the ‘femaleness’ of her use of literary language. <br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities.<br />
<br />
可能，张爱玲作品语言不适合用女权主义的方法讨论。没人能言之凿凿地说张爱玲的写作就属于以五四时期写作风格为代表的现代中国女性写作传统。张爱玲所处的文化边缘，她对无关紧要的细节和家庭生活的兴趣，以及她对男权主义和性别关系的嘲弄，都让评论家们给她的作品贴上各种女权特质的标签。但不能把张爱玲的话语体系简单地二分为传统男权的话语或者实验性的反男权话语。张爱玲的语言明显不是纯粹地属于某一边。她的语言跨越了界限，混合了男权和女权。我们可以从很多例子中发现她的语言是所谓的“保守的语言”，一种<br />
“中性的语言”，一种隐藏于文的而不是宣之于口的语言。混合的语言体系使得我们不能继续在她的写作中对语法、表达和措辞进行“性别化”。张爱玲的语言是一种抵制“性别化”过程的语言，是一种消除性别对立可能性的语言。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 08:52, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
In her recent study of Eileen Chang’s fictional writing, Rey Chow defines Eileen Chang’s ‘femininity’ as predominantly associated with ”irrelevant” details. In the picture painted by Chow, ‘detail’ carries a distinctively ‘feminine’ label and is defined as ”the sensuous, trivial, and superfluous textual presence that exists in an ambiguous relation with some larger ‘vision’ such as reform and revolution.” Chow argues that Eileen Chang constructs a different vision of modernity and history through ”a release of sensual details whose emotional backdrop is often that of entrapment, destruction, and desolation.” Eileen Chang’s understanding of culture, therefore, carries a ”powerfully negative affect.” See Rey Chow, Chapter III ”Modernity and Narration: in Feminine Detail” in her ''Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading Between West and East'' (Minnesota and Oxford: University of Minnesota Press, 1991) 85.<br />
<br />
Rey Chow’s emphasis on the intricately related history of details and the feminine in the Chinese case is certainly illuminating in the sense that she suggests a new perspective to define the significance of Eileen Chang’s writing and thus a new way of critiquing the construction of a history of modern Chinese literature as a whole.<br />
<br />
在最近对张爱玲小说作品的研究中，周蕾将张爱玲的“女性气质”与不拘小节联系在一起。在周蕾的画作中，“细节”贴上了明显的“女性化”标签，带有“感性、微不足道以及在改革和革命这样的大事面前画蛇添足”的含义。“周蕾认为张爱玲创造了一种独特的视角来表现历史和现实，即释放情感细节，这些情感往往是诱惑、毁灭和隔绝，因而张爱玲对文化的理解带有一种“强烈的负面影响”。参见周蕾的著作 ''女性与中国现代性：中西方的阅读政治性''的第三章“现代性与叙事：女性化细节”（明尼苏达和牛津：明尼苏达大学出版社， 1991），第85页。<br />
<br />
周蕾对复杂的细节史与中国女性的强调是令人有所启发的，她提出了一种新的视角来界定张爱玲的作品的意义，从而为整个中国现代文学史的建构提供了一种新的评论思路。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 02:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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最近在对张爱玲小说作品的研究中，周蕾将张爱玲的“女性气质”主要与“不相关”的细节联系在一起。周蕾的画作中“细节”被贴上了明显的“女性化”标签，带有“感性、微不足道以及在改革和革命这样的大事面前画蛇添足”的含义。周蕾认为张爱玲创造了一种独特的视角来表现历史和现实——释放情感细节，这些情感往往是诱惑、毁灭和隔绝，因而张爱玲对文化的理解带有一种“强烈的负面影响”。参见周蕾的著作《女性与中国现代性：中西方的阅读政治性》的第三章“现代性与叙事：女性化细节”（明尼苏达和牛津：明尼苏达大学出版社， 1991），第85页。<br />
<br />
周蕾对复杂的细节史与中国女性的强调是令人有所启发的，她提出了一种新的视角来界定张爱玲的作品的意义，从而为整个中国现代文学史的建构提供了一种新的评论思路。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:41, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
<br />
The volume of essay production exceeds the volume of xiaoshuo 小說 production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like zagan 雜感 (from which Lu Xun developed his zawen), suibi 隨筆 or suixiang 隨想 (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's Suixiang lu 隨想錄 derived).<br />
与诗歌数量相比，散文所占比例更大。花在阅读小说上的时间也不如以前多。就算不是简单的现实体裁，散文本身也具有高度现实性。<br />
相比于小说或诗歌，散文更能告诉我们关于作者与他所处时代的信息，因为这种体裁下作者可以不受韵律限制进行创作。我们可以通过第三视角了解作者所处的当代社会。鲁迅，巴金和王蒙等许多作家在晚年都开始撰写散文。<br />
散文产量超过小说产量。中国报纸19世纪70年代问世，20世纪初成为大众传播媒介，仅以连载的方式发表一两部小说，但却出版了诸如杂感（如《鲁迅杂文》）、随笔或随想（如巴金的著名散文集《随想录》）之类的散文集。--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 02:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Nan<br />
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==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
However, in Rey Chow’s categorization of Eileen Chang, a new type of femininity is classified, whose characteristics are intimate, domestic, sensuous, pre-rational, trivial, obsessed with its sexual being, yet embodying subversive strength and transgressive potentials. This seemingly fresh and autonomous femininity does take one thing for granted, that is the unproblematized association between the female, the domestic, and trivial details. Rey Chow’s emphasis on feminine detail may have endowed Eileen Chang’s writing with a critical power deriving from the marginal position that she is inscribed in; but to domesticate Chang, to enclose her within woman’s traditional domain of the home, could also lead to the draining of the heaviness and the other intellectual potentialities in Chang’s writing.<br />
<br />
不过，周蕾在将张爱玲的作品分门别类时，分类出一种新型的女性气质，这种气质具有亲密、顾家、性感、前理性、细心、着迷于性感本身，但却表现出毁坏性的力量以及违背道德的潜力。这种看上去新奇而自发的女性气质却也忽略了一样事情——女性与家庭、琐事之间联系毫无问题。周蕾对于女性气质的强调赋予张爱玲的作品一种权力批判——这来自其所处的边缘位置。但若要使张爱玲适应家庭生活，使她待在传统女性所应当待着的家中，将会导致其作品中的沉重以及其他智力潜能逐渐消失。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:31, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
不过，周蕾在将张爱玲范畴化时，分出了一种新的女性气质，这种气质亲密、顾家、性感、前理性、细心，着眼于性感本身，但却表现出极具毁坏性的力量以及违背道德的潜力。这种新奇自发的女性气质却也忽略了一件事——女性与家庭、琐事之间毫无疑问的联系。周蕾对于女性气质的强调赋予了张爱玲的作品批判力，这种批判力来源于其所处的文化边缘位置。但若要让张爱玲适应家庭生活，让她待在传统女性所应当待在的家中，将会导致其作品中的沉重性以及其他突出特征消失。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:04, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The terms ”protective language” and a ”neutralizing middle tongue” are lifted out of Catharine Stimpson in her discussion of Gertrude Stein’s writing. According to Stimpson, ”Stein’s coding of sexual activities becomes a privileged and a distinguished ‘anti-language’,” that is, a language of ”anti-societies.” Stimpson argues against some other critics’ attempts to ”adjectify” Stein’s work as ”female.” She suggests that Stein’s language is ultimately ”impure,” it is ”linear as well as pluridimensional,” it is ”male” as well as ”female.” Stimpson argues that Stein’s literary language is neither ”female,” nor ”an unmediated return to signifiers freely wheeling in maternal space.” See Stimpson, ”The Somagrams of Gertrude Stein,” in ''The Female Body in Western Culture: Contemporary Perspectives'', edited by Susan Rubin Suleiman.<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁格·斯坦因的著作时，“保护性语言”和“中立的中性语言”一词被从凯瑟琳·斯廷普森删除。斯廷普森认为，“斯坦因对性行为的编码成为一种特权和一种独特的'反语言'，即'反社会'的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容”为“女性”的说法。她认为斯坦的语言最终是“不纯正的”，既是“线性的又是多维度的”，既是“男性的”又是“女性的”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性的”，也不是指“无意中回归到指代者而自由地进入母体空间”。请参见苏珊·鲁滨·苏蕾曼编辑的《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中格特鲁德·斯坦的躯体语言。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁德·斯坦因的作品时，凯瑟琳·斯廷普森讨论了“保护性语言”和“中和性的中间语言”。根据斯廷普森的说法，“斯坦因对性行为的编码变成了一种特权和独特的‘反语言’”，也就是说，是一种“反社会”的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容为女性”。她认为斯坦因的语言最终是“有杂质的，“它是“线性也是多元维度的”，它是“男性”也是“女性”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性”，也不是“在母体空间中自由转动的能指的无中介回归”。参见斯廷普森德《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中的格特鲁德·斯坦因的躯体语法，苏珊·鲁宾·苏莱曼主编。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Julia Kristeva suggests that ”the very dichotomy man/woman as an opposition between two rival entities may be understood as belonging to metaphysics”; it must be dismantled through ”the demassification of the problem of difference, which would imply, in a first phase, an apparent de-dramatization of the ‘flight to the death’ between rival groups and thus between the sexes.” Kristeva refers to this as ”a strategy of disintegration.” This strategy is a ”true radicalism” in such attempts ”to undo given identities, to go beyond the policy of creating counter-identifications.” See ”Women’s Time” (translated by Alice Jardine and Harry Blake) in ''Signs'' (Autumn, 1981).<br />
<br />
Julia Kristeva认为，“作为两个对立实体之间的对立物的男女二分法可以被理解为属于形而上学”；它必须通过“对差异问题的非定性化，这意味着，在第一阶段，这显然是对竞争群体之间以及两性之间“走向死亡”的戏剧化。”被瓦解。克里斯特瓦把这称为“瓦解的策略”。这种策略是“真正的激进主义”，试图“撤销既定的身份，超越创造反身份的政策。”见《标志》（1981年秋）中的“妇女时代”（由爱丽丝·贾丁和哈里·布莱克翻译）。<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities.<br />
<br />
那么，分析张爱玲语言中的女性特征也许不是一种恰当的方法。我们无法十分肯定地说她的作品体现了近代中国文学中的女性传统，这一传统以五四文体为特征。张爱玲作品中的文化边缘性、对细枝末节的关注、蕴含的家庭特征以及对男性家长和性别关系的调侃无一不促使评论家将其打上女性特质的标签。但是我们不能将张爱玲的语言简单地划分为两个对立面：一方面是传统的父权话语，另一方面则是实验性的反父权话语，她的文学语言无疑是模糊的，是一种位于两种状态分界处之上的语言，是一种糅合了“男性”与“女性”与一身的语言。在很多情况下，她的语言都表现出一种所谓的“保护性”、“中性的口吻”，或者说是一种隐没而非彰显的语言。张爱玲的作品语言的复杂性让我们无法将其中的语法、表达以及用词性别化，这种语言正是一种抵制“性别化”过程的语言，消除了分化不同身份的可能性。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 03:40, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
那么，或许考察张爱玲语言的“女性性”并不是一个合适的方法。我们也不能自信地将张爱玲纳入中国现代女性文学传统，这一传统通常以五四文体为特征。张爱玲的文化边缘性，她对无关紧要的细节和家庭生活的兴趣，以及她对家长和性别关系的揶揄，都诱使评论家给她的作品贴上各种女性特质的标签。但张爱玲的声音不能简单地归为传统与父权话语和实验与反父权话语的二分法。它显然是不洁净的;它是一种占据了阈限空间的语言;这是一种混合的声音，有“男性”的，也有“女性”的。“在很多情况下，她的语言似乎是所谓的‘保护性语言’，一种‘中立的中间语言’，一种隐藏而非揭示的语言。”混合的声音阻止我们继续在她的写作中对语法、表达和措辞进行“性别化”。张爱玲的语言是一种抵制“性别化”过程的语言，是一种消除不同身份分化可能性的语言。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 01:07, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
In Eileen Chang’s essay writing, it is finally the narration itself that becomes a site where conflicting cultural discourses meet and interact. The narrative voice does not embody or point to any authoritative discourses: it is neither the passive receiver of a system of accomplished social customs and values containing stereotypes of passive femininity, nor a spokeswoman for a ‘progressive’ nationalist ideological agenda. While history is viewed as transitory and fragmented, the language used to account for this history is no longer something which is ideologically or rhetorically charged. It is not a language to account for truth and beliefs, it is a language of ‘paradox’ and ‘enigma’; it is a ‘counter-language.’ Chang’s use of language serves to recuperate a remote tradition that is incompatible to the present historical situation, and to restore a different set of voices which are inconsonant with the chorus of her time.<br />
在张爱玲的散文写作中，最终是叙事本身成为了冲突的文化话语相遇和互动的场所。叙事的声音不体现或指向任何权威的话语:它既不是既有社会习俗和价值观体系的被动接受者，也不是“进步的”民族主义意识形态议程的发言人。虽然历史被认为是短暂的和支离破碎的，但用来解释这段历史的语言不再是某种意识形态或修辞上的指控。它不是一种解释真理和信仰的语言，它是一种“悖论”和“谜”的语言;它是一种“反语言”。张爱玲对语言的运用是为了恢复与当前历史形势不相容的遥远传统，并恢复与她那个时代的合唱不一致的一套不同的声音。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 01:03, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Chang’s essay writing indicates that the coherence of a so-called women’s literary writing tradition in modern China is a mere fabrication. The linguistic constructions in Chang’s essay writing playfully appropriate male fantasies, turning them into props in the creation of a new literary space. By turning structures of male fantasies into narrative devices, and by transforming male voices to enhance the theatrical effect of essay writing, Eileen Chang has demonstrated a much more confident gesture in offering a critique of gendered constructions in both the larger social context and the sphere of literary writing.<br />
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'''Essay and the Invention of Life in Wartime'''<br />
<br />
In the preface to her 1988 collection entitled '''Xuji''' (The Sequel), Eileen Chang confesses that she has been a “loyal believer” in Greta Garbo’s philosophy of life:<br />
张爱玲的散文著作揭示了这样一个事实，现代中国所谓的女性文学写作传统不过是对男性文学写作传统的伪造。她的散文著作中，语言结构巧妙地借用了男性的幻想思维，将其转换为创造新文学空间的支柱。张将男性幻想结构转换为叙述手法，并且转换男性的叙述口吻，以此提高散文写作所带来的戏剧影响，在广大的社会背景条件下和文学创作方面，提出了性别结构批评，对此，她信心满满。在其1988年出版的名为《战争时代的散文与发现》一书的前言中，张爱玲坦白说，她是葛嘉丽·宝格生活哲学的忠诚信仰者。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 11:48, 3 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
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张爱玲的散文作品表明现代中国所谓的女性文学创作传统的一致性仅仅是捏造而已。她在散文作品的语言结构中巧妙地运用了男性的幻想，并将其转化为创造新文学空间的支柱。通过将男性幻想结构转变为叙事手法，并通过转换男性的叙述口吻来增强散文写作的戏剧效果，张爱玲在更大的社会背景和文学创作领域中以更加自信的姿态提出了性别结构批评。<br />
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'''散文和战时的生活发现'''<br />
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在她1988年出版的名为《续集》(The Sequel)一书的序言中，张爱玲坦诚地说她一直是葛丽泰·嘉宝人生哲学的“忠实信仰者”：--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 07:37, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
For several decades, relying on make-up and acting skills, she [Garbo] lived the life of a recluse, seldom seen through by other people. Her life-time belief was that “I want to live by myself.” …… Why is it that writers also have a hard time preserving the privacy of their lives? <br />
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These sentiments could not have been expressed back in the 1940s. The solitude of the latter half of Chang’s life, that is, the four decades since she came to America in the fall of 1955, forms a sharp contrast to the glorious moments during the first half of the 1940s, particularly the years of 1944 and 1945, when she and Su Qing emerged in the cultural scene of Shanghai simultaneously and became brighter stars than the most acclaimed movie actresses and popular singers.<br />
<br />
几十年来，她[Garbo]依靠化妆和表演技巧，过着隐居的生活，很少被其他人看到。她一生的信念是“我想一个人生活”。……为什么作家在保护自己的生活隐私方面也遇到困难？<br />
早在1940年代就无法表达这些观点。Chang的后半生的孤独，即自1955年秋天来美国以来的四个十年，与1940年代上半叶，尤其是1944和1945年的辉煌时刻形成了鲜明的对比。 当她和苏青同时出现在上海的文化舞台上时，他们成为了比最受好评的电影女演员和流行歌手更耀眼的明星。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 06:34, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
几十年来，她(嘉宝)凭借着化妆和表演技巧，过着避世的生活，很少被其他人看到。她的人生信条就是“我想一个人过活。”......为什么作家也很难保护自己生活的隐私呢？<br />
这些观点在20世纪40年代是不可能表达出来的。张爱玲后半生的孤独，即她自1955年秋来美国后的40个年头里的孤独。这与她在20世纪40年代上半期，特别是1944年和1945年的辉煌时刻形成了鲜明对比，当时她和苏青共同出现在上海的文坛上，成为比最著名的电影演员和流行歌手还要耀眼的巨星。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:36, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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几十年来，她（嘉宝）依靠化妆和演技，过着隐居的生活，很少被别人看穿。她一生的信念是“我要自己生活”……为什么作家也很难保护自己的生活隐私？--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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这些情绪在20世纪40年代是难以表达的，张爱玲后半生的孤独，也就是1955年秋天来到美国的四十年，与二十世纪40年代上半叶，特别是1944年和1945年的辉煌时刻形成了鲜明的对比，当她和苏青同时出现在上海的文化舞台上，成为比最受赞誉的电影女演员和流行歌手更耀眼的明星。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
As argued earlier, the most important players in this society-wide promotion of women intellectuals were none other than women writers themselves. And among all literary genres, it was the modern essay that became the most powerful form of expression in women writers’ self-promotion and myth-making. Essay served to contribute concrete forms to a life that was void of any structure; in other words, women writers such as Eileen Chang and Su Qing used the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one’s imagination and fantasy could anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. In this section I will highlight two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang’s essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness.<br />
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如前所述，在整个社会范围内提升女性知识分子最重要的参与者就是女性作家本身。在所有文学体裁中，现代散文成为女性作家自我提升和神话创造中最有力的表达形式。散文可以为没有任何结构的生活提供具体形式：换句话说，张爱玲和苏青等女性作家利用现代散文的形式，构建了一个个人想象和幻想可以驻留的可理解的宇宙。对日常经验的详细描述，即对物质世界的文化意义的陈述，不仅体现了动态的内心生活，而且体现了一种形成中的新的社会认同。在这一章中，我将着重介绍张爱玲散文写作中所概念化的生活的两个方面，一方面是作为城市景观中有限场所的现代公寓的空间，另一方面是将时尚的讲话视为物质意识的一个重要形式。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:13, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
如前所述,一个社会对女性知识分子的推动,最重要的力量莫过于女性作家本身。 而在所有文学体裁中,正是现代散文成为女作家自我提升和神话创作中最有力的表现形式。 "散文"为一种没有结构的生活贡献了具体的形式,换句话说,张爱玲、苏青等女性作家用现代散文的形式,构建了一个可以理解、想象和幻想的宇宙。 对日常生活经验的详细描述,即对物质世界文化意义的表述,不仅体现了动态的内心生活,而且表现了一种孕育中的新的社会认同。 在这一章中,我将着重介绍张爱玲散文写作中概念化的生活的两个方面：一方面是作为都市景观中有限场所的现代公寓的空间,另一方面是将时尚作为物质意识的重要形态的论述。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 06:20, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
'''Passage from apartment to street'''<br />
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In her essay entitled “Gongyu shenghuo jiqu” (Interesting Moments in Apartment Life), Chang depicts a spatial construction which serves as the backdrop of the formation of a new urban persona:<br />
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I would ride the wind, returning up there,<br />
but fear those marble domes and jade galleries<br />
the place so high, the cold is unbearable …… <br />
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On reading these lines, residents who live on top floors of apartment buildings will more or less shiver with fear. The higher the apartment, the colder. Ever since the price of coal soared , radiators in apartments have become purely decorative. The “H” on the hot water faucet is indispensable in order to perfect the bathroom design; but if you turn on the hot water tap by mistake, a hollow but grievous rumble will burst out from the “Nine Springs” (''Jiu quan'') down below. It sounds like the very complicated and very capricious hot water pipe system in the apartment building has lost its temper. Even if we do not provoke it, the God of thunder still makes its power felt at any moment.<br />
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在其题为“公寓生活中的有趣时刻”的文章中，张描绘了一种空间构造，它是新城市角色形成的背景：<br />
<br />
我会顺风而行，回到那里，<br />
但要担心那些大理石圆顶和玉廊<br />
这么高的地方，冷得难以忍受……<br />
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阅读这些内容后，居住在公寓楼顶上的居民或多或少会因恐惧而颤抖。公寓越高，温度越低。自从煤炭价格飞涨以来，公寓中的制热器成了纯粹的装饰。为了完善浴室设计，热水龙头上的“ H”是必不可少的。但是，如果错误地打开热水龙头，则会从下方的“九座泉水”（“九泉”）处爆发出空荡却剧烈的隆隆声。听起来公寓大楼中非常复杂且反复无常的热水管道系统已经失去了活力。即使我们不激怒它，雷电之神仍然随时都能展现力量。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:39, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Out of nowhere, it can set off a long and evil buzz followed by two blasting sounds, as if an airplane was circling above for a while and then dropped two bombs. Having been terror-stricken in wartime Hong Kong, this kind of noise would always make me panic when I first returned to Shanghai. At first the pipe was still working conscientiously; in much difficulty, it would carry some hot water all the way up to the sixth floor, accompanied by a gurgling sound. That was still acceptable, but now it is like deafening thunder followed only by drizzle, and worse yet, all we get are just two droplets of yellow rusty mud. But I dare not complain anymore; the unemployed can easily fly into a rage.<br />
<br />
What is most striking in this beginning episode of Chang’s essay is how the experience of the everyday is depicted as parallel to that of war. War makes its metaphorical presence in daily life of an apartment dweller, serving as a trope for the erratic rhythm of an urban life style. Chang’s depiction of the texture of an apartment life then can be read as a parable of war.<br />
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无缘无故，只听见不怀好意的"嗡……"拉长了半晌之后接着"訇訇"两声，活像飞机在顶上盘旋了一会，掷了两枚炸弹。在战时香港吓细了胆子的我，初回上海的时候，每每为之魂飞魄散。若是当初它认真工作的时候，艰辛地将热水运到六层楼上来，便是咕噜两声，也还情有可原。现在可是雷声大，雨点小，难得滴下两滴生锈的黄浆……然而也说不得了，失业的人向来是肝火旺的。<br />
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这是张爱玲散文开头的一段，其中最令人吃惊的是作者将日常经历与战争并举。战争在公寓住户的日常生活中是一个隐喻性的存在，喻指城市生活节奏的飘忽不定。于是我们可以将张爱玲对公寓生活的描写解读成对战争的比喻。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 10:19, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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无缘无故，只听见不怀好意的"嗡……"拉长了半晌之后接着"訇訇"两声，活像飞机在顶上盘旋了一会，掷了两枚炸弹。在战时香港吓细了胆子的我，初回上海的时候，每每为之魂飞魄散。若是当初它认真工作的时候，艰辛地将热水运到六层楼上来，便是咕噜两声，也还情有可原。现在可是雷声大，雨点小，难得滴下两滴生锈的黄浆……但我不敢再抱怨了，失业者很容易发怒。<br />
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这是张爱玲散文开头的一段，最引人注目的是如何将日常生活中的经历描绘成与战争的类似。战争在公寓住户的日常生活中是一个隐喻性的存在，喻指城市生活节奏的飘忽不定。于是我们可以将张爱玲对公寓生活的描写解读成对战争的比喻。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:32, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
This opening episode makes references to several archetypal war themes, including death (as in the reference to the “nine springs” or Jiu quan), the scarcity of necessities in life (such as the mentioning of high price of coal and deficiency of hot water in the apartment), and the threat of air-raid (as suggested by the narrator’s haunted memory from her years living in wartime Hong Kong). Themes of unemployment, social unrest, and economic instability are also represented in Chang’s depiction of an animated world where one’s private space is constantly intruded by outside forces. The author has invented a new sense of interiority in her attempt to come to terms with the topography of urban life during wartime. The essay gives textual testimonies to two most important categories of experience in occupied Shanghai – the urban and the war; and these two categories converge precisely within the constructed space of a modern apartment.<br />
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<br />
这一开篇提到了几个典型的战争主题，包括死亡(比如提到了九泉或酒泉)，生活必需品的匮乏(比如提到了高昂的煤价和公寓里的热水短缺)，以及空袭的威胁(从叙述者对战时香港生活的挥之不去的回忆中可以看出)。失业、社会动荡、经济不稳定等主题也在张笔下描绘了一个充满活力的世界，一个人的私人空间不断受到外部势力的侵扰。作者创造了一种新的内在感，试图与战时城市生活的地形达成妥协。本文对被占领的上海的两种最重要的体验类型--城市体验和战争体验进行了考证，这两类体验恰好在现代公寓的建造空间中交汇在一起。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 04:40, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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这一开篇提到了几个典型的战争主题，包括死亡(比如提到了九泉或酒泉)，生活必需品的匮乏(比如提到了高昂的煤价和公寓里的热水短缺)，以及空袭的威胁(从叙述者对战时香港生活的挥之不去的回忆中可以看出)。失业、社会动荡、经济不稳定等主题也出现在张所描述的一个栩栩如生的世界里，在这个世界，私人空间不断受到外部势力的侵扰。作者在试图参照战时城市生活的地形的过程中，对（室）内部（设计）产生了新的想法。本文对被占领时上海的两种最重要的体验类型--城市体验和战争体验进行了考证，这两类体验恰好融合进了现代公寓的建造空间中。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:31, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
See Chapter 2 for a discussion of the society-wide promotion of the two women and the women’s attempt in self-fashioning. Su and Chang were often showcased together with famous singers, dancers, and movie actresses at the time. See, for instance, ”Cui Chengxi wudao zuotan” (A Roundtable Discussion of Cui Chengxi’s Dance), where women writers were presented together with the Korean Dancer Cui Chengxi and a Chinese dancer named Wang Yuan. Published in ''The Miscellany Monthly'' 12. 2 (November, 1943). Another example is ”Nalianghui ji” (A Summer Gathering), where Eileen Chang was showcased together with the singer/movie actress Li Xianglan. In The ''Miscellany Monthly'' 15. 5 (August, 1945).<br />
<br />
Originally published in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly'' 3 (December, 1943).<br />
<br />
These are the lines in the Song dynasty poet Su Shi’s famous song lyric written to the tune ”Shuidiao getou” (Song for the Water Tune).<br />
<br />
第二章讨论了这两个女人在全社会的推广以及她们在自我塑造方面的尝试。当时，苏和张经常与著名歌手、舞者和电影女演员一起表演。例如，在“崔承熙舞蹈座谈”(关于崔承熙舞蹈的圆桌讨论)中，女性作家与韩国舞蹈家崔承熙和中国舞蹈家王原一起出现。刊登在《每月杂文》12.2(1943年11月)。另一个例子是“纳凉会”(夏季聚会)，张爱玲和歌手兼电影演员李香兰一起展示在《每月杂文》15.5(1945年8月)。<br />
原刊于《天地月刊》第3期(1943年12月)。<br />
这些诗句是宋代诗人苏轼在著名的词作中写的“水调歌头”(Song for the Water tune)。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 03:24, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第二章讨论了这两个女人在全社会的推广以及她们在自我塑造方面的尝试。当时，苏和张经常与著名歌手、舞者和电影女演员一起表演。例如，在“崔承熙舞蹈座谈”(关于崔承熙舞蹈的圆桌讨论)中，女性作家与韩国舞蹈家崔承熙和中国舞蹈家王原一起出现。发表在《每月杂文》12.2(1943年11月)。另一个例子是“纳凉会”(夏季聚会)，张爱玲和歌手兼电影演员李香兰一起出现在《每月杂文》15.5(1945年8月)。<br />
原刊是在《天地月刊》第3期(1943年12月)。<br />
这些诗句是宋代诗人苏轼在著名的抒情词作中写的“水调歌头”(Song for the Water tune)。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:04, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
This is the first time in the history of modern Chinese literature that the literary world of a woman author is so tenaciously associated with an urban life style characterized by routines in and out of a modern apartment. In other words, the spatial specificities of a modern apartment are essential to the construction of a vision of life in wartime in Eileen Chang’s writing. City offers many transitional territories such as hotels, stations, theaters, and cafes, which are spaces beyond the rigid categorization of inside or outside, private or public. In Chang’s writing, the space of an apartment is presented as such a transitional site. It is a self-contained private space, which enables a city dweller to escape the intensity of life outside the apartment when necessary. But more importantly, an apartment is also a locus point from which one can enter into various aspects of urban culture.<br />
<br />
这是现代中国文学史上的第一次，女性作家的文学世界与城市生活如此顽强地联系在一起，这种生活以现代公寓的出现和消失为特征。 换句话说，张爱玲（Eileen Chang）的作品中，现代公寓的空间特色对于构建战时生活观至关重要。 城市提供了许多过渡区域，例如旅馆，车站，剧院和咖啡馆，这些区域超出了对内部或外部，私人或公共场所的严格分类。 在张的著作中，公寓的空间就是这样一个过渡场所。 它是一个独立的私人空间，使城市居民在必要时可以逃离公寓外的生活。 但更重要的是，公寓也是人们进入城市文化各个方面的起点。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:09, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一个女作家的文学世界和与一种城市生活方式牢固的联结在一起，这种生活方式一现代公寓的日常生活为特征，这在现代中国文学史上是第一次。换句话说，在张爱玲的作品中，现代公寓的空间特异性对于战时生活愿景的构建至关重要。城市提供了许多过渡性区域比如旅馆，车站，剧院和咖啡厅，这些区域不适用于对内部或外部，私人或公共场所的严格分类。在张的著作中，公寓的空间就是这样的过渡性场所。它是一个独立的私人空间，在必要的时候，可以是一个城市居民逃离公寓外那个世界的紧张生活。但更为重要的是，公寓也是人们能够融入城市文化的各个方面的起点。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 13:46, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
For Eileen Chang, who, between 1942 and 1945, spent most of her time in a flat on the top floor of a six-story apartment building not too far away from the Jing’an Temple, the modern interior space is like a picture frame, encircling the nights and days of an urban dweller who constantly looks out, from her own apartment windows, that is, a new vantage point, at the kaleidoscopic world of metropolitan Shanghai. Living in an apartment seems to have changed ways of seeing, hearing, smelling, and feeling: not only the cityscape is presented differently – now from a new height (the windows of an apartment on the sixth floor), even sounds in the city become more vivid with the elevation of height:<br />
<br />
I am often amazed at how street noises can be heard so clearly from the sixth floor, as if it was all happening right beneath one’s ears. The older we get, the farther we are separated from our childhood, and yet the memories of it and its many trivial details have gradually become more sweet and vivid.<br />
<br />
对于张爱玲（1942年至1945年之间）大部分时间都花在离静安寺不太远的六层公寓楼顶楼的公寓里，现代室内空间就像一幅画框围绕着一个城市居民的夜晚和白天，她不断从自己的公寓窗户向外看，这是一个新的视角，俯瞰着大都市上海的万花筒.居住在公寓中似乎已经改变了看，听，闻和感觉的方式：不仅城市景观的呈现方式有所不同-现在从一个新的高度（六层公寓的窗户）开始，甚至城市中的声音也变得不同.随着高度的升高更加生动：<br />
我常常惊讶于如何从六楼清晰地听到街道的声音，好像所有声音都发生在人的耳朵下一样.我们年龄越大，我们与童年的距离就越远，但是对它的记忆及其许多琐碎的细节却逐渐变得更加甜美生动.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 12:35, 6 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 12:35, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Just like our present bears imprints of the past, an interior space is constantly permeated and reshaped by the every-changing outside world. This is a world (un)marked by blurred boundaries; liminality characterizes one’s own positioning within such an obscure realm. And yet senses simply become more acute, and thoughts are given fresh new patterns. Here, we are witnessing the formation a new metaphysics of the everyday:<br />
<br />
I like to listen to street sounds. Those who have more refined taste would rest on their pillows and listen to wind whistling in a pine grove or the roar of ocean waves. But it is the sound of a trolley that I must hear in order to fall asleep. On the hills in Hong Kong, only in winter when the north wind blew on the evergreens all night would it remind me of the charming sound of a trolley. People who have lived in an exciting city for many years do not realize what they must have in life until they have left the place. The thoughts of a city dweller are set against a curtain of striped pattern; the light-colored stripes are running trolleys. Like neatly paralleled currents of sounds, they continuously flow into our subconscious.<br />
<br />
就像我们的现在承载着过去的印记一样，室内空间也在不断地被变化的外部世界渗透和重塑。这是一个界限模糊的世界;阈限定义了一个人在这样一个模糊领域的定位。然而，只是感觉变得更加敏锐，思想被赋予了新的模式。在这里，我们目睹了一种新的日常形而上学的形成:<br />
<br />
我喜欢听街上的声音。而品味较高雅的人则会躺在枕头上，聆听松林中的风声或海浪的怒吼。但我必须听到手推车的声音才能睡着。在香港的山上，只有在冬天，当北风整夜吹在常青树上时，才会使我想起电车的迷人声音。在一个令人兴奋的城市生活多年的人们直到离开这个地方才意识到他们在生活中必须拥有什么。一个城里人的思想，映衬着一幅条纹图案的窗帘;浅色条纹是运行的电车。就像整齐平行的声音流一样，它们不断地流入我们的潜意识。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 06:38, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
For Eileen Chang, an apartment is truly the center of urban life. Like a train station, it serves as an initial starting point, always ready to transport one’s senses into many different directions. Chang’s aesthetics of life is then attributed with a concrete spatial form that is deeply rooted in the soil of the everyday of wartime. If the production of popular journals in occupied Shanghai symbolizes the shaping of an imagined space, the modern apartment is another important site on the mental map of a city under siege. The aggression of wartime occupation has disrupted cycles of life, routines in and out of one’s own home, but new urban spaces and experiences were also created. Here the presence of war intensifies one’s experience of the urban, crystallized in the shaping of a particular spatial form, that is, the modern apartment.<br />
<br />
对于张爱玲来说，公寓才是真正的城市生活中心。就像火车站一样，它作为一个起点，随时准备着把人的感官带到不同的方向。张爱玲的生活美学赋予了一种具体的空间形式，这种空间形式深深扎根于战时日常生活中。如果说沦陷的上海流行期刊的出版象征着一个想象空间的塑造，那么现代公寓则是围困城市心理地图的另一个重要场所。战时的侵略打乱了人们的生活圈，以及一切日常生活，但也创造了新的城市空间和体验。在这里，战争的存在强化了人们对城市的体验，形成了一种特殊的空间形态，即现代公寓。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 09:13, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
对张爱玲而言，公寓确实是城市生活的中心。它就像火车站，作为起点时刻准备将人的感官送往不同的方向。张爱玲的生活美学于是被赋予了具体的空间形式，它深植与战时日常的土壤之中。如果说流行刊物在上海占领区的出版象征着一个想象空间的形成，那么现代公寓则是处于封锁之下的城市的心理地图上的另一个重要的场所。战时占领的侵略性扰乱了生活圈打乱了人们归家和离家的惯例，但新的城市空间和经历也随之创造出来。战争于此加强了人们对城市的体验。这样的体验正是在公寓这一特殊空间的形成中确定的。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 11:02, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
对张爱玲来说，公寓是真正的城市生活中心。 就像火车站一样，它是一个最初的起点，随时可以将人的感官带入许多不同的方向。 张爱玲的生活美学就被归结为一种具体的空间形式，深深扎根于战时日常的土壤中。 如果说在被占领的上海，通俗期刊的生产象征着一种想象空间的塑造，那么现代公寓则是一个被围困的城市精神地图上的另一个重要场所。 战时占领的侵略性打乱了人们的生活周期，打乱了人们出入自己家的例行公事，但新的城市空间和经验也被创造出来。 在这里，战争的存在强化了人们对城市的体验，具体体现在一种特殊空间形式的塑造上，即现代公寓。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:20, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
Many feminist scholars have suggested the importance of studying spatial constructions. They argue that by giving the inner world a form of concreteness, spatial symbols in literature are most illuminating in showing how personal experience intersects with specific cultural categories. The study of spatial construction is then important since it is the key point in understanding women’s literature: space often serves as a vehicle by which the female protagonists attempt to launch a journey of self-discovery, which constitutes the most important part of the female experience. See, for instance, Jessica Benjamin, ”A Desire of One’s Own: Psychoanalytic Feminism and Intersubjective Space,” in ''Feminist Studies/Critical Studies'', edited by Teresa de Lauretis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986).<br />
<br />
For a discussion of other kinds of spatial constructions in 1940s Shanghai, see Wei Shaochang, ”Jiu Shanghai de tingzijian” (The Garret in Old Shanghai), published in ''Haishang wentan'' (March, 1994). Also see a photographic history in Tang Zhenchang, ed., ''Jindai Shanghai fanhua lu'' (Modern Shanghai: The Splendor) (Hong Kong: Shangwu yinshuguan 1993.)<br />
<br />
In ”Interesting Moments in Apartment Life.”<br />
<br />
Ibid.<br />
<br />
See Nicole Huang, ''Written In the Ruins''.<br />
<br />
<br />
许多女性学者提到了研究空间构造的重要性。她们认为通过给予内心世界一种具体形式，文学上的空间符号最能说明个人经验如何和特定的文化范畴相交。关于空间结构的研究因此十分重要因为这是理解女性文学的关键点：空间常作为一种工具，通过这种工具，女性反抗主义者试图发起一场自我发现之旅，这构成了女性体验中最重要的一部分。例如，见杰西卡·本杰明，《个人的欲望：心理分析女性主义和主题空间》来自于女性研究/批判研究，由特丽莎·德·拉瑞缇斯编辑（布卢明顿：印第安纳大学出版社，1986）<br />
关于20世纪40年代其他关于空间构造的讨论，见魏绍昌《旧上海的亭子间》发表于海上文坛（1994年3月）。另见唐振昌主编的《近代上海繁华录》（香港：商务印书馆1993）摄影史。<br />
在《公寓生活的有趣瞬间》<br />
同上<br />
见黄妮可《写在废墟里》--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 00:50, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许多女性学者提到了研究空间构造的重要性。她们认为通过给予内心世界一种具体形式，文学上的空间符号最能说明个人经验如何和特定的文化范畴相交。关于空间结构的研究变得十分重要是因为这是理解女性文学的关键点：空间常作为一种工具，通过这种工具，女性反抗主义者试图发起一场自我发现之旅，这构成了女性体验中最重要的一部分。例如，见杰西卡·本杰明，《个人的欲望：心理分析女性主义和主题空间》来自于女性研究/批判研究，由特丽莎·德·拉瑞缇斯编辑（布卢明顿：印第安纳大学出版社，1986）<br />
关于20世纪40年代其他关于空间构造的讨论，见魏绍昌《旧上海的亭子间》发表于海上文坛（1994年3月）。另见唐振昌主编的《近代上海繁华录》（香港：商务印书馆1993）摄影史。<br />
在《公寓生活的有趣瞬间》<br />
同上<br />
见黄妮可《写在废墟里》--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 03:08, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s vision, this spatial experience is also gendered. The image of an apartment dweller is gendered, and often female. “It seems like only women can fully understand the advantages of life in an apartment,” Chang writes, since the household duties in an apartment are much more simplified. Therefore, a woman can much better appreciate the numerous trivial details in life; she can even start to appreciate the gorgeous colors of fresh vegetables displayed at morning markets, and enjoy the pleasures of cooking and cleaning. Chang’s reinvention of these daily trips is most forcefully presented in one essay entitled “Zhongguo de riye” (China: Days and Nights). <br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (extended edition) (Shanghai: Shanhe tushu gongsi, 1946).（注释）<br />
<br />
在张爱玲看来，这种空间体验是有性别偏向的。公寓住户的形象也是有性别偏向的，而且通常指女性。张爱玲写道：“恐怕只有女人能够充分了解公寓生活的特殊优点”，因为公寓里的家务要简单许多。因此，女性可以更好地欣赏生活的鸡毛蒜皮；她甚至还可以欣赏早市新鲜蔬菜亮丽的颜色，享受做饭打扫房间的乐趣。张爱玲把这些日常小事再创造，有力地写在名为《中国的日夜》的散文中（中国：日日夜夜）。<br />
<br />
引自《传奇》（增订本）（上海：山河图书公司，1946）（注释）--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 07:20, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
张爱玲认为，这种空间体验也具有性别偏向。公寓居民的形象具有女性的性别偏向。张爱玲写道：“似乎只有女性才能充分理解公寓生活的多姿多彩，” 原因在于公寓的家务更加简化了，这使得女性可以更好地欣赏生活中许多琐碎的细节。比如她甚至可以开始欣赏早市上颜色鲜艳的新鲜蔬菜，并享受烹饪和打扫卫生的乐趣。在一篇名为《中国之日夜》的文章中，张爱玲重点重塑了对这些日常琐碎小事。<br />
<br />
引自《传奇》（增订本）（上海：山河图书公司，1946年）（注释）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:13, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s own account, morning errands to the vegetable market seem to be her own tour through the part of the city that she is most attached to. Every morning she would take the elevator down from her sixth floor apartment, emerge onto the awakening streets, mingle with the morning crowd, and progress toward the world of the magnificent colors of the early market. Daily routines are not just bound duties that confine the everyday experiences of women; instead, they become forms of life choreographed in accordance with the distinctive rhythm of the city. Women can finally look at them as opportunities to explore a life that is wider, brighter, and more open to a variety of new possibilities.<br />
在张女士自己的描述中，早上去菜市场的差事是她游览这所城市中最爱的部分。每天早晨，她都会从六楼的公寓乘电梯下楼，来到苏醒的街道上，融入早间的人群中，走向绚丽的早市世界里。日常事务不仅限于女性的日常经历，相反，它们变成了根据城市独特节奏精心编排的生活形式。女性最终可以把它们看作是探索更广阔、更光明，更开放的生活的机会。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 17:27, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
Life in apartment is then presented with many layers in Chang’s essay writing. In “Daolu yi mu” (Views from the Streets), Eileen Chang also reminds the reader of the many levels of urban culture taking shape outside of the apartment, that is, on the streets. On one level, the street scene of Shanghai is most distinctively characterized by the window displays and neon lights on Avenue Joffre:<br />
<br />
Designing shop windows is a fascinating job, since there is motionless drama in each display. ……… [I remember] a mid-winter night four or five years ago when my cousin and I were strolling down the Avenue Joffre, looking at shop window displays.<br />
<br />
在张爱玲的文章中,公寓里的生活就有了多层次的呈现。在《道路以目》（街景）一文中，张爱玲提醒读者，在公寓之外，也就是在街道上，城市文化正在多个层面上形成。例如，上海的街景最鲜明的特点是乔佛尔大道上的橱窗和霓虹灯。<br />
设计商店橱窗是一项迷人的工作，因为每一个陈列都有不动声色的戏剧性。...... [我记得]四五年前的一个仲冬之夜，我和表哥在乔佛尔大道上漫步，欣赏着商店橱窗陈列。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 01:29, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
Under neon lights, the slanted faces of those wooden beauties under slanted hats, with feathers slanting down from atop the hats. I did not wear western suits, had no need of a hat, and did not want to buy one. And yet I still looked at them with admiring eyes…… <br />
<br />
This fascination with window displays and neon lights is staged at a moment that belongs to the past – “four of five years ago.” At the present time within the essay, a different layer of images are highlighted. We see various street corners scattered in less prestigious neighborhoods of the metropolis. Chang’s impressionistic depiction of the city of Shanghai contains numerous crisscrosses of small lanes and faces of ordinary people:<br />
<br />
”Views from the Streets,” in Heaven and Earth Monthly 4 (January, 1944). （注释）<br />
霓虹灯下，木美人倾斜的脸，倾斜的帽子，帽子上斜吊着的羽毛。我既不穿洋装，不会买帽子，也不想买，然而还是用欣羡的眼光看着......<br />
这种对橱窗和霓虹灯的迷恋属于过去—“四五年前”。在这篇文章中描绘了各种各样的景象。我们看到各种各样的街角散布在大都市不怎么有名的地方。张爱玲对上海这座城市的印象描绘包含了无数纵横交错的小巷子和普通人的面孔: “街景”，《天地》月刊第4期，(1944年1月)。（注释）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:23, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
霓虹灯下，木美人侧着脸，帽子略歪着，羽毛斜着垂下来。我不穿洋装，不买帽子，也不想买，然而还是用欣羡的眼光看着......<br />
这种对橱窗和霓虹灯的迷恋属于过去—“四五年前”的时光。在现在的文章中，则突出了另一层面的城市文化。我们看到各种各样的街角散布在大都市不怎么有名的地方。张爱玲对上海这座城市的印象描绘包含了无数纵横交错的小巷子和普通人的面孔: “街景”，《天地》月刊第4期，(1944年1月)。（注释）--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 01:42, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
There are many scenes on the streets that are worth another glance. At dusk, a rickshaw is parked by the roadside, a woman is leaning against the seat, a sack in her hand, some persimmons in the sack. The rickshaw man is squatting down on the ground, trying to light up an oil lamp. It is getting dark, and the lamp by the woman’s feet slowly brightens. <br />
<br />
Here, within the space of one essay, the images of a rickshaw man and a housewife on a small street are juxtaposed with the memory of two young women window-shopping on the extravagant Avenue Joffre. The subtle light of an oil lamp is placed against the bright and luring rats of neon signs.<br />
<br />
街道上有许多场景值得一看。 黄昏时，一辆人力车停在路边，一个女人靠在座位上，手里拿着一个麻袋，麻袋里放着一些柿子。 这辆人力车男子蹲在地上，试图点亮一盏油灯。 天快黑了，女人脚旁的灯慢慢变亮。<br />
在这篇论文的空间中，在一条小街上，一辆黄包车男子和一名家庭主妇的影像并置在一起，以纪念两名年轻女子在奢侈的Joffre大街上逛街。油灯的微弱光线被放置在明亮而诱人的霓虹灯招牌上。<br />
大街上有许多景象值得一看。 黄昏时分，一辆黄包车停在路边，一位女士靠在座位上，手上的购物袋里装了一些柿子。 车夫蹲在地上，正点亮一盏油灯。 天快黑了，女士脚旁的灯光慢慢亮了起来。<br />
在文章的这一场景中，小街上的车夫和家庭主妇与在霞飞大道逛街的两个年轻女郎形成了鲜明的对比。油灯微弱的灯光也和绚丽夺目的霓虹灯形成了对照。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 03:12, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
街上有许多的风景值得一看。黄昏时，一辆黄包车停在路边，一个女人正靠着椅子，手里拿着一个大袋子，袋子中装着些柿子。车夫蹲在地上试图点亮油灯。天要黑了，女人脚旁的油灯发出微弱的光芒<br />
这篇文章的空白处，车夫和家庭主妇在小街上的图画和对两个在奢华的艾佛尔大街无意购物的女人的记忆放置在一起。油灯散发出来的微弱的光芒与明亮而诱人的霓虹灯招牌形成对比。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 04:26, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
街上值得一看的正多着。黄昏的时候，路旁歇着人力车，一个女人斜欠坐在车上，手里换着网袋，袋里有柿子。车夫蹲在地下，点那盏油灯。天黑了，女人脚旁的灯渐渐亮了起来。<br />
在文章的这一场景中，小街上的人力车车夫和家庭女人与在奢华的霞飞路（淮海中路）上逛街的年轻女郎这两个情景重合。油灯微弱的光芒与明亮夺人的霓虹灯形成鲜明对比。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:03, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
And the warmth and intimacy of the present set off the coldness and vastness of a moment in the past. Here, even though there is no direct reference to the turbulent events taking place in the background of occupied Shanghai, we can nonetheless sense the presence of war in this contrast between the two time frames and the switch back and forth between different layers of urban space. Rapid movements, swift changes, drastic transformations, and the transience of a given moment, these themes of war are represented in a most subtle and yet vivid fashion.<br />
<br />
而现在的温暖和亲切感，又衬托出过去那一刻的冷漠与浩瀚。尽管这里没有直接提到占领上海的动荡事件，但在这两个时间框架之间的对比和在不同层次的城市空间之间切换之中，我们仍然可以感觉到战争的存在。快速的运动，迅速的变化，剧烈的转变，以及某一特定时刻的瞬息万变，这些战争的主题都以一种最微妙而又生动的方式表现出来。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:03, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
To carry the argument further, Chang’s sense of modernity has extended from a modernist high culture to a culture of wartime quotidian life. The author is more interested in representing the tension between the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ surfacing in everyday routines of ordinary men and women in her city. The intrusion of war seems to have pushed the brilliance of Avenue Joffre back into one’s dusty memory. Here we can perceive how the experience of war and occupation has systematically changed the spatialization of modernity: modernity as a body of new urban sensibilities is now located somewhere between the grand avenue and the back alley.<br />
<br />
进一步说，张爱玲的现代性已经从现代主义的高等文化扩展到战时的日常生活文化。她更感兴趣的是表现在她的城市里普通男女日常生活中浮现的“旧”与“新”之间的张力。战争的入侵似乎把乔弗尔大道的辉煌推回到尘封的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和占领的经历是如何系统地改变现代性的空间化的:现代性作为一种新的城市情感体，现在位于大道和后街之间的某个地方。<br />
<br />
张爱玲的现代意识从现代主义的高级文化延伸到战时的平民生活文化。作者更感兴趣的是表现出她所在城市普通男女日常生活中出现的“旧”与“新”之间的紧张关系。战争的侵扰似乎把乔夫尔大街的辉煌重新推回到尘封已久的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和曾被占领的经历是如何系统地改变了现代性的空间化：现代性作为一个新的城市情感体，现在位于大街和后巷之间的某个地方。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:38, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
– '''Fashion talk''' – <br />
To illustrate how material imagination is essential to Chang’s aesthetics of the everyday, I will now turn to her conceptualization of fashion as an invented form of life. Chang’s discussions of fashion demonstrate her fascination with an inner vision. By depicting a world of light, brilliant colors, unique lines and shapes, Chang has also suggested that literary writing can be the beginning of a cultural history of things.<br />
<br />
In Chang’s fictional writing, colors, lines, surfaces, and words are often combined to form a network of intricate meanings. Her writing is known for its meticulous attention to details, particularly clothes.<br />
<br />
--时尚谈--<br />
<br />
为了说明物质想象力对张爱玲的日常美学的重要性，我现在要谈谈她将时尚概念化为一种自创的生活形式。张爱玲对时尚的看法显示了她对内在视觉的迷恋。通过描写一个光亮、绚丽、线条和形状独特的世界，她也提出文学写作可以成为事物文化史的开始。<br />
<br />
在张爱玲的小说创作中，色彩、线条、表面、文字往往组合成一个错综复杂的意义网络。她的写作以细致入微著称，尤其是主角的衣着打扮。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:10, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, in her novella “Jinsuo ji” (Chronicle of Gilded Fetters), through the clothes of female servants, a portrait of this old-style family is introduced. Clothes with bright colors are set in contrast to neutral tones of modern fashion; the former becomes a symbol of the ‘past,’ which gradually recedes into the background, gorgeous, amorous, dazzling, but helplessly decaying. Temporality of fashion serves to punctuate narrative rhythm in Chang’s fictional writing.<br />
<br />
It is in Chang’s essay writing that a discourse of fashion is passionately elaborated. Chang’s most important essay on fashion is entitled “Gengyi ji” (A Chronicle of Changing Clothes), in which one hundred years of Chinese history is acted out in Chang’s dramatic display of clothes in movements.<br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (Romances) (Shanghai: Za¬zhishe, 1944).（注释）<br />
<br />
In Past and Present Bi-weekly 34 (December, 1943). Originally written in English and published in the English language journal XXth Century.（注释）<br />
例如，在她的中篇小说《金锁记》中，通过女仆的衣服，介绍了这个旧式家庭的形象。色彩鲜艳的衣服与现代时尚的中性色调形成对比;前者成为“过去”的象征，逐渐退到背景中，华丽、多情、耀眼，但无可奈何地腐朽。时尚的时代性在张爱玲的小说创作中起到了突出叙事节奏的作用。<br />
在张爱玲的文章中，对时尚的论述进行了全方面的表达。张震最重要的一篇关于时尚的文章叫做《更衣记》(一部关于换衣服的编年史)。在这篇文章中，张用动作展示了中国100年的历史。<br />
《传奇》(恋情)(上海杂志社, 1944)。(注释)<br />
过去和现在每两周34次(1943年12月)。原来用英语写的,发表于某世纪的英文期刊上。(注释)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 04:52, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
There are certain procedures for writing under socialism, for which reportage literature became the most effective training, no matter what genre the writer later chose to express him or herself. Mao Zedong’s ”Talks at the Yan’an Forum on Literature and Art” in 1942 not only called upon writers to depict the new society being created in all its differences from the old, but especially called upon them to find ways to approach workers, peasants and soldiers and understand their lives as much as possible through personal experience and interaction. This had been the ideal of leftist literature since before 1930, but never before did it seem so convenient as in the communist base areas, when writers could be assigned to accompany military units, or to stay in factories or villages.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
In this world, the transformation of modern clothes can be read as a history of mentality that centers on a constant redefinition of notions such as femaleness, female beauty, and female proper conducts:<br />
<br />
Men have more freedom in their life than women do. Yet I do not want to become a man, only because they do not have freedom [in having a variety of clothing]. <br />
<br />
Chang goes on to tease out the absurdity of gendered assumptions in cultural discourses:<br />
<br />
Clothes seem trivial and not worth mentioning. Liu Bei once said: “Brothers are [important to each other] like hands to feet whereas their wives and children are [insignificant] like clothes.” But for women, it is much easier to cherish their clothes than their husbands. <br />
<br />
From ”A Chronicle of Changing Clothes.”<br />
<br />
Back in the 1920s, Zhang Jingsheng already highlighted the significance of the changes of clothes/fashion, which, according to him, reflects and shapes the present state of mentalities. See Zhang’s 1925 book entitled Mei de renshengguan (An Outlook on a Life of Beauty) as quoted in Peng Hsiao-yen, ”Sexual Enlightenment: ‘Dr. Sex’ Zhang Jingsheng and May Fourth First-Person （注释）<br />
<br />
在这个世界上，现代服装的变革可以理解为一部关于精气神的历史，这部历史以女性气质、女性美、女性举止仪态等观念的不断重新定义为核心。<br />
<br />
男人在生活中比女人更加自由。然而我不想成为男人，只因为男人们没有[挑选各种服装]的自由。 <br />
<br />
张先生接着戏说文化话语中的性别假设的荒谬性。<br />
<br />
衣服似乎微不足道，不值得一提。 刘备曾说 "兄弟如手足，女人如衣服" 但对于女人来说，比起自己的丈夫，她们更易于珍爱自己的衣服。<br />
摘自《更衣记》。<br />
<br />
早在20世纪20年代，张竞生就已经强调了衣服/时装变化的意义，他认为，衣服/时装的变化反映以及塑造了当代社会的精神气。 参见张氏1925年出版的《美德重生观》一书，转引自彭孝严《性启蒙："性博士 "张竞生与五四第一人称》。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:15, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
There was a Western writer (is it Bernard Shaw?) who once complained that when most women chose their husbands, they were not nearly as attentive and cautious as when they were selecting a hat for themselves. The most heartless woman would lament passionately when she began to talk about “that silk gown I had last year.”<br />
<br />
Never mind whether it was Bernard Shaw or some other Western writer who made these bizarre comments about women’s apparent “lack” of judgment in choosing their own destinies and their partiality for clothes and other seemingly trivial accessories in life, for Eileen Chang, these male voices were all spelling out the similarly absurd and “ancient” logic by Liu Bei of the Three Kingdoms era (third century A.D.).<br />
<br />
Narrative Fiction.” For Zhang Jingsheng, clothes are the extension of a female body and therefore are crucial elements in exploring female sexuality and inner psyche. This may serve as a mediation to explain the fascination with the female clothed bodies expressed in Eileen Chang’s writing of the 1940s.（注释）<br />
<br />
For a discussion of the correlation between clothes, gender discourses, and performance culture during the first two decades of the century, see an essay by Zhou Huiling (Katharine Hui-ling Chou) entitled ”Nü yanyuan, xieshi zhuyi, ‘xin nüxing’ lunshu: Wanqing dao Wusi shiqi Zhongguo xiandai juchang zhong de xingbie biaoyan” (Actresses, Realism, and Discourse of ”New Woman”: Gendered Performances in Modern Chinese Theater from Late Qing to the May Fourth), published in ''Jindai Zhongguo funüshi yanjiu'' (Studies of Women’s History of Modern China) 4 (August, 1996). Also see her dissertation entitled ''Staging Revolution: Actresses, Realism, and the New Woman Movement in Chinese Spoken Drama and Film, 1919-1949'' (New York University, 1997).（注释）<br />
<br />
有一位西方作家（是萧伯纳吗？）她们曾经抱怨说，当大多数女性选择自己的丈夫时，她们并不像为自己挑选帽子那样细心和谨慎。最无情的女人在谈起“我去年穿的那件丝质长袍”时，会激动地悲叹不已。不管是萧伯纳还是其他西方作家，对女性在选择自己的命运时明显的“缺乏”判断力和对衣服和其他东西的偏爱做出了这些奇怪的评论对于张爱玲来说，这些看似微不足道的生活附属品，都是三国时代（公元三世纪）刘备的同样荒诞而“古老”的逻辑。对于张静生来说，衣服是女性身体的延伸，因此是探索女性性欲和内在心理的重要元素。这可以作为解释张爱玲在20世纪40年代的作品中对女性服饰的迷恋的一种中介。关于本世纪头二十年服装、性别话语和表演文化之间的关系的讨论，请参阅周慧玲的一篇文章（周慧玲）题为《女娲园、谢世祖仪》、《新女星轮回：万顷道五四世琦中国现代戏曲《新女性》的女演员、现实主义与话语：晚清至五四中国现代戏剧的性别化演出”，发表于《近代中国妇女史研究》第4期（1996年8月）。另见她的论文《舞台革命：1919-1949中国话剧电影中的女演员、现实主义与新女性运动》（纽约大学，1997年）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 05:35, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
But the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” does much more than merely tease out the gendered categories embedded in fashion discourses. “We cannot really imagine the world of the past generations, so idle, so quiet, and so organized,” writes Eileen Chang, “during the three hundred years of Manchurian ruling of Qing dynasty, there was not even (jing) such a thing called women’s fashion!” The use of the adverb “jing” implies an astonishment: women did not even have fashion for three hundred years, and how could anyone have endured such a misfortune! The emphasis placed on women’s clothes seem to be a landmark that separates the modern era from the antiquated worlds.<br />
<br />
这篇文章《换衣纪事》不仅仅只是梳理出隐藏在时尚话语中的性别范畴。张爱玲写道：“我们无法想象过去几代人的世界，如此闲散，如此安静，如此井井有条，在清朝满洲统治的三百年里，竟连这样一个叫女装的东西都没有！副词“竟”，暗含着一种震惊：三百年来女人连时尚未曾有，怎么会有人能忍受这样的不幸！对女装的强调似乎是现代与过时世界的一个里程碑。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:01, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但这篇文章《变化的服装编年史》(A Chronicle of Changing Clothes)所做的，远不止是梳理出嵌入时尚话语中的性别类别。张爱玲写道:“我们真的无法想象过去几代人的世界是如此闲适，如此安静，如此有条理。在清朝满洲统治的三百年里，甚至没有(竟)这样一种叫做女性时尚的东西!副词“惊”的使用暗示着一种惊讶:女性甚至三百年来都没有时尚，谁能忍受这样的不幸!对女性服装的重视似乎是区分现代和古老世界的一个里程碑。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:54, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From the point of view of Eileen Chang, the lack of changes in three hundred years of China’s fashion history forms a sharp contrast to the thirty or forty years of the most recent history which, for Chang, can be read as a fascinating narrative put together by rapidly shifting patterns of women’s fashion.<br />
<br />
Chang’s account then turns history into a stage presentation. Her impressionistic view of modern history highlights colors, lines, shapes, and moods, which are all crystallized in the changing faces of women’s clothes. Chang’s representation of modern history through the transformation of women’s clothes has the effect of a modern museum of human fantasies, or a gallery of artifacts constantly in motion.<br />
<br />
就张爱玲的观点来看，中国流行史近三百年来的缺乏改变与近三四十年的历史形成了尖锐的对比。通过迅速改变女性时尚的模式，张认为这可以看作是汇总的一次绝妙叙述。<br />
<br />
张爱玲的记载将历史变成了一次阶段性展示。她的现代史印象主义观点强调色彩、线条、形状和心情，所有这些形成了女性服饰正在改变的面貌。张爱玲通过女性服饰的变迁来展现现代史，这对人类幻想的现代博物馆，以及正在行进的艺术品画廊产生影响。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:00, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
就张爱玲的观点来看，中国流行史近三百年来的缺乏改变与近三四十年的历史形成了鲜明对比。通过迅速改变女性时尚的模式，张认为这可以看作是汇总的一次绝妙叙述。<br />
<br />
张爱玲的叙述将历史变成了一次阶段性展示。她的现代史印象主义观点强调色彩、线条、形状和心境，所有这些形成了女性服饰正在改变的面貌。张爱玲通过女性服饰的变迁来展现现代史，产生了一种如人类幻想的现代博物馆，以及正在行进的艺术品画廊般的影响。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:25, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
History is turned into a fictional narrative. More interestingly, there is no real human being moving in this narrative; shapes, colors, lines, and circles occupy the space. Through a personification of clothes, Chang has created an animation effect in her world of changing fashion. Clothes replace human voices; clothes become language itself.<br />
<br />
历史变成了虚构的故事。更有趣的是，在这个故事里穿梭的，没有真实的人，只有各型各样、五花八门和各种线线圈圈填满了整个空间。通过将服装拟人化的方式，张爱玲在她不断变化的时尚世界里创造出一种动画效果。服装替代人声，成为语言本身。<br />
<br />
In “Views from the Streets,” Eileen Chang also describes fashion display as “motionless drama,” a notion that highlights the correlation between literature, performance art, and material culture. By using the notion of drama as a trope, Eileen Chang has indicated that fashion, like forms of fictional narrative, is a dramatization of life, a life presented on stage.<br />
<br />
在《街景》中，张爱玲还将时装秀描述为“静止的戏剧”，这一概念强调了文学、表演艺术和物质文化之间的关联。通过对戏剧的这一比喻，张爱玲曾表明时尚就如同虚构的故事一般，是戏剧化了的生活，是呈现在舞台上的生活。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 08:22, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
A fashion image is a frozen historical moment, that is, a close-up of a historical moment intersecting with moments in one’s personal history. The clothed body of a modern urban woman thereby carries the burden of history, as well as the marks of our present time.<br />
<br />
In his essay on fashion and modernity written back in 1904, Georg Simmel has already theorized the cultural and social significance of fashion in modern life. He views fashion as a signifier of modernity and a theatricalization of social transformations. For Simmel, fashion consciousness is vital to our conceptualization of the modern and the urban. <br />
<br />
Georg Simmel, ”Fashion” (1904), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, edited and with an introduction by Donald N. Levine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) 294-323.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Simmel’s essay on fashion should be read side by side with his another crucial essay written a year earlier in 1903 entitled “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the heightened level of sensory stimulation associated with the construction of modern metropolis. Fashion responds most directly and instantaneously to these changes. Following is a frequently quoted passage from “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the essence of modern life from a physiological as well as psychological perspective:<br />
<br />
The psychological foundation, upon which the metropolitan individuality is erected, is the intensification of emotional life due to the swift and continuous shift of external and internal stimuli.<br />
<br />
西美尔那篇关于时尚的文章应该和他在1903年写的另一篇重要的文章并列阅读，那篇文章题为《大都市与精神生活》，描述了随着现代大都市的建设而提高的感官刺激水平。时尚界对这些变化的反应是最直接和即时的。下面是《都市与心理生活》中经常引用的一段话，它从生理和心理的角度描述了现代生活的本质:<br />
都市个性赖以建立的心理基础，是由于外部和内部刺激的迅速、持续的转移而强化的情感生活。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
西美尔笔下关于时尚的文章应该与他在1903年写的另一篇重要文章《大都市与精神生活》相呼应，这篇文章描述了与现代大都市建设带来的强烈感官刺激。时尚第一时间捕捉到了这些变化并即时跟上它的步伐。以下是《大都市与精神生活》中经常被引用的一段话，它从生理和心理的角度描述了现代生活的本质。<br />
大都会的个性所建立的心理基础，是由于外部和内部刺激的迅速和持续变化而导致的情感生活的强化。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:30, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Man is a creature whose existence is dependent on differences, i.e., his mind is stimulated by the difference between present impressions and those which have preceded. Lasting impressions, the slightness in their differences, the habituated regularity of their course and contrasts between them, consume, so to speak, less mental energy than the rapid telescoping of changing images, pronounced differences within what is grasped at a single glance, and the unexpectedness of violent stimuli.<br />
人是一种离不开差异而存在的生物，人的思维会被现有的和那些以往存在的印象的不同所刺激。持续的印象之间，即使是细微的差异，他们之间的习惯性规律和对立消耗的精神能量少于捕捉那些仅仅一眼就能看出明显差别的快速变化的图像和突如其来的强大刺激。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 08:56, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人是一种离不开差异而存在的生物，人的思维会被现有的和以往的印象的不同所刺激。持续的印象之间，即使是细微的差异，他们之间的习惯性规律和对立消耗的精神能量，少于捕捉那些仅仅一眼就能看出明显差别的快速变化的图像和突如其来的强大刺激。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 05:37, 7 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
To the extent that the metropolis creates these psychological conditions – with every crossing of the street, with the tempo and multiplicity of economic, occupational and social life – it creates in the sensory foundations of mental life, and in the degree of awareness necessitated by our organization as creatures dependent on differences, a deep contrast with the slower, more habitual, more smoothly flowing rhythm of the sensory-mental phase of small town and rural existence. <br />
<br />
Simmel’s remarks can help illustrate how the discourse of fashion is situated at the center of Eileen Chang’s aesthetic vision. But Chang has gone well beyond Simmel. She incorporates urbanism, modernity, and femininity in her creation of fashion as a new cultural paradigm. <br />
<br />
See Simmel, ”The Metropolis and Mental Life” (1903), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, 325.（注释）<br />
<br />
在某种程度上，大都市创造了这些心理条件——每过一次街道，伴随着经济、职业和社会生活的节奏和多样性——它创造了精神生活的感官基础，以及我们组织作为依赖差异的生物所必需的意识程度与节奏较慢、习惯性较强、流畅流畅的节奏感形成鲜明对比的是小城镇和乡村的存在状态。<br />
<br />
西梅尔的这番话有助于说明张爱玲的美学视野是如何将时尚话语置于中心的。但张爱玲已经超越了西梅尔。她将都市主义、现代性和女性气质融入到她的时尚创作中，作为一种新的文化范式。<br />
<br />
参见西梅尔，“大都市与精神生活”（1903年），《论个性与社会形式：精选著作》，325。（注释）--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:18, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
The fact that the power of designing such a new paradigm is in the hands of a woman makes it even more unique for her time. More importantly, Chang’s fashion stories can also be read as parables of war. Designing fashion and then writing about fashion are her ways to come to terms with the world at war and the city under siege. In a world where nothing is fixed, and scenes of the present are swiftly disappearing at the very next moment, the ever-changing women’s fashion ironically becomes something that is most stable and lucid, something that can be held on to.<br />
<br />
经一位女性之手设计这样一个新的范式，它的力量让她的时代更加独特。更重要的是，张爱玲的时髦故事读来也可算是战争寓言。设计时尚再书写时尚，是她对这个处于战争中的世界和陷入包围的城市的妥协方式。在一个千变万化，眼前的景象稍纵即逝的世界里，具有讽刺意味的是，不停改变的女性时尚是最稳定、最清楚的，是可以把握的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 04:06, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
以女性之手设计新式范例会使其在她的时代更具独特性。更重要的是，张爱玲的时尚故事可以解读为战争格言。设计时尚、描述时尚是她对于交战状态中的世界和围困中的城市的妥协。处于一个动荡的世界中，当前的场景会在下一秒迅速地消失，很讽刺的是，不断变化的女性时尚成为了最稳定和最透明，以及可以坚持的东西。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:30, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s account of wartime Hong Kong in an essay entitled “Jinyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes), she describes individual attentions to details of clothes at a critical moment when one’s own life can be smashed to pieces in no time:<br />
In Hong Kong, when we first heard the news that the war had broken out, a girl classmate in my dormitory started panicking. “What am I going to do? I have nothing appropriate to wear!” she cried. Her family were wealthy overseas Chinese. She had a different wardrobe for every social occasion. From a dance party on a yacht to a formal dinner, she was always sufficiently equipped. But she never imagined that there would be a war.<br />
<br />
张爱玲在其《烬余录》中对战时香港的记述中，她对个人服装的细节上这样描写使人对生活幻灭的重要时刻：在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发的新闻之时，我宿舍的一位女同学开始恐慌起来。“我该做什么？我没有合适的穿的衣服！”她哭着说。她的家人都远在海外。在各个社交场合她都有不同的服装搭配。从游艇上的舞会到正式的晚宴，她总是准备有充足的衣着。但她却从未想过这里会爆发战争。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:21, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《烬余录》中讲述战时的香港时描绘到，一个人在性命攸关的时刻竟会对自己的服饰百般注意：<br />
在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发这个消息时，我宿舍的一个女同学开始慌张。她喊道，“我该怎么办？我都没有合适的衣服穿！”她们一家是富裕的华侨。她在不同的社交场合都有自己的服饰搭配，从游艇上的舞会到一场正式的晚宴，她的服装满满当当的。但她从没想过战争会爆发。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
She finally managed to get hold of a big black quilted jacket which probably would not attract any attention from the air force circling above. When it was time to flee we all went our separate ways. I saw her again when the war was over. She cut her hair short in the masculine Filipino style – the trend in Hong Kong at the time because a woman with that hair style could pass for a man. <br />
<br />
她终于弄到了一件黑色夹克，这件夹克可能不会引起在上空盘旋的空军的注意。逃命时我们分道扬镳了。战争结束后我又见到她了。她把头发剪成了男式的发型——当时这种发型在香港比较时髦，因为拥有此发型的女人可以替代男人。<br />
<br />
Indeed our different responses to the war are reflected in our choice of clothes. Take Suleika for example. A beauty from a remote town on the Malay peninsula, she was petite and dark, with dreamy eyes and slightly protruding teeth.<br />
<br />
事实上，我们对战争的不同反应体现在我们对衣服的选择上。例如苏莱卡，一位来自马来半岛偏僻小镇的美女。她娇小黝黑，有着梦幻般的眼睛和微微突出的牙齿。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 13:51, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
事实上，我们对于战争的不同反应体现在我们对服装的选择上。比如苏莱卡，一位来自马来西亚偏僻小镇的妙龄女子，她身材娇小，皮肤黝黑，有着闪闪发光的眼睛和微微突出的牙齿。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 00:35, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Like most girls who had a convent education, she was naive to an embarrassing degree. She chose to major in medicine, which means that she had to learn to dissect human bodies. But did the corpses have clothes on or not? The question bothered her, so she was asking people about it. This had become quite a joke around our school. <br />
<br />
A bomb landed next to our dorm, so the warden had to convince us to flee down the hill. Even in such emergency, Suleika did not forget to pack up her most lavish clothes. Against the well meaning advice of many wise people, she somehow managed to transport, in the midst of the gunfire, a big heavy leather trunk of clothes down the hill.<br />
<br />
她和大多数接受过修道院教育的女孩儿一样，天真无邪，却令人尴尬。她选择学医，这就意味着她必须学习解刨人体。但是尸体穿没穿衣服呢？这个问题困扰着她，于是她就一直问别人。这在我们学校成了一个大笑话。<br />
<br />
一颗炸弹落到了我们宿舍旁边，所以监狱长不得不劝我们逃下山去。苏来卡即使在这种紧急情况下也没有忘记收拾带走她那些最奢侈的衣服。她不顾许多聪明人的善意劝告，仍设法在枪林弹雨中把一箱厚重的皮衣运下山去。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:23, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
像大多数在修道院学习的女孩一样，她天真无邪，却又令人觉得有一丝尴尬。 她选择了医学专业，这意味着她必须学习解剖人体。 但是尸体穿没穿衣服呢？这是个困扰着她的难题，所以她一直向他人请教，以至于这已经成为我们学校的一个笑话。<br />
<br />
一枚炸弹降落在我们宿舍的旁边，所以监狱长不得不劝服我们逃下山去。即使在这样的紧急情况下，苏莱卡也没有忘记打包带走自己最奢华的衣服，完全不顾智者们的善意建议，仍然想法设法在枪林弹雨中把一箱厚重的皮衣运下山去。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:56, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
向大多数在修道院接受教育的女孩儿一样，她天真到令人尴尬的地步。她选择学医，这意味着她必须学会解剖人体。但这些尸体有没有穿上衣服呢？这个问题困扰着她，所以她去向他人询问。这件事在我们学校成了个笑话。<br />
<br />
一颗炸弹落在我们宿舍旁，所以监狱长不得不劝服我们逃到山下。即便在这种紧急时刻，苏莱卡也没有忘记打包她那些最奢华的衣服。不顾聪明人的善意建议，她在枪林弹雨中仍然设法将她那个装着衣服的重皮箱运下山去。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:43, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Suleika then joined the defense force, working as a substitute nurse for the Red Cross. She was often seen squatting on the ground, hacking firewood to light up a fire, wearing her copper red and dark green silk gown embroidered with the character “shou” (longevity). What a waste, but for her it was all worth it. This smart outfit endowed her with an unprecedented confidence; without that she would not have blended so well with her male colleagues. …… <br />
<br />
Here, Chang’s war stories are interwoven with talks of fashion.<br />
<br />
“Stories from the Ashes,” in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly 5'' (February, 1944).<br />
<br />
随后，苏蕾卡加入了国防部队，成为红十字会的替补护士。人们经常看到她蹲在地上，劈柴生火，穿着绣有“寿”字的铜红和墨绿色丝袍。多么浪费时间，但对她来说，这一切都是值得的。这套漂亮的服装赋予了她前所未有的自信;如果没有这些，她就不可能和男同事相处得这么好。……<br />
<br />
在这里，张彤彤在战争中发生的故事与时尚话题交织在一起。<br />
<br />
“灰烬的故事”，摘自《天地月刊5》(1944年2月)。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 13:37, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Fashion is no longer a form of creative life that only occupies the space of leisure; rather, it becomes an essential medium through which an individual could finally comprehend the world that is otherwise incomprehensible, name the surroundings that are otherwise unnamable, and determine her own gender and ethnic identities that are otherwise indeterminate.<br />
<br />
The ending of the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” also consists of a parable:<br />
<br />
……an autumnal chill in approaching dusk as vendors at a vegetable market prepare to pack up and go home. Fish scraps and pale green corn husks litter the ground.<br />
<br />
<br />
时尚不再是一种只占休闲空间的创意生活形式。 相反，它成为一种基本的媒介，个人可以通过该媒介最终理解原本无法理解的世界，为原本无法命名的环境命名，并确定本来无法确定的性别和种族身份。<br />
<br />
《更衣记》这篇文章的结尾也包含了一个寓言:<br />
<br />
......在临近黄昏的秋意中，蔬菜市场的小贩们准备打包回家。地上散落着鱼屑和浅绿色的玉米皮。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
时尚不再是一种只占休闲空间的创意生活形式。相反，它成为了一种基本的媒介，个人可以通过该媒介最终理解原本无法理解的世界，命名原本无法命名的环境，并确定本来无法确定的性别和种族身份。<br />
《更衣记》这篇文章的结尾也包含了一个寓言故事:<br />
......在临近黄昏，寒意袭人的秋天，菜市场的小贩们准备收拾整理好回家。鱼屑和浅绿色的玉米皮被随意丢弃在地上。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 06:20, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
A child dashes over on his bike just to show off. He gives out a shout, lets go of the handlebars, and shoots away effortlessly, swaying back and forth all the while. At that split second, everyone on the street watches him with an indefinable admiration. Perhaps in this life that moment of letting go is the very loveliest? <br />
<br />
This scene seems detached from Chang’s detailed descriptions of the transformation of fashion trends, but it can be read a parable of how fashion actually functions in everyday life. It is exactly that moment of “letting go,” that is, the moment that one gains the power and freedom to go beyond immediate material and political conditions, that captures the essence of fashion in Chang’s world.<br />
<br />
Translated by Andrew F. Jones.（注释）<br />
<br />
一个孩子骑着自行车神气地飞奔过来。他空喊了一声，双手一下松开了车把，任自行车肆意地向前冲，不断地来回摇摆。此刻，街上的人都用一种说不出的羡慕的眼神看着他。也许在这一生中，那一瞬间的放手是最可爱的？ 这一幕似乎脱离了张国荣对时尚潮流转变的描述，但却可以读出时尚在日常生活中的实际作用。恰恰是那种 "放手 "的时刻，也就是获得超越眼前物质和政治条件的力量和自由的时刻，抓住了张国荣世界中时尚的本质。 译者：安德鲁 F. 吉恩斯（注释）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:55, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
一个小孩骑着自行车冲过来，只是为了炫耀一下自己。他大叫一声，放开车把，然后毫不费力地甩了出去，一路上来回摇晃着。在那一刹那，街上的每个人都带着一种难以形容的钦佩注视着他。也许在这一生中放手的那一刻是最可爱的? <br />
<br />
这一幕似乎脱离了张国荣对时尚潮流转变的描述，但却可以读出时尚在日常生活中的实际作用。恰恰是那种 "放手 "的时刻，也就是获得超越眼前物质和政治条件的力量和自由的时刻，抓住了张国荣世界中时尚的本质。 译者：安德鲁 F. 吉恩斯（注释）--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:59, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
Here the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for women writers in their entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, women writers as individuals can become concrete historical subjects within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
<br />
在这里，散文体裁不仅成为了女性作家进入文学世界的一个开放的、持续的过程，也成为了一个试验场，在这里，文坛和更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定和不断变化。不仅生活方式可以被当成文章阅读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众的界限进一步模糊，传记性的偶发事件成为构筑新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
在这里，散文体裁不仅成为女作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个开放性的持续过程，也成为一个试验场，在这个试验场中文学世界与更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定，并且不断变化。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，作为个体的女作家也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公共的界限进一步模糊，传记的偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:28, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
'''Perspectives on Ideology in the Essay'''<br />
<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing, Frantz Fanon, and the Fierce White Children'''<br />
<br />
''Daniel A. Fried''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
All genres contain political possibilities, but the essay seems entitled to a particularly strong claim on politics. In the Chinese modernist context, it should be clear that one cannot understand the development of nationalism without reference to the huge body of political essays published in decades of periodicals, and equally clear that one must take stock of nationalist writings in trying to understand the generic qualities of the essay. And within our international scholarly dialogue, it seems necessary to locate the modern Chinese essay with regard to the various postulates of postcolonial theory.<br />
<br />
“论文中的意识形态观点”<br />
<br />
“朱自清，弗朗茨·法农，和凶猛的白人孩子”<br />
<br />
“丹尼尔A.弗里德”<br />
<br />
“概要”<br />
<br />
所有体裁都包含政治可能性，但这篇文章似乎有权对政治提出特别强烈的主张。在中国现代主义环境中，我们应该清楚地看到，如果不参考几十年期刊上发表的大量政治文章，就无法理解民族主义的发展；同样，我们必须审视民族主义作品，试图理解这篇文章的共性。在我们的国际学术对话中，似乎有必要根据有关后殖民理论的各种假设来定位中国现代散文.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 11:25, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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This is not easy--the relation of Chinese materials to theory has of course been debated at length, with wide disagreements over the applicability of the standard models.Indeed, the applicability of postcolonialism to several literatures has been questioned as critiques of essentialized difference have been turned against the general conclusions of postcolonial discourse itself.While theoretical contextualization of Chinese political essays seems necessary, there is no critical consensus on what theories to apply.<br />
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这并不容易——毋庸置疑，中国作品与理论的关系长期备受争议，在标准模型的适用性上存在广泛的分歧。的确，后殖民主义在一些文学作品中的适用性已经受到质疑，因为对本质差异的批判已经转向反对后殖民语篇的一般结论。尽管中国政论文的理论语境化似乎是必要的，但在应用何种理论上却没有出现批判性的共识。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:38, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This paper will attempt to contextualize by ignoring the oversimplified question of whether postcolonial theory is or is not applicable to Chinese modernist essays.<br />
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本文试图将后殖民理论是否适用于中国现代主义随笔这一过于简单化的问题置于语境中。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 13:38, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
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Instead, it seeks to perform a case study in theoretical analysis of a Chinese essay which goes beyond the simple importation of “foreign” theory, to suggest the outlines of dialogue between scholars of Chinese and other anticolonial nationalisms. Specifically, it compares Zhu Ziqing's experience of a white childs gaze in the essay, “White People--God's Proud Children!” to a similar experience of Frantz Fanon recorded in his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''. Using the theme of the racial others gaze as a methodological allegory, it seeks to show how these two texts can be made to “gaze” at each other, to inform each other in ways which are theoretically suggestive while respecting local difference.<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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While Zhus essay seems in many ways to perfectly invoke the most familiar tropes of “Western” theory, Zhu's reaction to the gaze is ultimately opposite to Fanon's, and demonstrates how anticolonial writing is enmeshed both in internationa lpsychological constants and local historical variables.<br />
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Scholarly investigation of the modern Chinese essay as a genre demands some attention to the questions posed by postcolonial theories. The same could be said of all genres of the period, but the essay has a special claim on postcolonialism. All genres were used politically, but the essay was usually seen in high modern China as the prime vehicle for explicit politics, the forum best suited for debate and rebuttal, and explication of specific political programs.<br />
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虽然朱自清的文章似乎在很多方面都完美地引用了 "西方"理论中最熟悉的典故，但他对目光的反应却与法农截然相反，并展示了反殖民主义写作是如何被国际心理学常态和地方历史变数所困扰的。<br />
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中国现代散文是一种文体，对它进行学术研究需要对后殖民主义理论提出的问题给予关注，可以说这个时期所有文体的学术研究都需要这么做，但散文对后殖民主义有着特殊的诉求。所有的文体都服务于政治，但在近代中国，散文通常被视为明确政治的首要载体，是最适合辩论和反驳、阐释具体政治方案的场所。 --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:44, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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Of course, there is no scholarly consensus in the field as to the extent to which postcolonial theories can or cannot be applied to modern Chinese literature. For example, Rey Chow in her 1993 ''Writing Diaspora'' produced a well-known critique of the resistance to theory by scholars of Chinese literature, arguing that the claims of untheorizable Chinese particularity are merely reintroductions of an old Orientalist cultural essentialism. Last year, Leo Lee concluded his study of Shanghai urban culture by restating the very same arguments which Chow had dismissed, making the case that theory based on native internalization of the Western “othering” gaze was not directly applicable because the Western imperialist presence in China, even in the Shanghai concession zones, never gained the colonialist control over language and education that produced such psychic disruptions in other societies. <br />
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Rey Chow, ''Writing Diaspora: Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies''. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).（注释）<br />
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当然，关于后殖民理论在何种程度上可以适用于现代中国文学，学界并没有达成共识。例如，周蕾在1993年的《离散书写》中，她就中国文学学者对理论的反抗提出了一个著名的批评，她认为，不可理论化的中国特殊性，只不过是对古老的东方主义文化本质主义的重新引入。 去年，李欧梵通过重述周蕾曾否定的相同观点，结束了他对上海都市文化的研究，从而证明了该理论是基于西方“他者化”的本土内化，不能直接适用。因为在中国，哪怕是在上海租界，西方帝国主义的存在从未获得殖民主义者对语言和教育的控制，而这种控制在其他社会中造成了这种心理混乱。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:57, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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当然，关于后殖民理论在何种程度上可以适用于现代中国文学，学界并没有达成共识。例如，周蕾在1993年的《离散书写》中，她就中国文学研究学者对理论的反抗提出了一个著名的批评，她认为，不可理论化的中国特殊性，只不过是对老式的东方主义文化本质主义的重新引入。 去年，李欧梵通过重述周蕾曾否定的相同观点，总结了他对上海都市文化的研究，从而证明了该理论是基于西方“他者化”的本土内化，不能直接适用。因为在中国，哪怕是在上海租界，西方帝国主义从未获得殖民主义者对语言和教育的控制，然而这种控制却在其他社会中造成了这种心理混乱。<br />
Rey Chow，Writing Diaspora：Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).（注释）。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:15, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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We must stutter out some engagement with postcolonial theory, but how can one proceed without the safety of scholarly consensus? One could dive into polemics, but a decision that either theory is or isn't always applicable to Chinese literature assumes the existence of twin essentialized monoliths called “theory” and “Chinese literature.” We need more nuanced approaches. In fact, the terms of mainline postcolonial theory do furnish the conceptual tools with which one can derive one such approach. The very familiar discussions of the gaze of the imperial subject toward the colonized other can be employed as a metaphor for our own predicament.<br />
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我们必须提到后殖民理论，但没有学术共识作为保障，如何进行？我们可以潜入论战，但关于理论是否始终适用于中国文学的决定假定了 "理论 "和 "中国文学 "这两个本质化的单体的存在。我们需要更细致的方法。事实上，主流后殖民主义理论的术语确实提供了概念工具，人们可以用这些工具推导出这样一种方法。我们非常熟悉的关于帝国主体对被殖民地关注的讨论，可以作为我们自身困境的隐喻。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 15:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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One of the major variations on this theme, deriving from the writings of Frantz Fanon, should be familiar: by their imperial gaze, aggressor cultures try to lock their colonized subjects into a perpetual Otherdom, with the aggressor National Subject claiming for itself a transcendent metaphysical Selfhood; colonized individuals must view themselves as Other and therefore are alienated from themselves. The solutions the discourse has found are ways in which those individuals can subvert that Otherdom in order to reclaim for themselves a new or reconstituted Selfhood. The goal is not to fall into nativist atavism and rejection of the metropole, but to eliminate dominance and blur the margins of identity, allowing a more healthful parity in the identification dialectic between colonizer and colonized.<br />
弗朗兹·法农的作品中产生了这一主题的主要变题之一，大家应该对此都很熟悉：在帝国主义的视角下，侵略者文化尝试将殖民对象封锁进永恒的他者国度，只有侵略国家自称为超验的形而上学的自我：被殖民的人必须把自己当做他者因此只能异化。对于这一问题找到的答案便是通过推翻他者国度从而为自己重建一个自我。目的不在于陷入本土主义者的返祖主义，拒绝城市，而是削弱统治，使身份边界模糊化，让殖民者和被殖民者在身份的辩证识别上有更健康的对等。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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If it is a common complaint that postcolonial theory is a creation of the metropole which should not be allowed to dominate local Chinese historical experience, the solution should not be nativist assertion of Chinese difference and superiority, with consequent ignoring of the varied experiences of imperialism from which the systems of theory have been derived. Rather, once we reject the notion that metropolitan theory has an omniscient gaze which alone possesses the right to define the meaning of Chinese texts, we are free to see how Chinese and non-Chinese experiences of imperialism can inform each other, through their mutual attractions and tensions which complicate questions of identity.<br />
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如果人们普遍认为后殖民理论是大都市的创造，不应让其支配中国本土的历史经验，那么解决办法就不应是本土主义武断地主张中国的差异和优越性，一直忽视理论体系是从帝国主义的各种经验是衍生出来的。相反，一旦我们拒绝了大都市理论无所不能、只有它才有权定义中文文本的含义的观点，我们就可以自由地看到，中国和非中国的帝国主义经历是如何通过它们的相互吸引和紧张关系——这使身份问题复杂化——相互交流。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:39, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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如果人们普遍抱怨后殖民主义理论是大都会的产物，且不应允许它主导中国本土的历史经验，那么，解决的办法就不应是本土主义地宣称中国人的差异性和优越性，从而忽视理论体系所衍生的各种帝国主义的经验。相反，一旦我们摒弃了大都会理论的全知角度，那就是它独自拥有定义中国文本意义的权利，我们就可以看到中国人和非中国人的帝国主义经验如何通过他们的相互吸引和紧张关系来相互交流，而这使认知问题变得复杂。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 06:29, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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As an example of how to do this sort of theoretical application, I propose in this paper to compare Frantz Fanon's “The Fact of Blackness” (a chapter of his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''), with a little-known essay by Zhu Ziqing, “White People-God's Proud Children!” Both pieces focus on the narrators' experiences of meeting the gazes of white children, and thus invoke classic themes which allow easy access to theoretical considerations even in the midst of a particularistic analysis. And because both describe politicized experience, they avoid the old Orientalist dichotomy of Western theory vs. native experience. Both Fanon and Zhu are equally theoretical and experiential, and they inform each other.<br />
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作为如何进行这类理论应用的例子，我在本文中拟将弗朗茨·法农的《黑的事实》（他的典籍《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一章）与朱自清的一篇鲜为人知的文章《白种人，上帝的骄子！》进行比较。这两篇作品都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光交汇的经历，因此引用了经典的主题，即使在特殊主义的分析中，也能很容易进行理论思考。而且由于两者都描述了政治化的经验，因此避免了西方理论的老东方主义与本土经验的抉择。弗朗茨和朱自清都同样具有理论性和经验性，且互相借鉴。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:35, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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作为如何进行这类理论应用的一个例子，笔者拟在本文中对弗朗茨·法农的《黑人的事实》(他的经典《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一个章节)与朱自清鲜为人知的文章《白种人——上帝的骄子!》进行比较。这两篇文章都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光相遇的经历，因此援引了经典主题，即使在进行具象分析中，也能很容易地进行理论思考。而且因为两者都描述了政治化的经验，他们避免了西方理论与本土经验的古老东方主义之争。法农和朱自清都具有同样的理论和经验，且相互借鉴。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:12, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[File:Example.jpg]]==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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“The Fact of Blackness” is Fanon's analysis of a black man's frustration in attempting to create a viable self-identity in the France of the 1950's. Analysis in the psychoanalytic sense, not the scientific-sociological one; or, better still, ''self-analysis'', for the chapter is cast in the form of a first-person narrative. Fanon writes a sort of psychoanalytically fueled prose poem. There are few objective assertions made about “the way it is”; the problem is seen from what appears to be the inside of a black man's head, what he feels and how he reacts to the shiftingly solid front of White France arrayed against him..<br />
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Not necesssarily Fanon's. In his introduction, Fanon writes that in this chapter, “we observe the desperate struggles of a Negro who is driven to discover the meaning of black identity." Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks. Trans. Charles Lam Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1967) 16. The wording here suggests a fictional narrator. Nonetheless, one guesses that it is a fictualized Fanon, and I will use “Fanon” as a convenience in place of “the narrator” for the remainder of this paper.（注释）<br />
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“黑人事实”是法农（Fanon) 对黑人试图在1950年代的法国创造可行的自我身份的挫败感的分析。心理分析意义上的分析，不是科学社会学意义上的分析；或更好的是“自我分析”，因为本章以第一人称叙述的形式呈现。法农写了一首精神分析的散文诗。很少有人对“现状”作出客观的断言;这个问题可以从一个黑人的大脑内部看出来，他的感受，以及他对反对他的法国白人坚实的立场的反应。<br />
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不一定是法农的。法农在其引言中写道，在本章中，“我们观察到黑人被迫探索黑人身份的绝望斗争。”法兰兹·范农，《黑皮肤，白色面具》，查尔斯·林·马克曼译（纽约：格罗夫出版社，1967年）16.这里的措辞暗示着一个虚构的叙述者，尽管如此，有人猜测这是一个虚构的法农，在本文的其余部分中，我将使用“范农”代替“叙述者”。 （注释）--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:01, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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Some of the most striking and most quoted parts of this narrative are Fanon's attempts to deal with the intrusive voice of the white child who cries out in fear of him:<br />
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“Look, a Negro!” It was an external stimulus that flicked over me as I passed by. I made a tight smile.<br />
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“Look, a Negro!” It was true. It amused me.<br />
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“Look, a Negro!” The circle was drawing a bit tighter. I made no secret of my amusement.<br />
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“Mama, see the Negro! I'm frightened!” Frightened! Frightened! Now they were beginning to be afraid of me. I made up my mind to laugh myself to tears, but laughter had become impossible.<br />
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这段叙述中最引人注目和引用最多的部分是 Fanon 试图处理白人儿童因害怕他而大声呼喊的侵扰性声音：<br />
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“看，一个黑人！”当我经过时，一种外在的刺激掠过我的心头。我笑得很紧。<br />
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“看，一个黑人！”是真的。我很开心。<br />
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“看，一个黑人！”圆圈越来越紧了。我毫不掩饰我的乐趣。<br />
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“妈妈，看那黑鬼！我吓坏了！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心要笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:18, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这段叙述中最引人注目和最常被引用的部分，是法侬试图处理那个白人孩子因为害怕他而大叫的侵扰声音:<br />
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“看,一个黑人!”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我的头顶。我紧张地笑了笑。<br />
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“看,一个黑人!”这是真的。这太好笑了。<br />
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“看,一个黑人!”圆圈变得更紧了。我毫不掩饰自己的快乐。<br />
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“妈妈，你看那个黑人!我害怕!”吓!吓坏了!现在他们开始害怕我了。我决定笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:14, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种叙述中一些最引人注目和被引用最多的部分是法农试图处理白人儿童因为害怕他而大声疾呼发出的侵扰声音：<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我。我紧张地笑了。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是真的。它逗乐了我。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”圆圈画的更紧了。我掩饰不住快乐。<br />
“妈妈，看黑人！我害怕！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心笑出眼泪，但笑声已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:41, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这段叙述中最引人注目和引用最多的部分是法农试图处理白人孩子因害怕他而大叫的侵扰声音：<br />
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“看，一个黑人！”我路过时，一个声音从我耳边掠过，我紧张地笑了。<br />
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“看，一个黑人！”是真的。这太好笑了。<br />
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“看，一个黑人！”神经更紧绷了，我毫不掩饰我的乐趣。<br />
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“妈妈，你看那个黑人！我害怕！”害怕呀！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心最好笑出眼泪来，但这已经不可能了。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:33, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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In this passage as elsewhere in the chapter, there are many voices accusing Fanon, yet the voice of the child has a special bluntness, one that hits Fanon harder. Beneath that voice, his attempt to defend himself through an ever-increasing amusement is undone; the child unmasks his anguish. He is for Fanon not just a historical boy, nor an empirical average of thousands of trembling boys, but a resonance of something deeper within Fanon's narrative. Fanon does not devote an inordinate amount of space to the child, and it would be an exaggeration to say that the appearances of this child constitute the thematic center of his chapter.<br />
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像这一章的其部分一样，这一段有许多指责法农的地方，但是这个孩子的指责特别的直率，对法农造成了更大的打击。在这种指责下，他试图通过越来越多的消遣来保护自己的尝试失败了;这个孩子揭露出他的痛苦。对法农来说，他不仅是一个历史上的男孩，也不是成千上万个颤抖的男孩的中的一个，而是法农叙述中更深层次的东西的共鸣。法农并没有过多地描写这个孩子，如果说这个孩子的外表构成了这一章的主题中心，那就过于夸张了。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 05:44, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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Nonetheless, the white child does play a crucial role, as he is in fact a grotesque foil for Fanon's own exasperated narrative voice, which is a rewriting, for race, of narratives of developmental psychology. In particular, Jacques Lacan's famous theory of the “mirror stage” is clearly its primary inspiration. Even though Fanon never makes explicit reference to Lacan or “The Mirror Stage” in the chapter, such references are numerous in Black Skin, White Masks as a whole-there is no doubt that Fanon knew the paradigm well. And the structure of his narrative runs suspiciously parallel to Lacan's explications, so much that it might be fair to call “The Fact of Blackness” an ironic rewriting of “The Mirror Stage.”<br />
<br />
尽管如此，这个白人孩子确实扮演了一个重要的角色，因为他实际上是Fanon自己恼怒的叙述声音的怪诞衬托，这是对种族、发展心理学叙述的重写。特别是雅克·拉康著名的“镜像舞台”理论，显然是其主要灵感来源。尽管法农在本章中从未明确提及拉康或“镜子舞台”，但这样的提及在黑皮肤、白面具中比比皆是——毫无疑问，法农非常了解这个范式。他的叙述结构与拉康的解释平行，甚至可以说《黑人的事实》是对《镜子舞台》的讽刺重写。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 07:49, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管如此，这个白人小孩确实扮演了一个重要的角色，因为他实际上，作为一种怪诞的外包装，是法农发泄愤怒之声的叙述者。这是对种族、发展心理学叙述的重写。尤其雅克·拉康著名的“镜像阶段”理论，显然是其主要灵感来源。尽管法农在本章中从未明确提及拉康或“镜像阶段”，但在《黑皮肤，白面具》中这样的言论比比皆是——毫无疑问，法农非常了解这个理论。他的叙述结构与拉康的解释平行，甚至可以说《黑人的事实》是镜像阶段理论的讽刺性重写。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 11:34, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
Lacan's theory is complex, moving in unexpected directions and drawing different sets of conclusions. But all are sourced in the moment of a baby before a mirror, fascinated to discover itself for the first time. The stage at which this critical fascination can occur lasts from the age of six to eighteen months, according to Lacan, and its primary importance is in providing the infant with a temporary shortcut to mature subjectivity. In his words, the mirror “precipitates” the child's I in a “primordial form, before it is objectified in the dialectic of identification with the other, and before language restores to it, in the universal, its function as subject.”<br />
<br />
拉康的理论很复杂，其研究朝着意想不到的方向发展，拉康也得出了不同的结论。但是所有这些都源于婴儿第一次照镜子，痴迷于自己在镜子中的模样。根据拉康的说法，6到18个月大的婴儿对于镜像都十分着迷，其重要性在于为能更快促进婴儿对主观性认知的发展成熟。用他的话说，镜子以“原始形式”“沉淀”了孩子的“自我概念，而后自我概念才在与其他事物的辩证认识中变的客观，而后语言才得以发展”。 --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:59, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
拉康的理论很复杂的，它朝着意想不到的方向发展，得出了不同的结论。但所有的一切都来源于婴儿在镜子前，第一次迷恋于发现自己的那一刻。根据拉康的说法，这种批判性的迷恋可以从6个月持续到18个月，它最重要的是为婴儿提供了一条通向成熟主观性的临时捷径。用他的话说，镜子以“原始形式”“沉淀”了孩子的“自我概念，而后自我概念才在与其他事物的辩证认识中变的客观，而后语言才得以发展”。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 05:54, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
In contrast, Fanon only reaches his version of the mirror stage ''after'' passing through objectification and restoration to subjectivity. His “mirror stage” is precisely the quest for subjectivity narrated through the “plot” outlined above. But this plot is skewed¬-consider Lacan's discussion of the mirror stage itself:<br />
<br />
The fact is that the total form of the body by which the subject anticipates in a mirage the maturation of his power is certainly more constituent than constituted, but in which it appears to him above all in a contrasting size (''un relief de stature'') that fixes it and in a symmetry that inverts it, in contrast with the turbulent movement that the subject feels are animating him.<br />
<br />
相比之下，法农只有在经过客观化并恢复到主观性后，才能“达到”他的镜像阶段。 他的“镜像阶段”正是要追求上述“情节”中描述的主体性。 但是此情节是有失偏颇的，请思考拉康对镜像阶段本身的讨论：<br />
<br />
事实是，主体总形式当然更多是构成成分而不是已构物，因为学科通过主体总形式在思维中预估其力量是否成熟。但是在他看来，主体首先是一个对比大小的个体（“形体突出”），这一个体将其固定并使其对称反转，这与对象感觉到正在使他动起来的湍流运动相反。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:17, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
相比之下，法农只有在经过客观化并恢复主观性后，才能“达到”他的镜像阶段。他的“镜像阶段”正是要追求上述“情节”中描述的主体性。 但是此情节是有失偏颇的，需要考虑拉康对镜像阶段本身的讨论：<br />
<br />
实际上，主体总形式当然更多是构成成分而不是已构物，因为学科通过主体总形式在思维中预估其力量是否成熟。但是在他看来，主体首先是一个对比大小的个体（“形体突出”），这一个体将其固定并使其对称反转，这与对象感觉到正在使他动起来的湍流运动相反。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:04, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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Fanon's mirror is of course the White. In that mirror he is inverted, re-created as an image exactly opposite to his own reality, and it is only through that inversion, that ''perversion'' of his Self that he is allowed to know himself. And, moreover, that inversion is ''fixed'' in the mirror, as Fanon puts it, fixed as a chemical solution is fixed by a dye. No matter how Fanon questions, no matter what rhetorical tack he chooses to confront the mirror, it refuses to give back any other image. Does Fanon feel a universal, rational soul animating himself? Does he well up with the turbulence of an earth-poetry that takes him to the magic font of his humanity? It does not matter. The mirror is impervious and flat. His image is fixed.<br />
<br />
法农的镜子当然是白色的。在那面镜子里，他被颠倒了，被重新塑造成了一个与现实中的自己完全相反的形象。他也只有通过这种倒位，通过这种对自我的扭曲，才被允许认知自己。而且，正如法农所说，这种倒位在镜子中是固定的，就像化学溶液被染料固定一样。无论法农如何提问，无论他选择用怎样夸张的策略来面对镜子，它都拒绝给出任何其他的形象。法农是否感觉到一个普通又理性的灵魂在激励着自己?他是否很好地适应了尘世诗歌将他带到自身人性的神奇源泉所引起的动荡? 这无所谓。这面镜子不透水，而且是平的。他的形象是固定的。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:37, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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法农的镜子当然是白色的。在那面镜子里，他被颠覆了，被重新塑造成了一个与现实中的自己完全相反的形象。只有通过这种倒位，通过这种对自我的扭曲，他才能认识自己。而且，正如法农所说，这种倒位在镜子中是固定的，就像化学溶液被染料固定一样。无论法农如何提问，无论他选择用怎样夸张的策略来面对镜子，它都拒绝给出任何其他的形象。法农是否感觉到一个普通又理性的灵魂在激励着自己?他是否很好地适应了尘世诗歌将他带到自身人性的神奇源泉所引起的动荡? 这无所谓。这面镜子不透水，而且是平的。他的形象是固定的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:56, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Lacan tells us that the function of the mirror stage “is to establish a relation between the organism and its reality - or, as they say, between the ''Innenwelt'' and the ''Umwelt''.” For Lacan, it is the organism itself which determines and creates the relation, it creates its reality, but Fanon feels himself to be “overdetermined from without,” he is created by the White reality.<br />
<br />
That relation is an average of many different species of dominance. But perhaps more than any other, it is the dominance of an adult over a child. Listen again to the voices which fix Fanon: “Understand, my dear ''boy'', color prejudice is something I find entirely foreign.”<br />
拉康告诉我们，镜像阶段的功能是在生物有机体与现实之间建立联系，或者正如他人所说的，在精神世界与外部环境建立联系。对拉康来说，是有机体自身决定或创造了这种关联，也创造与之联系的外部现实。但是法农认为他自己是由外界多种因素所决定的，他是由白色世界所决定。<br />
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那种关系是许多不同优势物种的平均值， 但也可能要高于任何其他关系，就像是成年人主导于孩童之上。再听一下那束缚法农的声音：我亲爱的男孩，你要明白，肤色歧视正是我所发现的，完全是外在的东西。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 10:43, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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“Gently, in the tone that one uses with a ''child'', they introduced me to the existence of a certain view that was held by certain people.” “now and then when we are worn out by our lives in big buildings, we will turn to you as we do to our ''children''-to the innocent, the ingenuous, the spontaneous. We will turn to you as to the ''childhood'' of the world.” (italics mine) The White mirror thus fixes Fanon as a perpetual infant, the Black “boy” who embodies youthful naiveté. He knows he is in the mirror stage, he is an infant who has already read Lacan, and he is desperate to find in the mirror the image which will allow him to realize his ''I'', but the mirror always gives him back his infant inverse. He cannot realize himself, he can never leave the mirror stage, he is ''fixed''.<br />
<br />
“轻轻地，用一个孩子的语气，他们向我介绍了某些人持有的某种观点的存在。” “不时地，当我们厌倦了在大型建筑物中的生活时，我们会像对待孩子一样转向您-无辜，天真的，自发的。 我们将向您介绍世界的童年。” （斜体字）白色的镜子使法农成为永生的婴儿，黑人的“男孩”体现了年轻的天真。 他知道自己正处于镜子阶段，他是一个已经读过Lacan的婴儿，并且他非常想在镜子中找到可以使他实现自己I的图像，但是镜子总是让他回到婴儿的逆境中。 他无法意识到自己，他永远都不能离开镜子舞台，他被固定住了.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:11, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“轻轻地，他们用一个孩子的语气，向我介绍了某些人持有的某种观点。” “有时，当我们厌倦了高楼大厦里的生活，我们转向您，就像我们会转向孩子一样---向往无辜，天真，自发性。 我们转向您就像我们回到童年世界。” （斜体字）白色的镜子使法农成为永远的婴儿，那个黑人的“男孩”永葆青春。 他知道自己正处于镜像阶段，他是一个已经读过Lacan的婴儿，并且他非常想在镜子找到自己的自我形象，但是镜子总是给他一个婴儿形象。他无法认识自己，他永远都不能离开镜像阶段，他“卡”在那儿了. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 05:59, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
The white child is thus a point of entry into the subsurface struggle of the text. The child is Fanon's parallel and his foil: “look, a nigger, it's cold, the nigger is shivering because he is cold, the little boy is trembling because he is afraid of the nigger, the nigger is shivering with cold, the cold that goes through your bones, the handsome little boy is trembling because he thinks that the nigger is quivering with rage, the little boy throws himself into his mother's arms: Mama, the nigger's going to eat me up.”[ Fanon, 114.] The boy mirrors Fanon, but ironically: his freedom to be afraid, his freedom even to see an Other that is not synonymous with the Self[ Fanon asserts thtat the black is not Other to the white, but his argument is that the white claims he does not need to go through identification with the black-as-Other in order to come to a realization of the Sel; on the contrary, White simply “is”; black is not-White. But though the white does not idenify through the black Other, this of course does not mean that Fanon is asserting that the white does not identify the black as Other.] is a mockery of the boyhood which Fanon cannot escape. One might even profitably read this mirroring as a form of mimicry.<br />
<br />
因此，白人孩子是进入文本深层斗争的切入点。孩子法农的对比和衬托:“看，一个黑鬼，很冷，黑鬼在颤抖，因为他很冷，小男孩在颤抖，因为他害怕黑人，黑人冷得直打哆嗦，寒冷刺骨，英俊的小男孩在颤抖，因为他认为黑鬼是在愤怒的颤抖。小男孩投入母亲的怀里：“妈妈，黑鬼会吃我。”[Fanon, 114.]男孩模仿法农，但具有讽刺意味的是：他害怕自由，甚至看到一个不等同于自我的自由。法农断言只有黑白色没有其他，但他认为白色声称他不需要经过鉴定黑色选取的顺序来实现；相反，白色只是白色；黑色是不是白人。但是，尽管白人不能通过黑人的他者来识别他们，这当然并不意味着法侬断言白人不能将黑人识别为他者，这是对法侬无法逃避的少年时代的嘲弄。人们甚至可以将这种镜像理解为一种模仿的形式。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:00, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
In standard postcolonial discourse, “mimicry” refers to either a pseudo-imitation forced on the colonized by the colonizer who wants the colonized to “be like” the colonizing cultural model, but not identical to it; or it can refer to deliberate ironization of such models by the colonized. Either case results in what Homi Bhabha calls a “double vision which in disclosing the ambivalence of colonial discourse also disrupts its authority.”[ Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994) 88.] However, as Diana Fuss notes, “the mimicry of subversion can find itself reinforcing conventional power relations rather than eroding them.”[ Diana Fuss, Identification Papers (New York: Routledge, 195*) 147.] Fanon's experience is just such a case - the mimicry is the white boy's, not Fanon's, and its effect is not at all disruptive, but reinforces the conventional power relations.<br />
<br />
在标准的后殖民话语中，“模仿”指的是殖民者强迫被殖民者变得“像”殖民地文化模式，但与之不完全相同的伪模仿；也可以指被殖民者对这种模式的刻意讽刺。任何一种情况都会导致霍米·巴哈所说的“在揭露殖民话语的矛盾性的同时也会破坏其权威的双重视野”[ Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994) 88.]然而，正如戴安娜·福斯所说，“颠覆的模仿会发现自己在强化传统的权力关系而非削弱。”[ Diana Fuss, Identification Papers (New York: Routledge, 195*) 147.] 法农的经历就是这样一个例子——模仿是白人男孩的，而不是法农的，它根本没有破坏性，反而强化了传统的权力关系。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
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The boy thinks he is in danger of assault and trembles; in fact, it is Fanon who trembled first, who is the one really exposed to violence, and who is in fact ''being assaulted'' by the boy's unwitting mimicry of his weakness.<br />
<br />
The white child is thus a cruel unwitting joker who offers Fanon seeming doors of rhetorical escape into maturity, then frustrates him, turns him back on himself, locks him into the image of “the childhood of the world.” And the most destructive part is that the child does not know he is the god's mask; he screams as an innocent and can leap to the mother's arms. Fanon screams, and the monstrous mirror stays silvery and cold: it inverts and it fixes, but it never recognizes.<br />
<br />
“White People-God's Proud Children!” was written in direct response to (and less than three weeks after) the “May 30 Massacre.”<br />
<br />
男孩认为自己有被攻击的危险，吓得发抖;事实上，首先颤抖的是法龙（Fanon），真正遭受暴力的是法龙，实际上也是法龙被男孩在不知情的情况下模仿自己的弱点所攻击。<br />
因此，这个白人孩子是一个残忍的、不知情的小丑，他为法农提供了看似可以逃避语言的大门，让他走向成熟，然后让他沮丧，让他回归自我，把他锁在“世界的童年”的形象中。最可怕的是，这个孩子不知道自己是上帝的面具;他像个无辜的孩子一样尖叫，然后跳到妈妈的怀里。法农尖叫了一声，巨大的魔镜依旧银光闪闪，冰冷冰冷:它颠倒着，固定着，但永远也认不出来。<br />
“白人——上帝的骄傲的孩子!”是对“5月30日大屠杀”(不到三周后)的直接回应。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:05, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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男孩感觉自己有被攻击的危险而吓得发抖;事实上，首先战栗的是法龙（Fanon），他是真正遭受暴力的人。实际上是因为男孩在不知情的情况下模仿自己的弱点才导致法农被攻击。<br />
因此，这个白人孩子是一个残忍的、不知情的小丑。他为法农提供了看似可以逃避语言的大门，让他走向成熟，然后又让他沮丧而回归自我，把他锁在“世界的童年”的形象中。最可怕的是，这个孩子不知道自己是上帝的面具;他像个无辜的孩子一样尖叫，然后跳到妈妈的怀里。法农尖叫了一声，巨大的魔镜依旧银光闪闪，冰冷冰冷:它颠倒着，固定着，但永远也认不出来。<br />
“白人——上帝的骄傲的孩子!”是对“5月30日大屠杀”(不到三周后)的直接回应。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 08:00, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In mid-May of 1925, factory workers at a Japanese plant in Shanghai went on strike, and then stormed the factory grounds, demanding back wages. The Japanese managers shot and killed the strike leader and injured several others, prompting more general strikes at other Japanese factories by 20,000 workers. Students soon joined the workers in protest, and several were arrested inside the foreign concessionary zone. On May 30, the date scheduled for the trial of those arrested, 2,000 students marched on the concessionary zone demanding the release of the students and workers. In response, British troops arrested a hundred of those assembled. News of the new arrests spread rapidly, and by later that day, several thousand Shanghainese of different levels of society had surrounded the Nanjing Road jail where the protesters were being held, demanding their release. At this point, the British opened fire, killing a dozen or so Chinese and wounding several dozen.<br />
<br />
1925年5月中旬，上海一家日本工厂工人罢工，然后冲进工厂，要求讨回工资。工厂日本经理射杀了罢工领袖，打伤数名工人，导致其他日本工厂2,0000工人发起了更大规模的罢工。学生很快加入工人抗议，随后部分学生在租界遭到逮捕。5月30日原定是遭逮捕的工人和学生受审日子，2,000学生在租界游行示威，要求释放学生和工人。作为回应，英国士兵逮捕了数百名示威者。这一消息很快传开来，当天晚些时候，几千名上海社会人士包围了关押抗议者的南京路监狱，要求释放他们。鉴于此，英军开火，射杀了十几名中国人，打伤几十中国人。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Nationwide protests of various sorts erupted immediately, including several literary protests, two by Zhu: “Blood Song,” an incendiary poem composed on June 10, and “White People,” written nine days later.<br />
<br />
The essay never refers explicitly to the May 30 incident; rather, it is the narration and explication of an incident which Zhu experienced on a Shanghai city trolley. After boarding and going to the first-class seats, Zhu sits down across from two white people, apparently a father and son. Zhu marvels at the lovely features of the boy, who looks eleven or twelve, and then goes into an explanation of how he has been fascinated with children ever since a friendship in elementary school with a shy younger boy named Liu Jun. He admits that he loves to stare at young children, and that he stared therefore at the white child.<br />
<br />
各行各业的抗议行动在全国范围内一触即发，包括了几个文学的抗议行动，其中就有朱自清的两部作品，其一是创作于6月10日的诗篇《血歌》，表现了火山爆发式的强烈情感，九天后，朱自清又写下另一篇文章《白种人——上帝的骄子》。<br />
虽然这篇文章从未明确指出“五卅”惨案，但朱自清在上海的一路电车上的亲见亲闻刚好记述和解释了这次事件的情况。朱上电车之后，走进头等座里，和两个白种人并排而坐，他猜想那两人是一对父子。小男孩看上去十一二岁的样子，他惊羡于小男孩的可爱容貌，解释说自己多么想要跟这个男孩亲近，因为这让他想起了自己初中时的一个叫做刘君的玩伴，也是一个害羞的小男孩。他承认自己喜欢凝视小孩子，所以才会对这个白人小孩多看了几眼。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 03:39, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
Unlike most children, disturbed by his staring, the white child appears to take no notice, but then, when he and his father are about to get off the trolley, the child flashes a violent, mimicking stare back at Zhu. The author hears words in the stare: “There were words in his eyes: 'Hah! Yellow man, yellow chinaman, you-you go ahead and look! You are worthy of looking at me!” Zhu feels this stare as a physical assault, and feels first terrified, and then patriotically enraged. He then explains his desire for a nationality-trumping universalism, but also doubts its possibility, since such a young child had already been socialized into acceptance of racist categories. Yet he praises the child for exhibiting masculine forcefulness, and claims that this is “what makes whites white.” Finally, he declares himself conflicted on the subject of nationalism versus universalism, ending the essay unresolved.<br />
<br />
与大多数孩子不一样，这个白人小孩对于朱自清的打量毫不在意，但当白人小孩和他的父亲准备下电车时，那个孩子怒目回望了朱一眼。朱从该怒视里读出：“哈，黄种人，黄种中国人，你继续看吧！你也就配看着我的份了！”朱从中感到一种身体上的攻击，一开始觉得害怕，然后带有爱国主义的愤怒喷涌而出。他在文中解释道，这样一个年幼的孩子都已经为社会所同化，接受了种族主义的范畴，虽然自己渴望国籍优先的普遍主义，但同时也怀疑这个普遍主义的可能性。然而，他赞赏这个孩子表现出的男性之力量，同时也认为这点是“白人的典型特征”。最后，他对于民族主义和普遍主义的问题上产生了矛盾，直到文末该问题也悬而未决。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
和大多数的孩子不同，白人小孩起初没有注意到朱的目光，当感觉到有人在看他后，他和父亲正要下电车，接着小孩向朱回了恶狠狠的目光。朱从他的怒视中读到：“咄！黄种人，黄种的支那人，你——你看吧！你也配看我！”朱从中感觉遭到了人身攻击，首先是张皇失措，而后他的爱国热枕喷涌而出。他解释说自己盼望的是国籍优先的普遍主义，可是眼看这个孩子小小年纪就已被社会所同化，接受了种族主义，他便开始怀疑普遍主义是否还有实现的可能。然而，他对孩子展现出来的男性力量表示赞赏，“这正说明了白人之所以为白人”。最后，他陷入了民族主义和普遍主义的矛盾之中，直到结尾，文章也未给出解决的方案。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 03:50, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
Given the Fanon-inspired traditions of Western postcolonial invocations of the Other, one might from a Western perspective expect Zhu to react to the gaze of the child with a crisis of ''personal'' identity. This is, after all, Fanon's Odyssean quest in “The Fact of Blackness”: to negotiate or seize for himself a space for valued selfhood against the demeaning voices of White France which try to lock him into an Otherness to itself, to himself , to the possibility of humanity. Zhu's reaction certainly fits, in name, the Self-Other trope: he experiences the white child as very White and Other. And the incident deeply traumatic: “This sudden assault made me panic; my heart was void, on all sides there was a very heavy pressure, making me unable to breathe freely.” But the incident does not fit the mirror-stage model as transmitted by Fanon.<br />
<br />
鉴于法农对西方后殖民的祈祷，某人从西方角度来看可能希望朱自清对带有个人身份危机的小孩的凝视作出回应。毕竟，这是法农在“黑暗事实”中的奥德赛追求：为自己谈判或夺取有价值的自我空间，反对法国白人的贬低之声，试图使他陷入一个不同于自己、不同于人性可能性的不同物中。朱自清的反应确实很适合自己-他人的修辞：他对白人小孩的经历很像白人与其他人的经历。这一事件深深地伤害了我：“这次突然袭击使我感到恐慌；我的心是空虚的，四面都是沉重的压力，使我无法自由地呼吸。”但该事件不符合法农传递的镜像阶段模型。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
There is no reference to psychical development, and therefore no hint that the quasi-colonialist aggression experienced through the gaze is constitutive, that it denies an authentic Chinese subjectivity to Zhu and replaces it with an ironclad Otherness to himself.<br />
Rather, it confirms Zhu's sense of self by provoking an immediate nationalistic response. After recovering from the shock of the gaze, he immediately “was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” He then reflects on the child's face and action and straightaway abstracts them into a symptom of history:<br />
<br />
That which made me panic and feel terrified, was that this one lording it over me, trampling me, was no one but...a ten year-old white “child”! I always have felt that children belong to the world, and ought not to be of a single race, country, town, or family...<br />
<br />
没有提到精神的发展，因此也没有线索表明，仅因为一个凝视，就构成了类似殖民主义侵略，它否定了朱自清真实的中国主观性，取而代之的是一种其他的东西。<br />
相反，它立即引起民族情感来确认朱自清的自我意识。他震惊于这种目光，回过神后，心中“充满了一种紧迫的民族主义情绪！“之后，他反思了孩子的表情和行为，并直接将其概括为一种历史的表现：<br />
<br />
让我惊慌和害怕的是，这个冲着我逞威风的、践踏我尊严的，不过是……一个十岁的白人“孩子”！我一直觉得孩子是世界的，不应该是归为一个种族、一个国家、一个城镇或一个家庭……--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 01:04, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
But this ten year-old white child...had already understood the situation well enough to use racial advantage and national power to assault me with a thrust of his face. This assault was actually the small shadow of multiple assaults, and his face was the small-print version of a history of Chinese foreign relations.[ Zhu Ziqing, Zhu Ziqing Quanji, Vol. 1 (Jiangsu, Jiangsu Educational Press) 45.]<br />
<br />
Despite our Fanon-inspired suspicions about his psychology, Zhu insists that the shock he received, the pressure, the difficulty breathing, was the result of his ''theoretical'' realization that the child was not innocent but had already been corrupted into the fabric of violence from which Sino-Western relations had been cut. The normal, the psychological-these responses are leapt over, the incident is abstracted directly into a symptom of history. And, at least on the surface, this fact might seem to confirm the anti-theoretical position which claims that postcolonial criticism is irrelevant to China because China never sunk into full colonial status.<br />
<br />
但是这个十岁的白人孩子已经非常了解这种情况了，甚至可以利用种族优势和国家权力以他的面目攻击我。 这次袭击实际上是多次袭击的一个小阴影，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
<br />
尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，但朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力，呼吸困难是他“理论上”意识到孩子不是无辜的，而是被中西关系断绝所产生的暴力侵蚀。<br />
正常的，这些心理的反应被跳过了，事件被直接抽象为历史的象征。 而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该立场声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民地状态。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但是这个十岁的白人孩子……已经非常了解这种情况了，他可以利用种族优势和国家权力的面目攻击我。这次袭击实际上是数次袭击的影子，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
<br />
尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力和呼吸困难，是他从“理论上”认识到这个孩子不是无辜的，而是已经腐坏成中西关系已被割断的、暴力的结果。跳过正常的心理的反应，这个事件被抽象成历史的症状。而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该主张声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民状况。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
One could easily derive a trajectory from comparative history to the differences in the two men's encounters with white children, a trajectory whose terms are familiar but worth rehearsing. Fanon's Martinique was almost totally cut off from racial history, national language, and cultural identity. Any nationalism that arose from such soil would have had to have been as a reconstruction of African identity from zero, an almost impossible task. Therefore, Fanon's text has to start from the postcolonial present, analyzing the continuing damage of racism on subjugated black communities. Most of China, despite the extreme cultural upheavals which it experienced in reaction to Western aggression, never sunk into full-fledged colonial status; and therefore this aggression remained for the most part an influential and traumatic margin to the mainstream development of Chinese historical identity. There was no slavery, no tabula rasa, not even in Hong Kong and Macao, or Taiwan and “Manchuria.”<br />
我们可以很容易地很容易地从比较历史中得出一条轨迹，即两个男人与白人孩子不同遭遇的差异，这个轨迹的主题我们很熟悉，但值得重新审视。法侬的马提尼克几乎完全脱离了种族历史、国家语言和文化身份。任何在这片土地上产生的民族主义，都必须是对非洲身份的从零开始的重建，这几乎是一项不可能完成的任务。因此，法农的文本必须从后殖民时代的当下出发，分析种族主义对被征服的黑人社区的持续破坏。尽管中国在应对西方侵略时经历了极端的文化剧变，但大部分地区从未陷入完全的殖民地位;因此，这场侵略在很大程度上对中国历史身份的主流发展造成了影响和创伤。没有奴隶制，没有白板思想，甚至在香港和澳门，台湾和“满洲”也没有。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 10:01, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
On the contrary, the experience of aggression undoubtedly strengthened national consciousness; and in modernist writings such as the one in question, it is rare to read a moment of experience of the Western Other as such which does not resort to some form of nationalism.<br />
<br />
Up to a point, this sort of analysis is useful. Certainly, it would be dangerous to move directly from historical sketches to windy declarations about the differences between African and Chinese literature. But the standard history does happen to match the particulars of these two authors' educational trajectories. The surface, then, of “White People” is simple and obvious in comparison with Fanon's text, forgoing psychological brooding to go straight to the main course of national pride. <br />
<br />
And yet, one wonders what lurks in the essay's depths, for this is a very unusual piece in Zhu's oeuvre.<br />
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相反，侵略的经验无疑加强了民族意识；在现代主义的著作中，如有关的著作中，很少读到对西方他者这样的经验不诉诸某种形式的民族主义的时刻。<br />
<br />
在某种程度上，这种分析是有用的。当然，如果直接从历史素描转向关于非洲文学和中国文学差异的风马牛不相及的宣言，是很危险的。 但标准的历史确实恰好符合这两位作家教育轨迹的特殊性。 那么，与法农的文字相比，《白衣人》的表面是简单而明显的，放弃了心理上的沉思，直奔民族自豪感的主菜。 <br />
<br />
然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
相反，侵略的经验无疑增强了民族意识。 在诸如此类的现代主义著作中，很少有人会读到西方他人的经历，因为这种经历不诉诸某种形式的民族主义。<br />
到目前为止，这种分析是有用的。 当然，直接从历史速写转变为关于非洲和中国文学之间差异的风马牛不相及的宣言将是危险的。 但是，标准的历史确实与这两位作者的教育轨迹相吻合。 因此，“白人”的表述与法农的著作相比是简单而明显的，它放弃了对民族自豪感的直觉。<br />
然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱自清的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:19, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Normally, Zhu Ziqing is one of the last authors one associates with fiery nationalism; rather, he is usually preoccupied with just the sort of psychological introspection which characterizes Fanon's text. Furthermore, the essay was written more than a year after the original trolley ride-could the strangely quick transition from individual experience to nationalist reflection be at least partly created under the influence to retell the story in the light of the May 30 incident?<br />
<br />
If one willfully forgets about the May 30 context of the essay and focuses on the details of the incident as Zhu narrates them, then a second and separate level of interpretation opens in the essay, one much more pregnant with Fanon-like psychological trauma. The widest portal to the inside of this essay is also its obvious crux: i.e., the white child's stare. The key to this portal is that that stare, as it happened empirically, was complete unto itself.<br />
<br />
朱自清可以算得上最后一位与激烈的民族主义联系在一起的作家，相反，他通常只专注于法侬文本中所特有的那种心理反省。从个人经历到民族主义反思的迅速转变是否部分原因是由于“五卅惨案”的影响?<br />
<br />
如果你有意忘记掉这篇文章“五卅惨案”的背景，而把重点放在朱叙述事件的细节上，那么这篇文章就开启了另一个层面的解读，一个充满法农式的心理创伤的解读。这篇文章最广阔的内部入口也是它明显的症结所在：即白人儿童的凝视。这个入口的关键是那种凝视，好像它是凭经验发生的，是完全独立的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 07:42, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清可以算得上最后一位与激烈的民族主义联系在一起的作家，相反，他通常只专注于法侬文本中所特有的那种心理反省。从个人经历到民族主义反思的迅速转变是否部分原因是由于“五卅惨案”的影响?<br />
<br />
如果你有意忘记掉这篇文章“五卅惨案”的背景，而把重点放在朱叙述事件的细节上，那么这篇文章就得从另一个层面解读，一种充满法农式的心理创伤的解读。这篇文章最广阔的内部入口也是它明显的症结所在：即白人儿童的凝视。这个入口的关键是那种凝视，好像它是凭经验发生的，它本身是完全独立的。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 08:28, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
It was an act, an aggressive act, unaccompanied by words. When Zhu tells us that “there were words in his eyes,” he wants us to believe that the words came from the child himself, and in fact we can certainly believe that that is how Zhu experienced the stare, that he felt the hate speech jabbing out at him from those astonishing eyes. But yet the language admits its paternity: not the child, but Zhu himself. Zhu creates the meaning around the act of the stare, and his entire explication of the problem of racism is based, not upon what he hears, but upon what his unconscious hermeneutic tells him that he hears. Whereas Fanon lives in a shadowy world of little but voices shouting, “look, a Negro!” to Zhu there are no voices at all, only a reality of trolleys and white skin and violent stares to which he himself has to supply the verbal accompaniment.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
This is absolutely not to say that Zhu's experience of racism is imaginary, that he “shouldn't be so sensitive,” as racists say. No doubt, the child was acting racistly. But it is important to notice that the racism which Zhu attributes to the child is a simple one: the child is figured as a self-assured, mature, masculine aggressor; in fact all of these qualities which Zhu feels are surely exaggerated. He might have suspected that prepubescent white children are somehow super-matured macho-men, but hopefully we know better. For Zhu's stare was not the first the boy had received. Anyone who has had the experience of living as a racial minority in a non-pluralistic society knows what it is like to be stared at constantly; this is in fact the primary condition of Fanon's experience which makes “The Fact of Blackness” possible.<br />
<br />
<br />
这绝对不是说朱的种族主义经历是虚构的，就像种族主义者所说的那样，他“不应太敏感”。 毫无疑问，孩子在表现种族主义。 但重要的是要注意，朱归因于孩子的种族主义是一个简单的种族歧视：孩子被认为是一个自信，成熟，阳刚的侵略者。 实际上，朱认为的所有这些特质肯定被夸大了。 他可能怀疑青春期前的白人儿童某种程度上是超成熟的男子气概，但希望我们对此有所了解。 因为朱的目光不是男孩第一次收到。 在非多元社会中有过作为少数族裔生活的经验的人都知道不断被注视是什么感觉。 实际上，这是发那农经历的主要条件，这使得“黑暗事实”成为可能。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 02:30, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这绝对不是说朱的种族主义经历是虚构的，他“不应该像种族主义者说的那样敏感”。毫无疑问，这孩子表现得很种族主义。但需要注意的是，朱自清对孩子的种族歧视很简单：孩子被认为是一个自信、成熟、有男子气概的侵略者；事实上，朱认为所有这些品质都被夸大了。他可能会怀疑青春期前的白人孩子在某种程度上是过分成熟的大男子主义者，但希望我们了解得更多。因为朱的目光并不是男孩第一次看到。任何有过在非多元社会中以少数民族身份生活过的人，都知道经常被人盯着看是什么感觉；事实上，这是法农经历的首要条件，它使“黑暗的事实”成为可能。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:33, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Thus, in this regard, Fanon is perhaps closer to the boy than to Zhu; or if this is too strong, we could say that Fanon is split between the boy and Zhu, that Zhu shares with Fanon the experience of being dissected by the gaze of the aggressor culture, but that the boy shares with him the constancy of being stared at for being a racial minority. The boy's position in China was obviously much higher than that of Fanon's in France, and therefore the stares he would have received much less negative; yet the mere fact of the constant stare itself can exert an intense psychical pressure, especially on a boy at an age at which deep doubts about his self-identity are forming. This is not at all to excuse the real racist content of the boy's angry glare; but it does suggest that the glare was a lashing-out from a position of weakness and insecurity, rather than from the heel-grinding arrogance which Zhu assumes.<br />
<br />
因此，在这方面，法侬也许比朱自清更像男孩；或者，如果这种说法过于绝对，我们可以说，法侬在男孩和朱自清之间是分裂的，朱自清和法侬一样，经历着被侵略者文化的凝视所解剖，但男孩和他一样，一样，始终被人盯着看，因为他是一个少数民族。这个男孩在中国的地位显然要比法侬在法国的地位高得多，因此他受到的负面目光也会少得多；然而，仅仅是持续的凝视本身就会产生一种强烈的心理压力，尤其是对于一个对自我身份正在形成深刻怀疑的年龄的男孩来说。这一点也不是为男孩愤怒的怒视中的真正种族主义内容开脱；但这确实表明，他的怒视是一种来自软弱和不安全感的鞭挞，而不是朱棣文所认为的那种傲慢自大。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Moreover, it is Zhu who initiated this discomforting dialogue of stares. Zhu's boy, like Fanon's, is a mimic, although his mimicry is just as problematic. As Homi Bhabha says, “the look of surveillance returns as the displacing gaze of the disciplined, where the observer becomes the observed and 'partial representation rearticulates the whole notion of ''identity ''and alienates it from essence,”[ Bhabha, 89.] but in this case the mimic gaze is the colonizer's , and it returns precisely as the establishment of racial boundaries. Certainly, Zhu felt this mimicry as an example of colonial aggression; it is only the boy who might have thought of the stare in Bhabha's terms, as his defense mechanism against a racially-motivated intrusion into his privacy.<br />
<br />
And Zhu's initiating stare is certainly racial (though not racist); he gloats over the boy's Caucasianness: “His white cheeks dashed with red and his long golden eyelashes revealed a peacefulness and elegance.”[ Zhu, 43.]<br />
<br />
<br />
此外，正是朱自清发起了这场令人不安的凝视的对话。朱自清的儿子和法侬的儿子一样，是个模仿者，尽管他的模仿也有问题。正如霍米·巴巴所说，“监视的目光作为被训练者取代的凝视回归，观察者成为被观察的对象，‘部分表征重新表达了“身份”的整个概念，并将其与本质分离，’”[霍米·巴巴, 89。]但在这种情况下，模仿的目光是殖民者的目光，而这种目光的回归正是建立了种族界限。当然，朱自清认为这种模仿是殖民侵略的一个例子;只有这个男孩可能会想到，用霍米·巴巴的话说，这种盯着他看的眼神是他抵御种族主义侵犯隐私的防御机制。<br />
<br />
朱自清最初的凝视显然带有种族主义色彩(虽然不是种族主义);他沾沾自喜地欣赏着这个男孩的高加索气质:“他那雪白的脸颊上满是红晕，长长的金色睫毛流露出一种平和优雅的气质。”--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 09:10, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
此外，朱自清发起了这场令人不安的凝视的对话。朱自清的儿子和法侬的儿子一样是个模仿者，尽管他的模仿存在问题。正如霍米·巴巴所说，“监视的目光作为被训练者取代的凝视回归，观察者成为被观察的对象，‘部分表征重新表达了“身份”的整个概念，并将其与本质分离，’”[霍米·巴巴, 89。]但在这种情况下，模仿的目光是殖民者的目光，而这种目光的回归正是建立了种族界限。当然，朱自清认为这种模仿是殖民侵略的一个例子;只有这个男孩可能会想到，用霍米·巴巴的话说，这种盯着他看的眼神是他抵御种族主义侵犯隐私的防御机制。<br />
<br />
朱自清最初的凝视显然带有种族主义色彩(虽然不是种族主义);他沾沾自喜地欣赏着这个男孩的高加索气质:“他那雪白的脸颊上满是红晕，长长的金色睫毛流露出一种平和优雅的气质。”<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
Zhu, of course, tries to cover this fact; this is the prime rhetorical function of the discussion of Liu Jun. Without that mini-narrative, Zhu would have had to go directly from a description of the boy's whiteness into the boy's violent reaction, thus allowing the reader to assume that Zhu's racial gaze is what produced that reaction, complicating the question of the child's aggression. Instead, Zhu asserts a different reason why he is staring: he simply likes children, he has ever since he used to play with that little Liu Jun boy. Zhu wants to figure his own gaze as mostly aracial and entirely beneficent, a happy celebration of innocence which is met by abrupt, mature, racist aggression, shocking him out of his reveries into a disturbed reflection on nationalism and interracial strife.<br />
<br />
Fine, so be it, Zhu's gaze is completely aracial, despite his gloating about pink cheeks and golden eyelashes. It is not therefore simple. Consider the bizarreness hidden in his self-justification:<br />
<br />
当然，朱试图掩盖这一事实，这是刘军谈及过的主要的修辞功能。没有那种迷你叙事，朱将不得不直接从描述男孩的苍白转变为男孩的暴力反应，从而使读者认为是因为朱的种族凝视才产生了这种反应，便复杂化了孩子的攻击性问题。相反，朱宣称自己凝视是因为不同的原因，即，他只是喜欢孩子，从那以后，他常常和小刘军一起玩。朱想把他的视线当做与种族无关的，完全善意的行为。当做对纯真的庆祝，然而却突然地遭到了形成已久的种族观念的侵袭。这使他幻想破灭，陷入了国籍和种族冲突的反思中。<br />
<br />
很好，尽管粉红的脸颊和金色的眼睫毛让他看起来有些沾沾自喜，但朱的凝视完全没带种族含义。考虑到藏在他自我争辩中的怪异，所以这并不简单。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:14, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当然，朱自清试图掩盖这一事实，这是刘军（Liu Jun）谈及过的主要的修辞功能。没有那种短小叙事，朱自清将不得不直接从描述男孩的苍白转变为男孩的暴力反应，从而使读者认为是因为朱自清的种族凝视才产生了这种反应，便复杂化了孩子的攻击性问题。相反，朱自清宣称自己凝视是因为不同的原因，即，他只是喜欢孩子，从那以后，他常常和小刘军一起玩。朱想把他的视线当做与种族无关的，完全善意的行为。当做对纯真的庆祝，然而却突然地遭到了形成已久的种族观念的侵袭。这使他幻想破灭，陷入了国籍和种族冲突的反思中。<br />
<br />
很好，尽管粉红的脸颊和金色的眼睫毛让他看起来有些沾沾自喜，但朱自清的凝视完全没带种族含义。考虑到藏在他自我争辩中的怪异，所以这并不简单。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:16, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
I have always had the sort of temperament whereby if I saw an amusing little child, I would always want to be on intimate terms with him...When I was in the upper grades of elementary school, in the attached building for the middle grades there was a boy named Liu Jun with raven-black Western-style hair, who was truly docile, like a bird....his face was always that undisturbed and earnest, though under his skin there must have burned the fires of intimacy. Several times I invited him to my home, but he was never willing to go; afterwards I didn't see him for two years, and then he died. I cannot forget him! I had held his little hand, and rubbed his round chin. If I meet a young child for the first time, I naturally can't do that, that would be a little awkward; nevertheless, that's unimportant, I can look at him- once, twice, ten times, dozens of times!<br />
<br />
我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热...在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般...他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 09:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热……。在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般……。他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:06, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
Any given child probably won't pay much attention to people's eyes, so one can look at him with total freedom; it is not at all like furtive, covered glances at women. I have in the past stared at many children I had just met, and they never once protested, at most they pulled on the hand of their mother next to them, or leant on her knee, or looked at her once or twice. Therefore I was very bold. This time on the trolley my old temperament came back, and I looked again and again at that white child, that young Westerner![ Zhu, 43.]<br />
<br />
''Sexuality! ''is the obvious cry which rises at the description of Liu Jun: the docility, the meekness, the holding and rubbing, the “fires of intimacy”--these elements conspire to suggest a nascent homosexuality.<br />
<br />
孩子们可能都不会多注意旁人的眼神，因此你便可以随心所欲地盯着他们看，这与对女人偷偷摸摸的扫视完全不同。 以前，我曾盯着许多我遇到的孩子看，他们从未抗拒过，最多是紧紧拉住旁边母亲的手，倚靠在膝盖上，或者看看自己。 因此，我胆子很大。 这次在电车上，我的老毛病又犯了，我一次又一次地看向那个白人孩子，那个年少的西方人！[朱，43.]<br />
<br />
在刘军的描写中，“性欲”呼之欲出：温顺，温柔，坚守和摩擦，“亲密之火”，这些元素都暗示着同性恋的萌芽。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:06, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Little Liu is dead, now, but there are substitutes swirling all around Zhu; he cannot touch them as he touched Liu, that would be socially impossible, but as a substitute he can stare with impunity, “dozens of times.” And the children do not protest his stares, they are docile-at most they squirm uncomfortably beneath Zhu's visual intrusion into their world. Zhu's relationship with children is therefore predicated by his dominance of them. He says at the opening of the paragraph that he wants to be intimate with children, but it is an intimacy of power forcing itself upon them.[ The evidence for Zhu's child-fetish is strongly corroborated by his other work. Apart from the focus on childhood in works like the famous, “Back Silhouette” (beiying), in another essay of his, “Children,” he goes so far as to explicitly admit to physical child abuse. ]<br />
<br />
Given these strange admissions, one sees Zhu's reaction to the white child's stare as much more complicated. Zhu experiences the stare as racism, and probably rightly so; yet it seems clear that he is also shocked by the reversal of power involved.<br />
<br />
小刘死了，但是现在有其他人围着朱自清打转；他不能像抚摸小刘那样摸其他孩子，这在社会上是不可能的，但作为补偿，他可以免受惩罚地盯着他们几十次。 孩子们对他的凝视并不反感，他们是温顺的——顶多就是在朱先生对他们世界的视觉侵扰下不舒服地扭动下。 因此，朱自清与孩子的关系由他对孩子的支配地位决定。 他在这一段的开头说，他想和孩子们亲密，但这种亲密是权力强迫所致。（朱自清的恋童癖在他的其他作品中得到了有力的证实。 除了在著名的《背影》等作品中对童年的关注外，在他的另一篇散文《孩子们》中，甚至明确承认对儿童有进行身体上的虐待。）<br />
<br />
鉴于这些奇怪的承认，人们认为朱自清凝视白人孩子时的反应要复杂得多。 朱先生将这种凝视视为种族主义，这或许正确的；然而，他显然也对所涉及的权力倒置感到震惊。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:13, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
He normally enjoys the prerogative of a forced intimacy, dominating children through his gaze, and suddenly he finds, for the first time, a child that fights gaze with gaze, is able to dominate him and usurp Zhu's position as an adult, casting him down into the docility of the helpless child. When Zhu, flabbergasted, constructs a voice to put onto the child, he may be grabbing onto the real racism present in the situation to use as a defense mechanism, changing the subject to avoid the real source of the ego-crushing which is occurring. Zhu protests his amazement that he could be so disturbed by “just a ten year old white 'child'”; yet the entire scenario could never possibly have been played out with an adult.<br />
<br />
Fanon's child is a mirror to him, highlighting the Lacanian crisis of identification which life in France causes him.<br />
<br />
他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过他的目光支配孩子，突然，他发现，第一次有孩子和他对着凝视，这凝视能控制着他，篡夺朱作为一个成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制，改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有一个十岁的白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起进行。法农的孩子如同一面镜子，突出了他在法国的生活所造成的拉康认同危机。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过眼色来支配孩子，他突然发现，第一次有孩子用眼神与他对视，篡夺了朱作为成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制、改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有十岁的一个白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起。对他来说，法农的孩子如同一面镜子，暴露出法国生活中拉康认同危机对他的影响。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
If we in turn take Fanon as a mirror for Zhu Ziqing, his Lacanian analysis throws up interesting images of the incident on the Shanghai trolley. Zhu's white boy is visually even more of a mirror image to him than Fanon's was. The man and the boy gaze at each other across the solid divide; they mutually stare along a joint axis of domination. Of course, Zhu does not have Fanon's psychoanalytic training: he had read some empiricist psychology, but less Freud and of course no Lacan. He cannot wander between psychological theory and personal experience in the same fashion Fanon did.<br />
如果我们反过来以法农为朱自清的镜子，他对拉卡尼亚主义的分析在上海电车上抛出有趣的事件图像。 在视觉上，朱自清的白人男孩比法农的更像是他的镜像。 男人和男孩在坚固的鸿沟上凝视着对方。 他们沿着共同的支配轴相互凝视。 当然，朱没有接受法农的心理分析训练：他读过一些经验主义者的心理学，但是很少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉康。 他无法像法农那样在心理理论和个人经历之间徘徊。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果我们反过来把法农当作朱自清的镜子，他的拉卡尼亚主义分析就会对上海电车事件抛出有趣的图像。 朱自清的白人男孩在视觉上甚至比法农的男孩更像他的镜像。 男人和男孩隔着坚实的鸿沟相互凝视，他们沿着共同的统治轴线相互凝视。 当然，朱德没有法农的精神分析训练：他读过一些经验主义心理学，但少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉卡尼亚。 他不能像法农那样在心理学理论和个人经验之间游走。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But a reading of Fanon forces us to ask to what extent Zhu's trauma is a crisis of delayed issues of developmental psychology. This is obviously a complex field which belongs properly to specialists, and one hardly feels there is enough material in this brief essay to make definitive conclusions.<br />
但是对法农的阅读迫使我们问朱自清的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学迟缓问题的危机。 显然，这是一个复杂的领域，应该属于专家，并且几乎没有人认为这篇简短的文章中有足够的材料来得出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但对法农的解读，迫使我们要问，朱的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学的延迟问题的危机。 这显然是一个复杂的领域，理应属于专家的范畴，在这篇简短的文章中，我们很难感觉到有足够的材料来做出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
不过，读了法农的书，我们不禁要问，朱自清的创伤究竟在多大程度上是发展心理学延迟问题的危机。这显然是一个完全属于专家研究的复杂领域。人们觉得，这篇简短的文章中没有足够的材料来让他们作出明确的结论。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:53, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
But the narrative is explicitly spun out of a story of childhood; Zhu himself derives his child-fetish from the loss of the intimate and passive Liu Jun. And Zhu's fascination with children and childhood in other essays should be an indication that something is up. Perhaps one could establish Zhu's relation to Fanon thus: that while Fanon's experience of racism is drawn into a network of theory that links his crisis of identity to an aborted mirror-stage, Zhu Ziqing sees in the mirror of his own white child a vision of himself as prematurely woven into the fabric of power. It is then only this sudden emergence of power in a half-nostalgic, half-sexual scopophilia which highlights the boy's whiteness and raises the questions of racial dominance and nationalist resistance.<br />
<br />
What makes Zhu feel nationalistic pride? It is not the boy's reaction, but his race.<br />
<br />
但故事是明确地从一个童年故事中衍生出来的;朱自清的儿童迷恋源于失去了亲密而消极的刘君。而朱自清在其他文章中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是表明有些事情发生了。也许可以建立朱自清与法农之间的关系:法农种族主义的经历卷入了理论之网，这将他的身份危机与流产镜像阶段连接起来, 朱自清从自己的白人孩子的镜子里看到了自己过早地融入权力的一面。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 11:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但这部小说的叙事显然是从一个童年故事中衍生出来的；朱自清本人从失去亲密无间、被动的刘俊身上获得了对儿童的迷恋，而他在其他散文中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是某种事情发生的迹象。也许有人可以这样确定朱自清与法农的关系：虽然法农的种族主义经历被纳入了一个理论网络，将他的身份危机与一个失败的镜像阶段联系起来，但朱自清在自己的白人孩子的镜子中看到了自己过早地编织在权力结构中的形象。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:19, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
Given the way Zhu sets up his narrative, given the description of his frequent and unimpeded voyeurism of children in public spaces, one assumes that any child who stared back mockingly at Zhu would have shocked him-this child was the first to do so. Had the child been Chinese and stared back, Zhu's experience might have been more obviously psycho-sexual in his own recounting. The real importance of the child's whiteness is to Zhu's rational reflections over the significance of the incident. To Zhu's mind, it was not the child's whiteness but his resistance that was disturbing; but he locates the whiteness as the source of the child's ability to resist and to then turn resistance into domination. He essentializes the incident: force is what makes whites white. A gaze on a bus becomes an allegory for the sweep of modern history.<br />
<br />
考虑到朱的叙述方式，鉴于他在公共场所频繁而畅通无阻地窥视儿童的描述，人们认为，任何一个嘲笑朱的孩子都会震惊他——这个孩子是第一个这样做的。如果这个孩子是中国人并且回头看，朱的经历可能在他自己的叙述中更明显地是心理性的。孩子白皙的真正重要性在于朱对事件意义的理性反思。在朱看来，让人不安的不是孩子的白皙，而是他的反抗；但他把白种人定位为孩子反抗能力的源泉，然后将反抗转化为支配。他将这一事件本质化：武力使白人变白。凝视一辆公共汽车就成了横扫现代历史的寓言。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 03:24, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
On reflection, the appearance of nationalism here is far more abrupt than it would have seemed in the Shanghai journal culture following the May 30 Massacre. Is it really a defense mechanism against the revelations of his own psychology? Is it both a defense mechanism and an expression of conscious and justified outrage over colonialist presence in Shanghai? Is it a fiction “remembered” back onto the incident in the heat of the violent summer of 1925? I do not mean by any of these questions to imply that somehow Zhu's nationalism is fake, or secondary, or subordinate; to do that would be to write a justification of the murder of the students on Nanjing Road. But of all the essays and poems and short fiction published along with Zhu's essay in the two Literary Association journals (''Xiaoshuo yuebao and Wenxue zhoukan''), none but his strays so far from the event of the massacre itself in order to support the national cause. It is legitimate to ask why.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The bifurcations in Zhu's essay between experience and historiography, practice and theory thus are constituted in an odd mix of clarity and confusion. Patriotic messages are deeply worked into the fabric of the narration of the incident, and any division between Zhu's lived experience and the big picture view of imperialism were surely invisible to any reader in the context of the essay's production. They are invisible to us, as informed readers, but only on our first readings. The deeper explorations of Zhu's gaze, by suggesting the possible distance of ideological historiography form the original event, merely highlight a structural division between narration and theory which splits the text at “I was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” The structural split is perfectly obvious; yet it is only after some thought about the nature of Zhu's project that it becomes noteworthy.<br />
<br />
因此，朱的文章中经验与史学，实践和理论之间的分歧是由清晰和混乱构成的。爱国主义的启示被深深地融入了事件的叙述之中，在这篇论文的撰写过程中，任何读者都肯定看不到朱的活生生的经验与帝国主义的大视野之间的任何分歧。作为知情的读者，它们对我们是不可见的，但仅在我们的初读时才可见。 通过暗示思想史学与原事件之间可能的距离，朱目光的更深层次的探索仅仅强调了叙事和理论之间的结构性划分，使文本分裂为“我充满了紧迫的民族主义情绪！”其中结构上的分裂非常明显； 然而，只有在对朱的项目的性质进行一些思考之后，它才值得关注。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:16, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
This is the Zhu Ziqing who declares himself a contradiction, and he can talk back to Fanon. His own textual complexes find their affinities in Fanon's text and the Fanonian textual systems that grew from it. It is impossible to forget, with Fanon, the wiles of language-his flourishes are too extravagant. Yet ''Black Skin, White Masks'' is filled with partial autobiographies. One knows one is reading theory, but it seems to be a theory grown organically from “Antillean experience,” even when we all know better. Though our study of Chinese literature might convince us that theory fits or does not fit Chinese experience, we should not assume that theory has a more natural and wholesome relationship with African or Indian experience, that the postcolonial debates were “derived” from fully colonial experience. Psychoanalytic theory created Fanon's experience, and the body of theory “derived” from Fanon has even more dramatically recreated him.<br />
<br />
这就是那个宣称自己自我矛盾的朱自清，他可以对法农进行反驳。他自身的文本情结在法农的文本和由其发展而来的法农文本体系中找到了相似之处。人们不可能忘记法农的语言诡计——他的华丽辞藻太过夸张。然而《黑皮肤，白面具》的一些部分充满了自传性质。一个人知道自己在阅读理论，甚至当我们更了解这理论时，但这理论似乎是一个有机地从“安的列斯经验”中成长起来的，虽然我们对中国文学的研究可能会让我们相信，理论是否符合中国的经验，但我们不应该假设理论与非洲或印度的经验有更自然和健康的关系，后殖民争论是“派生”自完全的殖民经验。精神分析理论创造了法农的经验，而从法农“衍生”出来的理论体则更戏剧性地重新塑造了他。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
The point of which is not to reassert the very tired discovery that theory is not experience and words not things, but to point out that the Chinese modernist friction against theory is not unique. Insofar as we need to continue to talk about postcolonial contexts when addressing Chinese modern literature, it would be helpful to keep in perspective Chinese's non-uniqueness; to do so may help us avoid the trap of either-or questions. Tension is healthy. If we must dismiss with a wave our continuing urgent desire for comparison of unmediated experience, and cannot give ourselves over to the mere nodding affirmation of sloganized thought-systems, then at least the comparative and cross-cultural analysis of tension is still available to us.<br />
<br />
The great frustration of the work of comparison is its inability to aspire to totalisms. However conscious we are of the danger of such aspirations, they are magnetic and insinuating.<br />
<br />
这里的重点并不是要重申这个老生常谈的发现，即理论不是经验，文字也不是事物，而是要指出中国现代主义与理论的摩擦并不是唯一的。在探讨中国现代文学时，如果我们需要继续探讨后殖民语境，那么审视中国的非独特性是有帮助的。这样做可以帮助我们避免陷入非此即彼的困境。对立是有益的的。如果我们必须以一种浪潮来驱散我们对未经调解的经验的比较的持续的迫切愿望，不能让我们自己沉溺于仅仅是表面肯定的口号的思想体系，那么至少对立比较和跨文化的分析对我们仍然是可用的。<br />
<br />
比较研究的不足在于它不能实现极权主义。虽然我们十分清楚这种想法的危险性，但还是会被吸引。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 07:00, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
……即理论不是经验，文字也不是死物，……摩擦是有益的。……如果我们必须以一种浪潮来驱散对未经调停的经验的比较的持续的迫切的渴望，来防止自己陷入仅仅需要点头称赞的口号式的思想体系，那么至少关注比较和跨文化分析对我们来说依然是有用的。<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
The leap from text to context is satisfying; even if one is aware of the necessity of multiple contexts, because one can choose one's school and plant one's feet and make an argument (or ignore the need for argument) that one's chosen context is the most appropriate. The comparison of individual works requires resignation to pettiness. Any other permutation of works will produce different, perhaps contradictory, lessons. For example, comparing Zhu's essay with other May 30 protest essays, such as those by Mao Dun or Zheng Zhenduo, would vastly alter our evaluation of it. Among an infinite number of permutations of comparison, the importance of any one comparison becomes infinitesimal, and its authority to define the reception of the work shrinks commensurably. The infinitesimal still has the potential for informing other research, but only by miracles of typological allegory.<br />
<br />
从文本到语境的跳跃是令人满意的，虽然我们都知道多语境的必要性，因为我们可以选择自己的派别，然后立足于这个派别，对自己选择的语境是最合适的这个论点进行论证（或者直接忽视论证的必要性）。对各个作家的作品进行比较需要极大的耐心。将不同的作品进行不同的组合将会得出不同的，或者是相互矛盾的结论。例如，将朱自清的文章与五卅运动其他的抗议文相比较，比如茅盾或者郑振铎的作品，就会极大地改变我们对朱自清的文章的评价。在无穷无尽的各种组合比较中，单一比较的重要性会变得微乎其微，其对作品接受度做出的评价的的权威性也会相应地大打折扣。这种意义微乎其微的比较仍有可能对其他研究做出贡献，但也只有在类型学中才会发挥作用。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:02, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从文本到语境的跳跃令人满意，虽然我们都知道多语境的必要性，因为我们可以选择自己的派别，然后立足于这个派别，对自己选择的语境是最合适的这个论点进行论证（或者直接忽视论证的必要性）。对各个作家的作品进行比较需要极大的耐心。将不同的作品进行不同的组合将会得出不同的，或者是相互矛盾的结论。例如，将朱自清的文章与五卅运动其他的抗议文相比较，比如茅盾或者郑振铎的作品，就会极大地改变我们对朱自清的文章的评价。在无穷无尽的各种组合比较中，单一比较的重要性会变得微乎其微，其对作品接受度做出的评价的的权威性也会相应地大打折扣。这种意义微乎其微的比较仍有可能对其他研究做出贡献，但也只有在类型学中才会发挥作用。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:22, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
'''Incongruous Lyricism: Liu Baiyu, Yang Shuo and sanwen in Chinese Socialist Culture<br />
'''<br />
Charles A. Laughlin<br />
<br />
'''Abstract''' <br />
<br />
The popularity of both Republican period and post-Mao sanwen in contemporary Chinese literary markets indicates the importance of this genre in twentieth century Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Less obvious, but no less significant, is its importance within the socialist cultural system of the Chinese Communist Party. Ever since Chinese cultural activists began to consciously promote specific literary practices as a way of contributing to “revolution” in the late 1920s, literary prose played an important role, but at first only in the form of reportage or baogao wenxue. Beginning in Yan’an during the War of Resistance Against Japan, however, young writers who received all or in part of their education or literary training in Communist institutions began to write prose texts that more closely resembled the xiaopin and suigan of the Republican period. Unlike reportage, these texts featured lyrical and humorous moments without being critical of the social environment, and they were not concerned with contemporary historical events and figures.<br />
<br />
矛盾的抒情主义：中国社会主义文化中的刘白玉，杨硕和散文。<br />
<br />
摘要:<br />
<br />
民国时期和“后毛”时期散文在中国当代文学界的流行，表明了这一体裁在二十世纪中国文学中的重要性。<br />
<br />
在中国共产党的社会主义文化体系中，它的重要性并不是那么明显，但是同样重要。自从中国文化活动家在1920年代末开始有意识地推广特定的文学实践作为促进“革命”的一种方式以来，文学散文就发挥了重要的作用，但起初只是以报告文学或报刊文学的形式出现。然而，从延安的抗日战争时期开始，到共产党机构接受全部或部分教育或文学训练的年轻作家开始写散文，其文字更类似于共和时期的小品和随感。与报告文学不同，这些文本具有抒情和幽默的同时，并没有涉及到批评社会环境，也与当代历史事件和人物无关。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 07:50, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
不协调抒情主义：中国社会主义文化中的刘白羽，杨朔和散文。 <br />
摘要:<br />
在民国时期和后毛泽东时期，散文在中国当代文学界的流行表明了这一体裁在二十世纪中国文学中的重要性。 <br />
在中国共产党的社会主义文化体系中，它的重要性没有那么明显，但是同样有意义。自从中国文化活动家在1920年代末开始有意地推广具体的文学实践来促进“革命”，文学散文就发挥了重要的作用，但起初只是以报道文学或报告文学的形式出现。然而，自延安抗日时起，在共产党机构接受了所有或部分教育和文学训练的年轻作家开始写起散文，其文笔更像是民国时期的小品和随感。与报道文学不同，这些文字具有抒情和幽默特点的同时，并没有对社会环境进行批判，也无关于当代的历史事件和人物。-[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 07:07, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Such writing achieved prominence in the first decade of the People’s Republic of China, and in this paper I examine three writers that exemplify the characteristic techniques and strategies of the socialist literary essay: Liu Baiyu, Qin Mu and Yang Shuo. Liu Baiyu exemplifies how the experience of war and revolution conditioned the emergence of lyricism in socialist culture, while Qin Mu and Yang Shuo embody the maturation of this socialist lyricism in a peacetime environment. Socialist ''sanwen'' differs from Republican period forms in its characteristically friendly yet didactic second-person rhetoric, and its tendency to build verbal monuments for national heroes. But traces of the conspicuous individuality of Republican period ''sanwen'' lived on in the essayists of the 1950s and 60s. This created a subtle dissonance in the texture of socialist culture that in my opinion contributed to the prominence and popularity of these writers, whose works were included in textbooks for later generations of mainland readers.<br />
<br />
这样的写作在中华人民共和国成立的第一个十年取得非常突出成就，在本文中，我研究了三位作家，他们是采用社会主义文学论文典型技巧和策略的典范：刘百羽，秦牧和杨硕。刘百羽举例说明了战争和革命是如何限制抒情主义在社会主义文化体现的，而秦牧和杨硕则代表了这种社会主义抒情主义在和平时期的成熟。社会主义的“散文”与共和党时期的形式不同，在于其特征性的友好而有说服力的第二人称修辞，以及为民族英雄树立口碑的趋势。但是，在1950年代和60年代的散文家中，存在着共和时期“散文”个性明显的痕迹。这在社会主义文化的结构中产生了微妙的不和谐，但在我看来，这促进了这些作家的知名度和受欢迎程度，这些作家的作品被纳入了后代大陆读者的教科书中。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
When we think of the Chinese essay we usually think of the works of Republican period liberal humanists drawing upon both Western ideas and premodern Chinese style and diction to produce a new genre that represented the artistic epitome of lyrical, colloquial prose. Perhaps just as commonly, when we think of revolutionary literature and of writing under the Chinese communist regime, we think of realism, social critique, polemic and propaganda. Indeed in my study of the development of reportage literature in the Republican and early PRC periods, I associate the procedures of reportage with the culture of leftism in such a way as to render the very notion of lyrical leftist nonfiction discordant if not outright absurd. The problem is, as I was aware at the time, there are prominent authors in the PRC – Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu, to name only a few – who made their names almost entirely through the writing of essays (sanwen).<br />
<br />
我们一提到中国散文，通常就会想到民国时期自由人文主义者的作品，借鉴了西方思想和前现代中国的风格和措辞，产生了一种新体裁，代表了抒情、口语散文的艺术缩影。也许就像一般情况下，我们一提到革命性文学和中国共产党政权下的写作，就会想到现实主义，社会批评，辩论文章和鼓吹文章。的确当我研究民国时期和建国初期报道文学的发展时，我会把报道过程和左倾文化联系在一起，这样一来，即使抒情左派的观点不是完全荒谬的，也能证明其观点的不一致性。问题是，正如我当时发现的那样，民国时出了一些杰出作家，仅举几个例子——杨朔，刘白羽和秦牧，这些作家几乎完全是通过散文写作出名的。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 06:28, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
At that time, I dismissed this phenomenon in the usual way: these were communist lackeys simply parroting the ruling ideology at the bidding of culture czars.<br />
<br />
But even if they were, I could not account for the fact that such writing took on the form of sanwen, in many ways similar to the ''xiaopin wen'' popular the 1930s, while there was already in ''baogao wenxue'' a thriving literary nonfiction form that seemed to embody in its very form the communist vision of art and its place in society. To put it another way, there is nothing in the logic of socialist culture as I knew it that would call for the production of ''sanwen'' as written by these authors, and we know very well that authors under socialism are not at liberty to write what they please, so I had to attribute the persistence of the ''sanwen'' form in the PRC to something inherent about ''sanwen'' and Chinese literary modernity.<br />
<br />
当时，我用普通的方式排斥这种现象: 这些共产主义走狗只是在文化沙皇的命令下模仿执政意识形态。<br />
<br />
但是即使是这样，我也无法解释这样一个事实，即这种写作采取了散文的形式。在许多方面都类似于1930年代流行的小品文，而在报告文学中已经有了一种蓬勃发展的文学非小说形式， 共产主义艺术的形式及其在社会中的地位体现出来。 换句话说，在我所知道的社会主义文化的逻辑中，没有任何东西像这些作家所写的那样需要散文的产生,而且我们很清楚，在社会主义制度下的作家没有写他们所喜欢事物的自由。 因此，我不得不把中国散文形式的持续存在归因于散文与中国文学现代性的某种内在联系。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 11:57, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
My current project intends to approach this question by comparing Chinese literary nonfiction practice in a number of different historical and cultural scenarios from the late imperial period to the present, and this presentation concerns specifically the ''sanwen'' under Chinese socialism.<br />
<br />
'''Socialist ''sanwen'' emerged from Communist base area writing practice''' <br />
<br />
Usually in the form of reportage, literary prose of the Yan’an period was concerned with dramatizing the social and spiritual superiority of regimented, collectivized life under the leadership of the Communist Party. Such writing often relied on direct comparisons between aspects of life in ”the old society” and life in Yan’an, or the between checkered past of characters who had been rehabilitated by the Communists and their newfound belief in the socialist community and its leaders. Though often idealized, examples given are meant to be concrete and taken as factual, and names are often named of military leaders and model laborers depicted. In this respect reportage is the most direct precursor of the lyrical essays of the People’s Republic.[ The civil war of 1946-1949 so disrupted the socialist base areas that much less of this kind of writing was produced; war correspondence once again became the order of the day]<br />
<br />
<br />
我打算对从古至今不同历史文化背景下的非虚构的中国文学作品进行比较，通过这些比较来理清这一问题，而这一介绍着重关注中国社会主义下的散文。<br />
<br />
'''社会主义散文是从共产主义根据地写作实践中产生的'''<br />
<br />
延安时期的散文通常以报告文学的形式，注重对共产党领导下的制度化、集体化生活的社会和精神优越性的戏剧化描写。这类写作往往依赖于对“旧社会”生活与延安生活的直接比较，或者是对被共产党改造的人物过去的坎坷经历与他们对社会主义社会及其领导人的新信仰的直接比较。虽然常常是理想化的，但所举的例子都要具体和真实，人物经常以军队领导人和劳动模范的名字命名。在这方面，报告文学是《人民共和国》抒情散文的最直接的前身[1946-1949年的内战扰乱了社会主义根据地，这类文章的产出因此少了许多，战地书信又成了日常的工作]。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 15:31, 6 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201130_trans&diff=11624020201130 trans2020-12-20T05:24:13Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhou Shuyao 周书尧 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
A good example to illustrate this is the cuisine that is often still defined by national borders (but certainly also in even smaller regional units). The existence of Italian cuisine is undisputed, but you don't have to go to Italy to eat quite authentic Italian food. Of course, there have always been Europeanized variations of Chinese cuisine (e.g. with thickened sauces), and the Istanbul native who orders a kebab in Germany will be surprised that he is served flat bread and not a plate of cutlery.<br />
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Eating habits, especially at breakfast, seem to be difficult to change, so that the author did not get used to the Chinese breakfast (rice soup with salty vegetable side dish) in China for years.<br />
<br />
这是一个很好的例子，证明美食通常是由国家特色来定义的（但也适用于更小的地区间）。意大利美食的存在是无可争议的，但是没有必要为了地道的意大利美食而专程去一趟。当然也有非常多具有欧洲特色版本的中国美食（例如加上很浓的酱汁）。在德国点烤肉串的伊斯坦布尔人，看到端上来的是面包而不是餐具，也会对此感到十分惊讶。<br />
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饮食习惯，尤其是早餐习惯，似乎是很难被改变的。尽管这位作家在中国待了很长的时间，但还是无法适应中式早餐（白米粥配咸菜）。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:55, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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要阐明美食通常由国界定义（在较小地区中也适用），这是个很好的例子。意大利菜的存在毋庸置疑，但不一定要去意大利才能吃到地道的意大利菜。当然还一直有欧化的中国菜肴（如加上浓郁的酱汁）。在德国点烤肉串的伊斯坦布尔人，看到端上来的是面包而不是餐具，也会对此感到十分惊讶。<br />
<br />
饮食习惯，尤其是早餐习惯，似乎很难改变，就算作者在中国待了数年，也还是无法适应中式早餐（白米粥配咸菜）。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:53, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
When Italian spaghetti with bolognese sauce was announced one lunchtime in the cafeteria of Beijing University, the joy was great, at least until the dish could be tasted. Obviously only the outward appearance had been preserved here, the appearance of the spaghetti largely corresponded to that which one can see in cookbooks. However, in terms of taste it was a catastrophe, the tomatoes used had obviously been understood by the cook not as vegetables but as fruit and the noodles had been overcooked for an extra long time.<br />
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Also with the enterprises there are such cultures, German enterprises are considered e.g. in many countries as well organized. Even manufacturing processes for the same products often differ from country to country, but are increasingly standardized worldwide, especially when a company has a patented process in several countries.<br />
<br />
北京大学食堂将意大利肉酱面作为一道午餐，在没吃到这顿饭之前，人们还是非常开心的。显然，只有外观保留了下来，意大利面的外观看起来与食谱上非常的相似，然而，它的味道却是糟糕至极，显然，厨师将番茄当作水果而不是蔬菜来烹饪的，面条煮得时间也过长。<br />
<br />
同样企业中也存在这种文化。例如，德国企业在许多国家运行得有条不紊的，即使同一件产品的生产过程也因国家而异，但是在世界范围内却不断的标准化，特别是一个企业在几个国家中拥有专利过程时。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:25, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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当北京大学的食堂在某一午餐时间宣布意大利肉酱面将进入该食堂时，在没吃到这顿饭之前，人们还是非常高兴的。显然，这里的意大利面只保留了外观，它的外观与食谱中看到的基本一致。然而，就味道而言，它简直糟糕至极。显然，厨师将所用的番茄理解为水果而不是蔬菜，而且面条煮得也时间过长。<br />
<br />
同样在企业中也有这种文化，例如德国企业被认为在许多国家都运行得很好。即使同一产品的制造过程也通常因国家而异，但是在世界范围内却越来越标准化，尤其是当一个公司在多个国家都拥有专利时。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:43, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
This can lead to interesting national solutions when the same task is set, namely to design a street cleaning vehicle:<br />
<br />
当设定相同的任务时，即设计街道清洁车，这会带来有趣的国家解决方案。<br />
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[[File:che1.jpg]]<br />
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Street cleaning vehicle a) China<br />
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街道清洁车 a)中国<br />
<br />
[[File:che2.jpg]]<br />
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Street cleaning vehicle b)<br />
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街道清洁车 b)<br />
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Since the 1990s, the author has personally experienced the differences in working in a foreign Chinese software company in America (e.g. PC Express, later TwinBridge in Los Angeles), in a Chinese software company on the mainland (e.g. Suntendy, Beijing), in a German company in China and in a German-Chinese mixed company. These personal experiences flow into the present booklet.<br />
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Thus, the term culture here is largely synonymous with tradition or philosophy, whereby tradition appears to be related to the past and philosophy often appears as reflected culture reduced to a few principles, and thus already consciously controlled and teleological. For these reasons, the author has chosen the term culture in the present context.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代以来，作者亲身体验了在美国的一家中外软件公司（如PC Express，后来在洛杉矶的TwinBridge）、中国本土的一家软件公司（如北京的新天地科技有限公司(Suntendy)）、中国的一家德国公司和一家中德混合公司工作的不同之处。这些亲身经历已写入这本手册。<br />
<br />
因此，这里的“文化”一词在很大程度上与传统或哲学同义，传统通常与过去有关，哲学则往往反映简化为几个原则的文化，因而已经有意识地加以控制且带有目的论色彩。基于这些原因，作者在目前的语境中选择了“文化”一词。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:28, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
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Japanese production culture is known to us, the Chinese (here abbreviated CMPC) has hardly been investigated in literature, so this booklet has a pioneering character.<br />
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日本的生产文化是我们所熟知的，而中国人(这里简称CMPC)的研究很少，所以这本小册子具有开拓性。<br />
<br />
this booklet, the author draws on Geert Hofstede's comparative cultural model, which he discussed with him at the LMU in Munich on January 22, 2009, on fundamental observations on the Chinese economy from a macro perspective by Philip Huang, and on the results of a field study by Jianzhong Hong, Aino Pöyhönen, Kalevi Kyläheiku 1998-2000 (see bibliography). <br />
<br />
在这本小册子中，作者引用了吉尔特·霍夫斯泰德与他于2009年1月22日在慕尼黑LMU讨论的比较文化模型，以及菲利普·黄从宏观角度对中国经济的基本观察，以及洪建中的实地研究结果。<br />
<br />
<br />
This booklet was prepared to be presented at the conference "Beyond Japan - Values and Attitudes of Asian Production Cultures" in autumn 2010. The author is grateful to Dirko Thomsen, AutoUni Wolfsburg, who invited the author to contribute to the conference.<br />
这本小册子准备在2010年秋季的“超越日本——亚洲生产文化的价值观和态度”会议上发表。作者感谢Dirko Thomsen和AutoUni Wolfsburg邀请作者为会议作贡献。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 09:58, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
'''Approaches/Perspectives'''<br />
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The distinction between craftsman culture and trader culture has been established for some time. This means that in an economy, more emphasis is placed on developing products that are as perfect as possible, and constantly improving them. A dealer culture places more value on the profit that is made between the cheapest possible purchase and the most expensive possible sale. This distinction becomes clear when we examine a typical case of complaint: <br />
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If a customer complains a product in a craftsman culture, then the salesman is concerned, offers an error free exchange product or a financial compensation and reports the product error further, sends the equipment possibly in, with the goal of letting the error, if it should occur e.g. at several devices, in principle of letting the development department eliminate the error.<br />
方法/视角<br />
工匠文化和商人文化的区分已经确立了有一段时间。这意味着在经济方面将会更多的精力放在开发尽可能完美的产品上，并不断地进行改善。经销商文化在尽可能以最低价格的购入和最高价格的售出之间所获得的利益上赋予更多的价值。我们在检查一个典型的投诉案例时，这种区别尤为明显：<br />
<br />
一位顾客若是抱怨手工艺文化中的产品，那么销售员就会考虑提供无差错交换产品或是给予经济补偿，并进一步报道产品错误， 可能会将产品送回公司以便找出错误。如果产品在好几处设备上都发生错误，原则上让开发部门消除错误。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:32, 29 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
方法/观点<br />
工匠文化与商人文化的区分由来已久，这意味着在一个经济体中，将产品做到尽善尽美，不断提升产品质量会得到重点关注。经销商文化则将重点放在以尽可能便宜的价格购入和进可能贵的价格售出获得收益上。我们仔细研究一个典型投诉案例时，这种区别更加显而易见:<br />
在工匠文化中，顾客投诉会让店员很担忧，店员会主动退换成质量良好的商品或者给予资金赔偿，进一步通知产品的差错，尽可能地将产品送回，检验差错，如果几个产品都出现了差错，原则上会让研发部门消除差错。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:52, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In a dealer culture the service and satisfaction of the customer is more important, here it is more important to see if the customer is angry and reacts accordingly to his complaint with apologies and compensation offers. Feedback to the manufacturer is of secondary importance. <br />
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Here are some of the countries that fall under the relevant categories:<br />
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Craftsmen's Culture Retailer Culture<br />
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Germany, France Poland, USA, China, Korea<br />
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Another distinction is made between production and design cultures. <br />
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In the 19th and 20th centuries, a production culture developed in mechanical engineering in the USA, whereas in Germany a construction culture developed.<br />
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在经销商文化中，服务和客户的满意度更为重要，在这里，客户是否生气以及对客户的投诉做出道歉和相应的补偿就显得尤为重要。而向制造商反馈是次要的。<br />
以下是一些属于相关类别的国家：<br />
工匠文化 零售商文化<br />
德国，法国，波兰，美国，中国，韩国<br />
生产文化和设计文化之间还有另一个区别。<br />
在19，20世纪，美国的机械工程发展了生产文化，而德国产生了建筑文化。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:06, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
The experience of rationalization in the U.S. with the pioneer Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) was quickly received in Germany, among other things by establishing chairs of business administration in Berlin in 1904, Aachen in 1908 and Hanover in 1910. Accordingly, I follow Kunze in 2008 when he rejects Kothes' assertion that German production culture before 1914 is backward.<br />
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In Germany as a culture of craftsmen, a diversification of products developed early on, which was made possible by constantly optimizing the product. Even in teams, the focus is still on the highly qualified individual who does his part of the teamwork independently and assumes responsibility.<br />
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在德国，弗雷德里克·温斯洛·泰勒率先在美国进行了合理化的各项工作，很快就为大众所接受，其中包括在1904年在柏林，1908年在亚琛以及1910年在汉诺威依次设立了工商管理部主任。因此，我认同库恩泽（Kunze)在2008年提出的观点，当时他对科斯关于1914年之前德国生产文化落后的看法是持反对意见的。<br />
<br />
在德国，作为一种工匠文化，产品在早期就注重多样性，并通过不断优化来实现。即使是在团队中，焦点仍是那些高素质的人，他们独立完成团队任务并承担相应的责任。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:21, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
In the USA, the goal is rather the production of a cost-effective mass product. Responsibility was delegated to teams and budget control was introduced to control these teams. However, this is more in keeping with the lawnmower principle and does not apply to the appropriateness of the individual special product or the individual employee.<br />
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This can be illustrated in an overview:<br />
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[[File:233.jpg]]<br />
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在美国，目标则是生产成本低廉的大众产品。这一责任被委派给团队，并引入预算控制来控制这些团队。然而，这更符合割草机原则，并不适用于个别特殊产品或个别员工。<br />
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这一点可以用概述加以说明:<br />
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美国生产文化 德国构建产品文化多样性<br />
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委派责任给团队 <br />
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预算控制<br />
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新的：网络结构管理<br />
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新的：去中心化<br />
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波兰零售文化 德国工匠文化<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The Japanese Production Culture''' <br />
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After World War II, Japan did not have as many investments available as Germany, for example, through the Marshall Plan. Out of necessity, the Japanese economy therefore did what was possible, namely an optimization of existing machines, processes and personnel. This also resulted in the development of a special national production culture, the characteristics of which can be seen in an overview:<br />
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[[File:566.jpg]]<br />
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日本生产文化<br />
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二战后，日本不像德国那样通过马歇尔计划获得大量融资。出于自身需要，日本经济尽己所能，实现了现有机器、生产流程和员工的最优化。因此，一种独特的民族生产文化应运而生，其特征如下：<br />
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现代日本生产文化<br />
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二战后，资金匮乏，无法购置新机器=>现有生产流程、员工和机器的最优化<br />
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日本生产理念=新生产技术的领头羊和现代工业化国家的标杆<br />
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1.精益生产（无污染生产得以推广）<br />
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2.准时生产/有序生产（高标准生产/高要求生产）<br />
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3.质量圈/今井正明优化团队<br />
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4.近期发展：多部门结构和去中央集权化--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 01:27, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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日本生产文化<br />
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二战后，日本不像德国那样通过诸如马歇尔计划等契机获得大量融资。迫于经济压力，日本竭尽所能实现了现有机器、生产流程和员工的最优化。这也催生了一种独特的民族生产文化，其总体特征如下：<br />
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现代日本生产文化<br />
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二战后，资金匮乏，无法购置新机器=>现有生产流程、员工和机器的最优化<br />
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日本生产理念=新生产技术的领头羊和现代工业化国家的标杆<br />
=＞国际讨论，分析和效仿的结果<br />
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1. 精益化生产（推广零污染生产）<br />
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2. 准时制生产/有序生产（按需生产）<br />
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3. 质量研讨小组/优化改善小组<br />
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4. 近期发展：多部门结构和权力下放--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:48, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
Today, the Japanese production philosophy is considered the pacemaker for new production technologies and the benchmark for modern industrial nations. Former Porsche boss Wendelin Wiedeking is an admirer and imitator of the Toyota Production System: "Toyota is synonymous with consistency". It is the international standard by which the modernity of a factory is measured.<br />
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The basic idea of the Japanese model was that storage costs were incurred because more was produced than purchased. So technologies were developed which ensured that the product was only (re)produced when the customer bought the product (production on demand). The higher costs of producing a single item are more than compensated by the savings in intermediate storage (and, in the case of slow-moving items, final storage) of products. This procedure is successfully used today, for example, in book production.<br />
<br />
如今，日本的生产理念被认为是新生产技术的带头人，以及现代工业国家的基准。丰田生产体系的仰慕者和效仿者，保时捷前老板文德林•魏德金（Wendelin Wiedeking）表示：“丰田是一致性的代名词”。它是衡量工厂现代化程度的国际标准。<br />
<br />
日本的生产模式认为，仓储成本的产生主要是由于供大于求。因此，开发了确保仅当客户购买产品时才（再）生产产品的技术（按需生产）。生产单个产品的较高成本可以通过节省产品的中间存储（对于缓慢移动的产品为最终存储）来弥补。如今，在书籍制作等领域，该做法已成功使用。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 14:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
More important, however, is the idea that there should be as few production interruptions as possible, and if so, that these should be eliminated as quickly as possible. A typical phenomenon on the construction site is that work stops because a certain part / material to be installed has not been delivered on time. In production plants, a machine in the assembly line production breaks down and the whole production is stopped. This is where the Japanese philosophy comes into play, training the individual employee to the extent that he or she can repair minor defects on their own and assigning the responsibility to them to do so. For larger defects, a central team is available.<br />
<br />
然而，更重要的是要尽可能不去阻碍生产活动，如果有，则需要尽快消除。一个典型的现象是工厂因为某些待安装的材料未及时运输到位导致停工。在工厂，流水线生产中一台机器出了问题，整个生产都会停止。于是，日本的生产理念便起到作用。该理念旨在训练每一名员工能够自行修复小缺陷，并承担修复的责任。至于大一点的问题，则由团队来解决。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:01, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
然而，更重要的是应该尽可能减少生产中断现象，如果确实存在的话，应该尽快消除。在施工现场，由于未按时交付要安装的某些零件或材料而停工是很典型的。在生产工厂中，一旦流水线生产中的一台机器故障，整个生产都会停止。因此，日本理念开始发挥作用。工厂对单个员工进行培训，使他们可以自行修复较小的问题，并赋予相应的责任。至于较大的问题，则由中心团队来解决。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:58, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
This motivates them to ensure that these smaller defects do not occur in the first place and not only repairs the defect, but also thinks of a way to ensure that this defect does not occur in the future, i.e. they not only repair the defect, but also the cause of the defect.<br />
<br />
With production on demand, interruptions in production would also be conceivable if demand were to decline. Ideally, production then adjusts, i.e. it runs correspondingly slower or faster, depending on how strong demand is at the moment. The most important thing is that production is uninterrupted and trouble-free.<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些较小的缺陷不会先出现，除了修复缺陷，还要想出一种防范此缺陷发生的方法，即，他们不仅修复缺陷，而且根除缺陷。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产也可能会中断。 理想情况下，生产会进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地变慢或变快。最重要的是保证生产不间断且无故障。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些小缺陷不会第一时间出现，一旦出现，不仅要修复缺陷，而且要想出避免缺陷再次发生的办法，即：他们不仅要修复缺陷，而且要找出缺陷出现的原因。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产中断的情况可能会出现。 然而在理想情况下，产量会根据需求进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地减慢或加快，最重要的是保证生产无间断且不发生任何故障。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些较小的缺陷不会首先出现，并且不仅要修复缺陷，而且还考虑一种方法，来确保将来不会出现这种缺陷，即他们不仅要修复缺陷，还要解决缺陷的原因。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，可以想象，生产也会中断。理想情况下，生产会进行调整，即根据当前需求的强劲程度，相应地降低或加快生产速度。最重要的是生产得不间断且无故障。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:26, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The Japanese reward system works in a similar way for innovations introduced by individual employees involved in the production process. Here, it is important that the person who had the idea receives a relevant sum of money immediately and unbureaucratically, long before the idea is implemented.<br />
<br />
Another element are the quality circles or Kaizen teams. These are smaller working groups that are responsible for a small part of the production. They should meet once at the beginning and then regularly at least once a week to openly discuss suggestions for improvement. <br />
<br />
Recently, other Japanese elements of production culture have also been mentioned, such as multi-divisional structures and decentralization. They are also found in the American production culture.<br />
<br />
参与生产过程的员工可以提出自己的创新想法，日本的奖励制度与此类似。在这里，重要的是，在该想法实现之前，提出这个想法的人立即就得到一笔相关的钱，不需要重重审批。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或是持续改善团队。这些是比较小的工作组，负责生产环节的一小部分。他们应该在一开始就碰个面，然后至少每周定期开一次会，公开讨论改进建议。<br />
<br />
最近，人们也提到了日本生产文化的其他因素，例如多部门结构和权力下放机制。它们也同样存在于美国的生产文化中。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:03, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本的奖励制度对参与生产过程的雇员个人提出的创新也有类似的作用。在这里，重要的是，有想法的人在想法实施之前很久就能立即无官僚主义地得到一笔相关的资金。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或Kaizen小组。这些是较小的工作小组，负责生产的一小部分。他们应该在开始时开一次会，然后定期至少每周开一次会，公开讨论改进的建议。<br />
<br />
最近，日本生产文化的其他要素也被提及，如多部门结构和分权。美国的生产文化中也有这些内容。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:58, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本的奖励制度对参与生产过程的个体员工所引入的创新的运作方式与此类似。在这里，重要的是，在想法实现之前，有想法的人立即得到一笔相关的钱，而不是官僚作风。<br />
另一个要素是质量循环或改善团队。这些是较小的工作组，负责生产的一小部分。他们应该在开始时开会一次，然后每周至少定期开会，公开讨论改进建议。<br />
最近，日本生产文化的其他因素也被提到，例如多部门结构和权力下放。它们也存在于美国的生产文化中。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 09:47, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
The Japanese production culture, whose optimization was born out of necessity, proved to be more competitive than the cultures of other countries, which is why it quickly became the model, even the epitome, of modern production culture, and in the 1960s and 1970s it began a worldwide triumphal march.<br />
<br />
'''China - Factory of the world''' <br />
<br />
Today, however, China has replaced Japan and the other classic industrial nations as the factory of the world.<br />
<br />
[[File:fangjieling.jpg]]<br />
<br />
It also leads the emerging markets worldwide.<br />
<br />
In the projection of economic performance, Goldmann/ Sachs sees China ahead of the USA, India and Germany.<br />
<br />
<br />
日本生产文化的最优化来源于其必要性，它被证明比其他国家的文化更具竞争力。这就是为什么日本生产文化很快成为现代生产文化的模板，甚至是典范，并在1960年代和1970年代成为一种全球范围内的胜利光景。<br />
'''中国-世界工厂'''<br />
但是今天，中国已经取代日本和其他经典工业国家成为世界工厂。<br />
它还引领着全球新兴市场。<br />
在经济表现的预测中，高盛投资公司认为中国领先于美国，印度和德国。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 08:51, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
[[File:6.jpg]]<br />
<br />
So China is today again (after the period 0 A.D. until about 1200 A.D.) the leading economy in the world. One of the characteristics of the Chinese production culture is its continuity. For thousands of years, China has been producing products such as silk, tea, porcelain, etc. without interruption. Even though Chinese production was not a world leader in the period 1200 to 2000 A.D., it remained at a roughly constant level for a long time before it caught up with the Industrial Revolution in a rapid development. Such a long production culture is without equal worldwide.<br />
<br />
因此，今天的中国再次成为世界领先的经济体（从公元0年到公元1200年）。中国生产文化的一个特点就是它的连续性。几千年来，中国一直不间断地生产丝绸、茶叶、瓷器等产品。尽管在公元1200年至2000年期间，中国的生产并不是世界领先的，但在很长一段时间内，它基本上保持在一个稳定的水平上，才赶上了工业革命的迅速发展。如此悠久的生产文化在世界范围内是无与伦比的。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:09, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
It is still important to bear in mind that China is once again growing to become the leading economic nation, but in this most populous country not all Chinese are yet benefiting equally from this leadership role. This is easy to see when comparing the absolute figures (e.g. GDP in country comparison or related to the growth of its own GDP) with the relative figures (GDP/capita). Here is one such comparison with the <br />
<br />
有一点仍然值得牢记，那就是中国正再一次成为经济领导国，但是在这个人口大国，并非所有的中国人都能从这个经济领导地位中获得相等的利益。当将绝对数据（如国内生产总值或与国内生产总值增长相关的数据）与相对数据（如人均国内生产总值）进行比较时，这种现象就很显而易见了。这里有一个类似的比较：<br />
<br />
[[File:7.jpg]]<br />
<br />
I would like to start my analysis of the importance of production culture with a few questions:<br />
<br />
我想由以下几个问题来引出我对生产文化的重要性的分析：<br />
<br />
Does the production culture have anything to do with the rapid increase? Is it perhaps the cause of the increase? <br />
<br />
生产文化和（经济的）快速增长之间有联系吗？它是否是（经济）增长的原因？<br />
<br />
Obviously, the Chinese production culture has not been an international model for modern production culture. Could the reason for this be the problem that the production culture is culture-specific? What other reasons could there be? Are these reasons justified?<br />
<br />
显然，中国的生产文化还没有成为当代生产文化的一个国际模板。其原因是生产文化所具有的文化特异性吗？还有其他原因吗？其他原因又是否合理呢？<br />
<br />
In order to find clues to answer these questions, the Chinese production culture is examined and defined below.<br />
<br />
为了找到回答这些问题的线索，下面对中国生产文化进行了考察与定义。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:35, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
'''Genuity of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
The Silk Road has been documented since about the 5th century BCE, but gene analysis proves that it was used to trade domesticated plants and animals in both directions already about 10 millenia BCE. There is also proof of cultural exchange through this trade road. The following products manufactured in China were traded on it:<br />
<br />
·Silk<br />
<br />
·Tea<br />
<br />
·Spices<br />
<br />
·Ceramics/Porcellain<br />
<br />
·Jade<br />
<br />
·Bronze<br />
<br />
·Lacquerware/Paints<br />
<br />
·Iron<br />
<br />
·Paper<br />
<br />
·Gunpowder<br />
<br />
·Furs etc. <br />
<br />
The Silk Road was of course used in both directions, gold, precious stones and for a long time glass were imported into China. If the New Silk Road can be built with rail roads, it will lower the costs and time of shipping several times compared to the current maritime container shipping.<br />
<br />
中国生产文化的真实性<br />
丝绸之路大约在公元前5世纪就有记载了，但是基因分析证明，大约在公元前1万年左右，丝绸之路就用来在双边贸易中，销售栽培植物与家养动物了。这条贸易之路也证明了文化交流的可能性。以下中国制造的产品在这条贸易之路上进行交易：<br />
·丝绸<br />
·茶叶<br />
·香料 <br />
·陶瓷<br />
·玉器<br />
·青铜器<br />
·漆器<br />
·铁<br />
·纸<br />
·火药<br />
·毛皮等<br />
当然，丝绸之路是双向的，黄金、宝石和玻璃很长一段时间都是从中国进口的。如果新丝绸之路能与铁路一起建成，将比目前的海运集装箱所需的运输成本和运输时间低好几倍。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:21, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
With the world's largest merchant ships, junks, which could hold up to 4000 tons, China also dominated maritime trade for centuries. Already in the 3rd century B.C. the Emperor's Canal was built in China for inland navigation.<br />
<br />
中国拥有世界上最大的商船--军舰，可容纳4000吨货物，中国也在海上贸易中占据了数百年的主导地位。早在公元前3世纪，中国就修建了皇帝运河，用于内河航运。<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Previous picture: Chinese junk from the year 1804.[ John Barrow, „Travels in China: containing descriptions, observations, and comparisons, made and collected in the course of a short residence at the Imperial palace of Yuen-Min-Yuen, and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton“, Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12.1.2010, ISBN 9781153190947, 302 pp., p. 59.]<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Ming period junk (14th century).<br />
<br />
In the period from the birth of Christ until 1200 A.D., China had the highest gross domestic product in the world. Only in 1200 was China overtaken by Western Europe.<br />
ing时期的垃圾（14世纪）。<br />
<br />
从基督诞生到公元1200年，中国的国内生产总值是世界上最高的。直到1200年，中国才被西欧超越。<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
[[File:10.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Between 1200 and about 2000, China lagged far behind the West and was considered a developing country. Nevertheless, from 1700 until today, China has experienced the same population explosion as America and Europe.<br />
<br />
在1200年到2000年之间，中国远远落后于西方，成为发展中国家。 然而，从1700年至今，与美国和欧洲一样，中国也经历了人口爆炸。<br />
<br />
[[File:11.jpg]]<br />
<br />
While Europe ensured the food supply of the larger population at the end of the 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, China slept through this development and caught up with it in fast motion from 1900 with its first factories, from 1950 with centrally planned larger production units and from 2000 with private enterprises, at first mainly joint ventures, which led to an uneven development in the country.<br />
<br />
18世纪末，得益于工业革命，欧洲确保了更多人口的粮食供应。虽然在那时中国几乎处于休眠状态，但是到了20世纪，中国以迅雷不及掩耳之势赶上了欧洲：1900年，中国第一家工厂诞生；1950年，中央计划的大型生产单位出现；2000年私人企业产生，最初主要是合资企业，但这也导致了国内发展的不平衡。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 03:57, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
The example of silk production in Japan and China already reveals the first differences in the production culture:<br />
<br />
In Japan, a loom was introduced that was copied thousands of times without a license, thus ensuring a nationwide standard. Silk from Japan was always woven in the same way, and buyers could always rely on the same product quality.<br />
<br />
In China there were various independent production facilities and regional traditions. So silk from China was of a variable quality.<br />
<br />
Another aspect of Chinese production culture is the ethnic component: <br />
<br />
·Western companies have better cards in China if they use Chinese middlemen. <br />
<br />
·Chinese companies that are active in Africa export their entire business model including employees, cook, buildings.<br />
<br />
日本和中国的丝绸生产模式早已体现出了它们生产文化的第一处不同。在日本，一台纺织机引入后无需任何执照就被复制了数千台，由此保证了全国范围的生产标准。日本丝绸的编织方式都是相同的，所以顾客总是信任产品拥有同等的质量。在中国，有各式各样独立的生产设备和地方传统工艺。所以中国产的丝绸质量都参差不齐。中国生产文化的另一方面就是其名族性：如果通过中国的中间商，西方公司会通行更顺畅。活跃在非洲的中国企业会将其整个商业模式都带出去，包括其员工，厨师和公司建筑。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 05:31, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Nevertheless, today's Chinese production culture is no longer genuine, but is also more strongly influenced by history than the Japanese Western culture.<br />
<br />
Even party schools at the beginning of the 21st century are commissioning business faculties of American universities to conduct management training.<br />
<br />
'''Made in China'''<br />
<br />
The label "Made in Germany" was originally a British origin label to distinguish itself from poor quality German goods. It was only later that the mark of Cain became a trademark due to the improvement in quality.<br />
<br />
"Made in China" stands for cheap products, low wages, poor quality, mass production and plagiarism, hierarchical management and an "ant-like" workforce.<br />
<br />
<br />
然而，如今中国的生产文化已不再封闭，比起日本受到西方文化的影响，中国受到历史影响的程度更深。甚至在21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商科对其进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来区别德国的劣质产品。直到后来，由于质量的提高，“德国制造”才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价、低工资、劣质、大规模生产和剽窃、等级观念以及廉价劳动力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:48, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，今天的中国生产文化不再纯正了，而且比日本的西方文化更受历史的影响。<br />
<br />
甚至连21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商学院进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
中国制造<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来把本国的产品与德国的劣质产品区别开。直到后来，由于质量的提高，这个罪恶的标记才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价产品、低工资、低质量、大规模生产、抄袭、等级管理以及像“蚁族”一样的廉价劳动力。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But in fact this is only an impression that applied to the first mass products in China; in the meantime the picture has changed.<br />
<br />
1 At the beginning of the 21st century, the labor market in China appears saturated for the first time. This is accompanied by extreme wage increases. In the meantime, one has to pay almost as much for a man-day of an engineer with comparable qualifications in China as for an engineer-man-day in western industrialized countries.<br />
<br />
2. The previously most important productive sector is being replaced by the service sector as the most important economic sector.<br />
<br />
3. Following the example of Western companies that have consistently introduced quality assurance in China, the proverbial poor quality of Chinese products is now a thing of the past. In many companies, quality assurance is now also practiced.<br />
<br />
但是实际上这个印象也只是停留在中国第一次大量生产的时候；在此期间的情形已经变了。<br />
<br />
1.在21世纪初，伴随着工资的极度增加，中国劳动市场第一次出现饱和。同时，支付给相对合格的一名中国工程师一天的工资和西方工业国家的是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2.之前最重要的生产部门现在已被作为经济领域中最重要的服务部门所取代。<br />
<br />
3.西方公司在中国一向都有质量保证的规则，中国也正在向西方学习。总所周知的劣质中国产品也已不再出现。在许多公司中，质量保证这一规则正在被实行。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:14, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但事实上，这只是对中国第一次大规模生产的早期印象而已；与此同时，情况在不断地变化。<br />
<br />
1 在21世纪初，中国的劳动市场第一次接近于饱和状态，这是由于工资的急剧增加。同时，一名合格的中国工程师的工资和西方工业国家的工资是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2 服务业逐渐替代了早些年最重要的生产部门作为重要的经济组成部分。<br />
<br />
<br />
3 中国现在也正在学习西方国家公司的质量保障规则，中国的产品很差这一传言已经成为了过去式了。如今在大部分的公司，质量保障这一规章用于实践。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:43, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
4. apart from the reproduction of products developed in the West, the first high-tech products that have been further developed in China (cell phones, notebooks, etc.) are already available.<br />
<br />
5. Chinese companies are now buying companies worldwide with the required know-how (notebook division of IBM => Lenovo, Volvo etc.).<br />
<br />
6. with a real ravenous appetite, Chinese managers devour bestsellers that explain Western management principles and apply them with playful curiosity and great zeal, such as team meetings. Meetings in Chinese companies are now more common (5 meetings/day) than in Germany (1-2 meetings/day).<br />
<br />
[[File:12.jpg]]<br />
<br />
4，除了复制西方的产品，中国也已经有了在国内进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机和笔记本电脑等）。<br />
<br />
5，中国公司如今正在全世界地购买一些掌握技术的公司（IBM笔记本部门=>联想‘沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6，由于极大地需求，中国公司的管理人员几乎把那些介绍了西方管理规则的畅销书买完了，并且带着好奇心和热情把这些规则应用于实践，比如说西方比较盛行的小组会议。如今在中国的公司，开会的频率远远高于德国（中国一天5次会议，而德国一天1-2次会议）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:26, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.除了再生产西方的产品，中国进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机，笔记本电脑等）已经可以买到。<br />
<br />
5.中国公司现在正在世界各地收购具备所需技术的公司（IBM的笔记本部门--联想、沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6.由于庞大的渴求，中国公司的管理人员读完了所有讲述西方管理细则的畅销书，并带着极大的好奇心和热情将这些细则运用于实践之中，例如，小组会议。如今相较于德国公司来说，小组会议在中国公司更加的普遍。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Characteristics of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
'''Hierarchy'''<br />
<br />
Chinese companies are traditionally strictly hierarchical, with many levels. Authority gives face. As in other countries, functions are called together with the name as titles. According to Hofstede, the yardstick for hierarchy is the power distance index.<br />
<br />
'''Appreciation of age''' <br />
<br />
In addition to hierarchies based on professional positions, age also has a corresponding authority. Older people are seldom deported to retirement homes after their retirement, but live until death in the extended family, in which they fulfill tasks until the end. The neighborhood also takes care of the elderly people by involving them in work assignments (street cleaning, support for traffic regulation) depending on their readiness.<br />
“中国文化的特点”<br />
<br />
“等级制度”<br />
传统上，中国企业等级森严，层级众多。上级领导给下级脸色看。和其他国家一样，职能与名称一起被称为头衔。按照霍夫斯泰德的说法，衡量等级制度的标准是权力距离指数。<br />
<br />
“尊老传统”<br />
<br />
除了根据工作岗位制定的等级制度外，年龄也有相应的权威性。很少有老年人在退休后被送到到养老院，他们通常会与大家庭中共同生活，承担并完成一些家庭事务，一直到去世。街坊邻居也会照顾老年人的需要，根据他们的意愿，让他们参与一些工作任务，例如打扫街道、支持交通管制等。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:14, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
The older brother automatically has a more prestigious position than the younger one. In Chinese, kinship terms are strictly separated into "older" or "younger". The preceding adjective "alter" in the confidential form of address is an honorific. <br />
<br />
In business life, too, older employees are respected because of their life experience (and possibly because of the large network of relationships to be expected). <br />
A positive side effect is that the experience remains in the company. New research also shows in the West: older employees are often underestimated, their experience must be used more and knowledge can be kept in the company.<br />
<br />
'''Concept of Face'''<br />
<br />
For the protection of the individual, there is the face concept, where everyone can preserve his or her honor, even if mistakes have been made or someone is inferior. For this purpose, unwritten rules (institutions) are observed in the company: No one criticizes the other person in front of others. If criticism must be exercised, then indirectly. A request is not rejected directly, there is no "No! The Chinese employees are particularly sensitive to the nuances, to the "maybe" and know how to classify it accordingly without being damaged.<br />
<br />
哥哥的地位自然比弟弟高。在汉语中，亲属称谓严格分为“长”和“幼”。前一个形容词“alter（改变）”在亲密形式中是一个敬语。<br />
在商业生活中，年长的员工也会因为他们的生活经历而受到尊重（也可能是因为他们所拥有的庞大关系网）。一个积极的副作用是这种经验仍然存在于公司。新的研究还显示，西方国家的老员工往往被低估，他们的经验必须得到更多的利用，知识才能留在公司。<br />
<br />
”面子的概念“<br />
面子这个概念是为了保护个人，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的。为此，公司遵守不成文的规则（制度）：不要在大众面前批评别人。如果必须进行批评，那么就委婉间接的说出来。一个人的请求不会被直接拒绝，我们不会直接说“不！”中国人对此的细微差别可能会有相应的分类。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“面子的概念<br />
面子之所以存在，是为了自我保护，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的也是如此。为此，公司有个不成文的规定：不要当众批评别人。如果必须要批评，那就婉约一点。我们不会直接拒绝别人的请求，不会直接说“不。”中国人对于这一观念极为敏感，他们“或许”知道怎样进行区分才能避免伤害。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
'''Incompetence of bosses leads to informal decision-making'''<br />
<br />
Traditionally, the position of General Manager, or even senior positions in Chinese companies, is preferably filled with people who can be trusted by those making the appointments. The greatest trust is given by a family relationship, somewhat less so in the case of friendship between families or between individuals, or by shared periods of life, such as being born in the same village, attending the same school, the same club, etc. Of course, professional qualifications also help to build trust, but this is only of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
The leadership positions of the largest state-owned enterprises in China are assigned by the party, and these positions are cobbled together with correspondingly deserving cadres. <br />
<br />
One consequence of this appointment policy is the widespread incompetence of leaders.<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
<br />
传统上，总经理的职位，甚至中国公司的高级职位，最好是由可以任命的人所信任的人。 家庭关系给人最大的信任，家庭之间或个人之间的友情或家庭生活的共同点（例如在同一个村庄出生，在同一所学校，在同一家具乐部等）则给予最大的信任。 当然，专业资格也有助于建立信任，但这仅是次要的。<br />
<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是由党派出的，这些职务与相应的应聘干部结合在一起。<br />
<br />
这项任命政策的结果是领导人普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:56, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
传统上，中国公司的总经理职位，甚至是高级职位，最好都是那些能被任命者信任的人。最大的信任是由家庭关系给予的,或者是通过共同的生活阶段，例如出生在同一个村庄，在同一所学校，同一个俱乐部，等等。当然，职业资格也有助于建立信任，但这种信任不是特别重要。<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是党指定的，这些职位是由相应的干部结合而成的。<br />
这种任命政策的一个后果是领导普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 09:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
传统上，中国公司中的总经理及高级职位通常任命者所信任的。家庭关系给人最大的信任，比如家庭之间或个人之间的友情或家庭生活的共同点（例如在同一个村庄出生，在同一所学校，在同一家具乐部等）。 当然，专业资格也有助于建立信任，但这仅是次要的。<br />
<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是由党派出的，这些职务与相应的干部结合在一起。<br />
<br />
这项任命政策的结果是领导人普遍无能。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:51, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
In economic terms, this too is an emergency situation, especially for the bosses concerned, who are surrounded by more competent subordinates. In combination with the facial concept, the bosses thus have to hide their incompetence on the one hand and on the other hand want to keep their position, i.e. they are under enormous pressure to make the right decisions. This has led to an informal decision-making system. The boss discusses possible alternatives informally with the experts. In the end, he has obtained a broad opinion and makes the decision that seems best to him alone. The fact that the laurels are actually due to others remains unspoken; it increases the intensity of the personal relationships (renqing) of the people involved. Once the boss has made a decision and communicated it, the employees will implement it without contradiction due to the hierarchical structures.<br />
从经济角度来说，这也是一个紧急情况，尤其是对那些管理着更有能力的下属的老板们来说。因此，结合表层含义，一方面，老板们不得不隐藏自己的无能，另一方面又想保住自己的位置，也就是说，他们面临着做出正确决策的巨大压力。由此产生了一个非正式的决策体系。老板与专家非正式地讨论了可能的替代方案。最终，他获得了广泛的意见，并独自做出了对他来说最好的决定。桂冠实际上是别人的，这一事实仍未明说；它深厚了相关人员间的人情关系。一旦老板做出决定并传达给员工，员工就会执行，不会因为等级结构而产生矛盾。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在经济领域，这也是一种紧急情况，尤其当老板手下有着更为出色的员工时。一想到面子理念，老板一方面会掩盖自己的无能，另一方面又想捍卫自己的地位。他们做出正确决策时面临巨大压力。由此产生了一个非正式的决策体系。老板和专家们随意讨论可行的替代性方案。结果是，老板听取了大量意见，做出了最利于其自身的决策。事实上，功劳属于那些默默献言的专家们。此举促进了相关人员间的人情往来。一旦老板制定并传达某个决策，员工们考虑到公司等级结构，便毫无异议地执行。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 01:46, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
If a superior's decision is not considered correct, the subordinate may not address the boss. Rather, when the hierarchical structures do not apply (joint leisure activities or similar), an opportunity must be sought to indirectly point out the wrong decision to the boss.<br />
<br />
Meetings per day C > USA > D<br />
<br />
The frequency of meetings is much higher in China than in Germany. In the country comparison of four selected countries/regions the following order results:<br />
<br />
1. Hong Kong <br />
<br />
2. China<br />
<br />
3. USA<br />
<br />
4. Germany<br />
<br />
当下级认为某个上级的决定是错误的，他可能不会告知老板。然而，当层级结构不能适应（共同的休闲活动或类似问题上），下级就会寻求机会间接地将错误的决定传递给老板。<br />
<br />
每天的会议 C> USA> D<br />
<br />
中国开会的频率比德国高的多。对所选的4个国家或地区的顺序排名如下：<br />
<br />
1. 香港<br />
<br />
2. 中国<br />
<br />
3. 美国<br />
<br />
4. 德国<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
'''Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes'''<br />
<br />
[[File:13.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese production culture shows the following characteristics:<br />
<br />
1. in the area of know-how China lags behind the western industrial nations and Japan, which causes feelings of shame. Many Chinese feel that they are on the defensive and regard their country's relationship with the USA and Japan as the David's against Goliath. This results in a subjective legitimacy for broad-based industrial espionage with national interest and know-how theft.<br />
<br />
中国现代生产文化的形式及其原因<br />
<br />
专业技术：羞耻/ 防卫/ 大卫对抗歌利亚一样/ 基于国家利益的工业间谍活动 专业技术盗窃<br />
<br />
创新：<br />
<br />
竞争：<br />
<br />
国家管控：<br />
<br />
法律：<br />
<br />
中国现代生产文化有以下的特征：<br />
<br />
1. 在专业技术领域，中国落后于西方工业国家和日本，这让中国人民感到羞耻。许多中国人认为自己处于守势，中国与美国、日本的关系就像大卫对抗歌利亚一样，也因此将基于广义国家利益的工业间谍活动和专门技术盗窃视为合理。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
'''2. Innovation'''<br />
<br />
China is traditionally known as an empire of inventions, so letterpress printing, gunpowder, porcelain etc. were invented long before similar inventions were made elsewhere in the world. However, these inventions were often not brought to serial production and were produced in masses, as for example in Europe, where gunpowder led to the production of handguns and cannons. It can be exaggerated to say that gunpowder was used instead for New Year's fireworks by the nobility. This shows the Chinese characteristic of a capacity for innovation with a simultaneous lack of diffusion in the market.<br />
<br />
The Industrial Revolution also largely passed China by. Since China, like Europe, was experiencing a population explosion due to better hygiene and medicine, but at the same time the automation of food production did not go beyond manufactories, China fell behind in its standard of living.<br />
<br />
中国历来以发明帝国著称，所以活版印刷、火药、瓷器等发明的时间比世界上其他地方的类似发明要早得多。然而，这些发明往往不是批量生产的，而是大规模生产的，例如在欧洲，火药促使了手枪和大炮的生产。可以夸张地说，火药被贵族们用来代替新年的烟花。这显示了中国特色，即创新能力与市场推广能力同时不足。<br />
在很大程度上工业革命也与中国擦肩而过。因为中国和欧洲一样，由于卫生和医疗条件的改善，人口激增，但与此同时，食品生产的自动化并没有超越制造业，中国的生活水平落后了。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 01:01, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
Traditionally, imitation has always been highly valued in China. A good copy was almost as important as the original. Thus, both the civil service examination system of previous centuries and today's school system were strongly oriented towards reproduction rather than creativity. One reason may be the enormous amount of characters that requires students to memorize for years.<br />
<br />
自古以来，模仿对中国来说十分重要。好的模仿同原型几乎地位相等。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试制度和如今的学校系统都着重指向再生产而非创造。其中一个原因可能是学生在多年里需要记忆大量的人物。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 01:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从古至今，中国都十分重视效仿。好的副本与原本几乎同样重要。因此，先前世纪的公务员考试制度与现今学校系统都着重强调再生产而不是创新。其原因可能是学生们在几年里需要记的人物数不胜数。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 02:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，中国就十分重视模仿。好的模仿几乎和原创一样重要。因此，前几世纪的公务员考试和现在的学校体制都以再生产为导向而不是创造性。其中一个原因可能就是其要求学生花费数年时间去记大量的人物。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，中国就十分重视模仿。好的模本几乎和原本一样重要。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试和现在的学校系统都以再生产为导向而不是创造性。其中一个证据就是其要求学生花费数年时间去记大量的人物。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 11:39, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，模仿在中国一直很受重视。 一份好的副本几乎和原件一样重要。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试制度和今天的学校制度都强烈倾向于再生产，而不是创造。其中一个原因可能是人物数量众多，需要学生长年累月的记忆。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 01:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
The idea of copyright is also less rooted in China than in the West.<br />
<br />
When the Chinese were awakened from their sleep by the cannon thunder of the 1st Opium War, there was great regret that they had not carried out their own research and development. Although physical violence was disregarded, the foreigners were envied their technical superiority and since then they have propagated the idea of learning technology from foreigners and reproducing it in order to be able to defend their own cultural values and sovereignty more effectively. This feeling of envy gave rise to an extreme motivation to both imitate the superiority of others and ultimately to outdo them.<br />
<br />
中国的版权意识没有西方那么深刻。<br />
当中国人在第一次鸦片战争的炮声中惊醒时，他们非常遗憾没有自己的研发创造。国人虽然憎恨外国人的暴行，但仍旧羡慕他们的技术优势。从那以后，他们师夷长技，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和国家主权。但这种嫉妒感催生了一种极端的动机，既模仿他人的优越感，最终在该方面又超越他人。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与西方相比，中国的版权观念不那么根深蒂固。<br />
当第一次鸦片战争的炮声把中国人从睡梦中惊醒的时候，他们没有进行自己的研究和开发是非常遗憾的。即使中国人可以忽略外国侵略者的暴力，但却羡慕他们的技术优势，从那时起，他们开始宣传向外国人学习技术并加以复制，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和主权。这种嫉妒感产生了一种极端的动机，既模仿别人的优越感，又最终超越别人。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''3. Competition'''<br />
<br />
The toughest competition worldwide is in China. Successful products immediately find numerous imitators. As soon as an imitator can produce the product at more favorable conditions, the client switches to him. Together with state arbitrariness, this has resulted in the emergence of a typical Chinese type of company: The financial holding company as a family-owned enterprise with involvement in various industries. This enables a company to survive even if the sales market for a product suddenly collapses. In hardly any other country in the world do companies have to be as vigilant as in China, adapting products to changing customer requirements within the shortest possible time and always being one step ahead of the competition. New trends have to be recognized early and capacities have to be built up or reduced flexibly.<br />
<br />
Those who survive in this hard school are also prepared for more peaceful and fairer markets like those in Europe and America.<br />
<br />
'''3. 竞争'''<br />
<br />
世界上最激烈的竞争在中国。成功的产品一旦出现，马上伴随着无数的模仿者。一旦模仿者能够在更有利的条件下生产产品，客户就会转向他们。再加上国家的任意性，这形成了一种典型的中国企业类型:金融控股公司，这是一种涉及各行各业的家族企业。这使得公司即使在产品销售市场突然崩溃的情况下也能生存下来。在世界上，几乎没有哪个国家的公司需要像中国那样保持警惕，在尽可能短的时间内调整产品以适应不断变化的客户需求，并始终领先于竞争对手一步。新的趋势必须及早发现，能力必须灵活地增强减少。<br />
<br />
那些在这所艰苦的学校里生存下来的人，像那些在欧美市场的人一样，也为更和平、更公平的市场做好了准备。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 06:02, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''4. State control'''<br />
<br />
The reform and opening policy since 1978 has led to a predominance of foreign companies in China at the end of the 20th century. In order to protect their own industry, laws were introduced obliging companies to provide a certain percentage of their production in China locally. As a result, Chinese suppliers had to be sought who were able to contribute parts to the production chain. This promoted local industry and also the transfer of know-how. <br />
<br />
At the same time, foreign suppliers were also forced to follow the large companies to China if they did not want to be replaced by a Chinese company. This accelerated the settlement of foreign companies in China.<br />
1978年以来的改革开放政策导致20世纪末外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为了保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业必须在当地提供一定比例的产品。因此，他们必须寻找能够向生产链提供零部件的中国供应商。这促进了当地工业的发展，也促进了技术的转让。<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 10:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. 国家管控'''<br />
<br />
1978年改革开放以来，直到20世纪末，外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业生产产品必须有一定比例的当地产品。因此，这些公司必须寻找中国的供应商以为生产链提供零部件，这促进了当地产业发展和技术转让。<br />
<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这进一步加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
However, legislation (like the joint venture laws) and court decisions favoured domestic companies. Also, China has built up a state capitalism that sponsors industry, supports domestic industry on the world market and helps financing overseas investment. Also, copyright infringement and industrial espionage (including civil-military alliance) supports the Chinese economy. Under the Trump administration, the USA has responded with a protectionist “America first” strategy.<br />
<br />
'''5. Legal system'''<br />
<br />
The legal system in China is not independent. It acts at the behest of the state.<br />
<br />
Western companies came to China with superior know-how and financial power. These companies were admired in China, but at the same time a feeling of disadvantage arose with regard to their own backward industry.<br />
<br />
然而，法规（例如，合资企业法）以及法庭判决都有利于国内企业。中国也已经建立起一种国家资本主义，用来资助企业、支持出于世界市场中的国内企业、为海外投资提供资助。除此之外，版权侵权法规和企业情报刺探（包括军民联合）都促使中国经济发展。在特朗普的治理下，美国提出了“美国第一”的保护主义策略，以此作为回应。<br />
<br />
'''5.法律体系'''<br />
<br />
中国的法律体系不是彼此独立，互不相关的。它是应整个国家的要求而实行的。<br />
西方公司带着先进的技术知识和强大的财政实力来到中国。中国欣赏这些公司，但是同时觉得这些公司会对自己国家落后的企业不利。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:03, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国的法律体系并非独立存在，而是顺应国家需要而实行的。<br />
<br />
西方公司带着先进的技术知识和强大的经济实力来到中国。中国欣赏这些公司，但又怕它们会对自己国家落后的企业不利。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 04:07, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
As a counterbalance to this perceived weakness in relation to the large foreign corporations, the legislation was designed and the judiciary was urged to protect their own corporations.<br />
<br />
This puts Chinese partners in a better position when joint ventures are dissolved (often the know-how and capital goes to the owner).<br />
<br />
'''Necessity is the mother of invention'''<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in efficiency, known worldwide as Japanese management culture or production culture, was the lack of money for new machines in Japan after World War II.<br />
<br />
制定立法并敦促司法机构保护本国公司，是为了平衡与大型外资企业相关的某种弱势情况。<br />
<br />
当合资企业解散时，这使中国合作伙伴处于更有利的位置（通常专有技术和资本都归所有者所有）。<br />
<br />
'``必要是发明之母'''<br />
<br />
效率提高的原因是，为全世界所熟知的日式管理文化或生产文化，在第二次世界大战后，缺乏资金购置新机器。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 09:52, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
制定立法并敦促司法机构保护本国公司，是为了平衡与大型外资企业相关的某种弱势情况。<br />
<br />
当合资企业解散时，这使中国合作伙伴处于更有利的位置（通常专有技术和资本都归所有者所有）。<br />
<br />
'``需求是发明之母'''<br />
<br />
在第二次世界大战后，日本缺乏资金购置新机器从而导致了效率的提高，这也是众所周知的日式管理文化或生产文化。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:03, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
In China, another emergency situation is also the reason for developing a separate response to the challenges of the market: it is the professional incompetence of management personnel. This has grown historically. In China, management positions are primarily given to people who can be trusted. Traditionally, the most trustworthy people in China are family members or family members of old school friends, acquaintances who come from their own village and who have indulged in the same hobbies together (see Deng Xiaoping's Bridge round or the golf acquaintances in Western lobbying) etc. Loyalty to the party plays a secondary role. In principle, members of the Communist Party have it easier in business life, cadres even easier. Membership in the People's Liberation Army plays a similar role.<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。传统上最值得信赖的人是家庭成员或老同学的家庭成员，来自自己村庄的熟人，有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或西方游说中一起打的高尔夫熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员做生意很容易做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友也扮演着类似的角色。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:24, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战策略的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这种情况随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。在中国传统中，最值得信赖的人是自己的或老同学的家人，同村的熟人和有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或在西方游说中一起打高尔夫的熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员很容易把生意做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友关系也起着类似的作用。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:54, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Professional competence often plays no role at all. But here, too, a generational change has taken place; the highest leadership cadres in the Central Committee often had no education or training at all in the Soviet Union at the beginning, were replaced by technocrats in the 1980s, and at the beginning of the 21st century many have an American university degree. <br />
<br />
In the business sector, the leadership positions of the largest Chinese state-owned enterprises are still awarded by the party to deserving cadres.<br />
<br />
The professional incompetence of the bosses represents a plight that must be countered in daily work with a sophisticated strategy if one does not want to be replaced by a more professionally competent boss.<br />
<br />
专业能力往往起不到任何作用。但这也发生了一代人的变化;最初，中央委员会的最高领导干部没有在苏联接受过教育或培训；20世纪80年代他们被技术官僚取代了；在21世纪初，他们中的许多人拥有美国大学学位。<br />
<br />
在商业领域，中国最大国有企业的领导干部仍由党授予。<br />
<br />
管理者们在职业上的无能产生了一种困境，如果你不想被一个更有专业能力的管理者取代，就必须在日常工作中采用一种复杂的策略去应对。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:39, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
专业能力不能起到任何作用。但这里也发生了世代变化；起初，中央委员会的最高领导干部往往没有在苏联受过教育或培训，在20世纪80年代被技术官僚取代，在21世纪初，许多人拥有美国大学学位。<br />
<br />
在商业领域，中国最大国有企业的领导职位仍然由党授予有资格的干部。<br />
<br />
老板在职业上的无能代表了一种困境，如果你不想被一个更有专业能力的老板所取代，就必须在日常工作中采用一种复杂的策略加以应对。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 06:19, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
This strategy consists of the following:<br />
<br />
·Avoiding the disclosure of own professional incompetence<br />
<br />
·Informal consultation and coordination with the actual experts in the company before each decision process<br />
<br />
·Announcement and representation of the decision by the boss alone, this decision may then also no longer be questioned<br />
<br />
This informal participation in the decision-making process is organized in a network which, however, in contrast to the Japanese model, is not lived out in team discussions, but rather through several face-to-face meetings between the boss and a different expert in each case, since if the boss sought the advice of a first expert in the presence of a second expert, he would lose face with the second expert. This network character is therefore very personal and usually consists of direct two-person relationships.<br />
<br />
该战略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司的专家进行非正式协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
该策略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司真正的专家进行非正式的协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:49, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
However, it is also possible to contact a third person who knows the second person, whereby the second person then only establishes contact and then withdraws.<br />
<br />
A further emergency in China is that due to the sleepy industrial revolution and the lack of information diffusion in the market, no research and development tradition of its own has been established to date. Instead of carrying out basic research for a long time, information about the state of the art of advanced competitors was obtained and attempts were made to copy and eventually outperform them. Only recently, due to enormous governmental support, e.g. in hybrid drive technology and electric motor technology, self-developed products have been created in China.<br />
但是，也可以联系认识第二人的第三人，第二人随后只建立联系，然后退出。<br />
中国的另一个紧急情况是，由于困乏的工业革命和市场缺乏信息传播，迄今为止还没有形成自己的研发传统。他们没有长期进行基础研究，而是获得了先进竞争对手的最新技术信息，并试图模仿并最终超越他们。直到最近，由于政府的大力支持，例如在混合动力驱动技术和电动机技术方面，中国才出现了自主研发的产品。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但是，也可以联系认识第二个人的第三人，而第二个人只是建立联系，然后就退出。<br />
中国的另一个紧急情况是，由于工业革命停滞不前，市场上缺乏信息传播，迄今为止还没有建立起自己的研发传统。在很长一段时间里，研究者们没有进行基础研究，而是获得了先进竞争对手的最新技术信息，并试图模仿他们，最终超越他们。直到最近，由于政府的大力支持，例如在混合动力驱动技术和电动机技术方面，中国才出现了自主研发的产品。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:35, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
'''Changes in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
When the production site in China opened up to the global industry, the egalitarianism of the planned economy had already erased the tradition of quality assurance from the memory of the factory workers. In the decades before, they had been used to selling along with the scrap. The first factories, which produced goods in China due to the low labor costs, also delivered rejects accordingly. The foreign investors first had to reintroduce the quality assurance concept in China. Due to the strong competition in China and the orientation towards world market prices and standards, quality assurance has now been internalized in China.<br />
<br />
“中国生产文化的变化”<br />
<br />
当中国的生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义使得工厂工人追求质量保证这一传统不复存在。在过去的几十年里，工人已经习惯了把废料一同出售。由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废料。外国投资者须先重申质量保证的重要性，唤起中国生产商的重视。与此同时，由于中国市场的激烈竞争以及其对世界市场价格和标准的关注，质量保证在中国内部现已普及。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:28, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''中国生产文化的变化'''<br />
<br />
在中国生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义已经从工厂工人的记忆中抹去了质量保证的传统。在过去的几十年中，它们已经习惯与废料一同出售。 由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废品。 外国投资者首先必须在中国重申质量保证理念。 由于中国的激烈竞争以及对世界市场价格和标准的遵循，质量保证现已在中国内部化。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''中国生产文化的变化'''<br />
<br />
当中国的生产基地向全球工业开放时，计划经济的平均主义已经从工厂工人的记忆中抹去了质量保证的传统。几十年里，他们已经习惯了和废品一起销售。由于劳动力成本低，第一批在中国生产商品的工厂也相应地交付了次品。外国投资者首先不得不在中国重新引入质量保证概念。由于中国市场的激烈竞争和对世界市场价格和标准的追求，质量保证在中国已经内化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:42, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
The originally traditional lifelong relationship with the employer, as we also know it from Japan, has now been reversed. China currently has one of the highest employee turnover rates in the world, even higher than the already high rate in the USA.<br />
<br />
In the period 1950 to 1980, the production culture was characterized by blind fulfillment of plans; since 1980, production has been oriented to the market.<br />
Today, management concepts are as en vogue in China as political campaigns were in the past. They are read and discussed, but often misunderstood due to the lack of foreign language skills and context/background knowledge.<br />
<br />
通过日本我们可以知道，最初的传统终生雇佣关系现在已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率本就很高的。<br />
<br />
在1950年至1980年期间，生产文化的特征是盲目地执行计划；自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。 如今，管理理念在中国就像过去的政治运动一样流行。 它们被阅读和讨论，但由于缺乏外语技能和语境背景知识而常常被误解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 07:59, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
通过日本我们也可以知道，最初的传统终身雇佣关系现已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率已经很高的美国。<br />
<br />
在20世纪50年代至80年代，生产文化的特点是盲目执行计划; 自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。如今，在中国，管理理念就像过去的政治运动一样流行。他们被阅读和讨论，但常因为缺乏外语技能和背景知识而被误解。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
通过日本我们也可以知道，最初的传统终身雇佣关系现已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于已经很高的美国.<br />
1950年到1980年期间，生产文化的特征是盲目地执行计划，自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。如今，管理理念在中国就像过去的政治运动一样流行。人们阅读和讨论这些理念，但经常因为缺乏外语技能和语境背景知识而进行了错误的理解。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 09:15, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
Similar to the campaigns, the concepts are introduced with an eternal claim, but only last as long as a seasonal fashion. This type of management, which is based on current trends in management strategies, could also be called guerrilla management, following Sebastian Heilmann's concept of "guerrilla politics".<br />
<br />
In China, a culture of secrecy (ID badges, access restrictions), especially among high-tech companies, is prevalent, which is exactly the same as in America. In China, this culture was simply copied from the USA, certainly also due to the findings of Chinese industrial espionage abroad that know-how, e.g. in German companies, is often insufficiently protected against access by third parties.<br />
与这些运动类似，这些概念的引入具有恒久的主张，但只风靡了小段时间。 这种基于当前管理战略趋势的管理模式，也可以称为游击管理，遵循韩博天的“游击政治”概念。<br />
在中国，保密文化（代表证、访问限制）是普遍存在的，尤其是在高科技公司中，这与美国完全相同。 在中国，这种文化只是简单的从美国复制而来，当然也是因为中国在国外的工业间谍活动的发现，例如技术。 在德国公司中，往往得不到充分的保护，不受第三方的访问。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 16:50, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
'''Roles in the Chinese production culture''' <br />
<br />
The central role in the Chinese production and management culture is played by the boss. This can also be seen in the comparatively high values of China's Power Distance Index.<br />
<br />
The specific behavior of the boss in the decision making process has already been explained above.<br />
<br />
In the following, the difference in the relationship between the boss and his subordinates in China and Germany will be described.<br />
<br />
The team member in Germany expects a target for the overall project and the specification of the assigned subarea within the project, feels responsible for the timely achievement of his own and the team goal and wants to find the way to this goal independently.<br />
中国生产文化中的角色。<br />
上司在中国生产和管理文化中处于核心地位。这也可以从中国权力距离指数较高的数值中看出。上司在决策过程中的具体行为在上面已经阐述了，接下来将阐述中德两国间上司与员工关系的不同。德国的组员预测了整个项目的一个目标，也对项目内被分配的负责部分进行了规划，他觉得有责任在规定时间内取得个人成果，达成小组的目标，同时也想独立完成任务。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
``中国文化生产中的角色''<br />
老板在中国生产和管理文化中扮演着核心角色。这也可以从相对较高的中国权利距离指数中看出。前文已经解释了老板在决策过程中的特定行为。接下来将阐述老板与下属在中德之间的关系差异。德国团队的成员预测了整个项目的一个目标，并希望为该项目中负责的部分做出规划，并为及时实现自己的目标和团队目标负有责任，同时他们也希望独立地完成任务。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 07:01, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
It would like to be little supervised and communicates intensively with the other team members. The team leader in Germany is rather a primus inter pares, who has a small area of responsibility as a specialist and is responsible for coordination. The success is always a success of the team.<br />
<br />
In China, the boss has a much higher position than the other team members. He gives each team member the individual goal and the individual steps to reach this goal. He closely monitors the progress and cares for the team members, also regarding job satisfaction and in private matters. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
He expects a feedback only to him and no exchange of information between the team members. If the input of the first team member is a prerequisite for the work of the second team member, the boss himself forwards the intermediate / work results of the first to the second team member. <br />
<br />
The role of the employee in China is determined by the following characteristics: He cultivates a culture of error, in which it is important not to make any mistakes of his own, and in case mistakes are made, to correct them if possible without being noticed and in case they are noticed, to at least not immediately admit the guilt.<br />
<br />
他只希望得到反馈，而团队成员之间不会交换信息。 如果第一团队成员的输入是第二团队成员工作的前提，则老板本人将第一团队的中间/工作结果转发给第二团队成员。<br />
<br />
员工在中国的角色由以下特征决定：他培养了一种错误文化，在这种文化中，重要的是不要自己犯任何错误，并且万一犯了错误，应尽可能改正而不会引起注意。 如果他们被注意，至少不要立即认罪。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 02:09, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In all these behaviours, the principle of face awareness applies.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the loyalty of employees to an employer in China is extremely low at the beginning of the 21st century. For a few yuan a month, workers change employers. Headhunters intercept employees at the factory gate, ask about the salary and offer correspondingly more. <br />
<br />
The paid passing on of information, especially about customers, suppliers, purchase prices and patents, is also considered a trivial offence. <br />
Chinese companies communicate less and employees are more demotivated. This is mainly due to the high production pressure, as case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku 2006 show (see list of literature in the appendix).<br />
在所有这些行为中，面孔意识的原则都同样适用。<br />
如上所述，在21世纪初，中国员工对雇主的忠诚度极低。为了一个月多赚几块钱，工人们换雇主。猎头们在工厂门口拦住员工，询问他们的薪水，并相应地提供更高的薪资。<br />
信息的有偿传递，尤其是关于客户、供应商、购买价格和专利的信息，也被认为是一种轻微的犯罪。中国公司缺乏沟通，员工更是没有活力。据Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku三人在2006年的案例研究表明(见附录中的文献列表)，这主要是由于生产压力高导致的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 15:22, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
在所有这些行为中，面子意识的原则都同样适用。<br />
如上所述，在21世纪初，中国员工对雇主的忠诚度极低。为了一个月多赚几块钱，工人们换雇主。猎头们在工厂门口拦住员工，询问他们的薪水，并相应地提供更高的薪资。<br />
信息的有偿传递，也被认为是一种轻微的犯罪，尤其是关于客户、供应商、购买价格和专利的信息。中国公司缺乏沟通，员工更是没有活力，主要是因为生产压力高。据Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku三人在2006年的案例研究表明(见附录中的文献列表)。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 16:59, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
'''The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979'''<br />
<br />
In the phase of socialism, the centrally planned economy applied in it blossomed as follows:<br />
<br />
When the news reached the top, there was a culture of whitewashing.<br />
<br />
The breakup of the unions made the culture of co-determination in companies even more informal.<br />
<br />
'''Gaming in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
In China, playful experimentation is a core element of the production culture. In this way, individual management elements, but also entire foreign production philosophies can be tried out in a playful way.<br />
'''1949-1979年的社会主义中期'''<br />
在社会主义阶段，中央计划经济的发展是这样的:<br />
当新闻登顶时，出现了一种粉饰的文化。<br />
工会的解体使得公司中共同决策的文化更加非正式。<br />
'''游戏在中国的生产文化'''<br />
在中国，好玩的体验是生产文化的核心元素。通过这种方式，不仅单个的管理元素，整个外国生产哲学都可以以一种有趣的方式进行试验。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:58, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1949-1979年的社会主义中期'''<br />
<br />
在社会主义阶段，中央计划经济的发展是这样的:<br />
头条新闻显示出一种粉饰文化。<br />
工会解体让公司内部共同决策的文化更加非正式。<br />
<br />
'''游戏在中国的生产文化'''<br />
<br />
在中国，有趣的体验是生产文化的核心。通过这种方式，单个的管理元素和整个外国生产文化都可以用一种有趣的方式进行试验。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 01:28, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
One of the main differences between young people in China and those in the West is that, even as young adults, they can still play hilariously without making themselves look ridiculous to others. The joy of playing is particularly unrestrained if the ambition is there to copy a foreign product as similar as possible or even to surpass it and also to implement, for example, a new management concept or a production philosophy. <br />
<br />
New rules of the game are accepted very quickly. The introduction of a reward system (''incentives'') for long service has led to a situation in China where it is always calculated when a change is worthwhile.<br />
<br />
中国的年轻人和西方的年轻人最主要的一个不同点就在于，即使已经成年了，年轻人仍然可以快乐的玩耍，别人也不会认为他们很可笑。如果野心是尽可能地模仿外国产品甚至是超越它并投入实施，例如一个新的管理概念或者生产哲学，那么玩的乐趣是无拘无束的。<br />
新的游戏规则很快被接受。在中国，奖励机制的引入以及长期使用已经导致了一种问题：当这个机制需要改变的时候总是通过计算来完成。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:49, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国的年轻人和西方的年轻人最主要的一个不同点是：即使已经成年了，他们仍然玩得滑稽可笑，但他们自己却不会使人觉得很荒唐。如果他们是立志于效仿国外同样的产品甚至是超越它并将如一个新的管理概念或者生产哲学等投入实施，那么玩的乐趣就无穷无尽。<br />
<br />
新的游戏规则很快就被人们所接受。在中国，奖励机制的引入以及长期使用已经造成一种局面：当需要改变的时候，总是通过计算来完成。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:47, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
Sustainable concepts can only be introduced if the benefits of the concept are clear. Other concepts with no discernible added value, such as alignment with the American corporate philosophy on mergers and acquisitions, are forgotten just as quickly as they were introduced, and people return to old habits.<br />
<br />
'''Effects on the company''' <br />
<br />
In China today, we find a modern production culture that is international but has its Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
It has positive and negative effects on the company<br />
只有明确了可持续性概念的好处，才能引入可持续性发展的概念。 其他没有明显价值的概念，诸如与美国企业关于并购的理念，一被引入就很快地被忘记了，人们又回到了旧习惯。<br />
'''对公司的影响'''在当今的中国，我们发现了一种具有国际特色但具有中国特色的现代文化产业。<br />
它对公司既有正面也有负面影响：--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 06:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
只有当可持续概念的好处是明确的时候，才可以采用这种概念。其他没有明显附加价值的概念，如与美国公司并购哲学相一致，一经引入就被遗忘，人们又回到了老习惯。<br />
<br />
'''对公司的影响'''<br />
在今天的中国，我们发现了一种具有中国特色的国际现代生产文化。<br />
它对公司有积极和消极的影响--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 06:57, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
'''Positive effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·Networks<br />
<br />
·the preferential treatment of Chinese companies (e.g. in tenders, competition, within corporate groups such as joint ventures)<br />
<br />
·playful enthusiasm for technology<br />
<br />
·Brutality, which in turn promotes competition<br />
<br />
'''Negative effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·through their distortion of competition <br />
<br />
·by promoting incompetence in management positions<br />
<br />
·through their priority of personal rather than non-cash benefits, which is fundamentally negative for the production culture <br />
<br />
·through rituals/conventions (face, criticism, status etc.)<br />
<br />
·intransparent state sponsoring and corruption<br />
<br />
'''中国管理与生产文化的积极影响(CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
•网络<br />
<br />
•中国企业的优惠待遇（例如在投标、竞争中，在合资企业等企业集团内）<br />
<br />
•对科技的狂热<br />
<br />
•残酷，这反过来又促进了竞争<br />
<br />
'''中国管理与生产文化的消极影响(CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
•扭曲竞争<br />
<br />
•助长管理职位的不称职<br />
<br />
•优先个人利益而不是非现金利益，从根本上来说对生产文化是消极的<br />
<br />
•仪式/惯例（面子、批评、地位等）<br />
<br />
•不透明的国家赞助和腐败--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:48, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
中国管理与生产文化的积极影响(CMPC)<br />
<br />
•网络<br />
<br />
•中国企业的优惠待遇（例如在投标、竞争中，在合资企业等企业集团内）<br />
<br />
•激发对科技的激情<br />
<br />
•残酷性:反过来又促进了竞争<br />
中国管理与生产文化的消极影响(CMPC)<br />
<br />
•恶性竞争<br />
<br />
•助长管理层的不称职行为<br />
<br />
•优先个人利益而不是非现金利益，从根本上来说对生产文化有消极影响<br />
<br />
•仪式/惯例（面子、批评、地位等）<br />
<br />
•不透明的国家赞助和腐败--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The fundamental difference of the free trade zone established by China, Japan, Australia and other Asian Pacific countries in 2020 from suggestions of free trade zones involving the US or the EU is, that state-sponsoring and corruption are not restricted. Therefore China benefits most of this new free trade zone.<br />
<br />
'''Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?'''<br />
<br />
2020年设立的由中国、日本、澳大利亚及其他亚太地区国家组成的的自由贸易区，与建议设立的由美国或者欧盟参与的自贸区的最大不同是，前者对国家支持和贪污腐败没有约束。因此，中国从这个新贸易区受益最多。<br />
<br />
'''现代中国在哪些方面可以作为管理和产业文化的国际标杆？'''<br />
<br />
由中国、日本、澳大利亚及其他亚太地区国家在2020年设立的自由贸易区，与建议由美国或欧盟参与的自贸区的最大不同在于，前者对国家支持和贪污腐败没有约束。因此，中国从这个新贸易区受益最多。<br />
<br />
'''现代中国在管理和产业文化在哪些方面可以称为国际标杆？'''--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 12:32, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
2020年设立的由中国、日本、澳大利亚及其他亚太地区国家组成的的自由贸易区，与建议设立的由美国或者欧盟参与的自贸区的最大不同是……'''现代中国在哪些方面可以作为管理和产业文化的国际标杆？'''--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:10, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
The Chinese management and production culture (CMPC), as explained in the previous chapters, has its own characteristics that distinguish it from, for example, the Japanese or American management and production culture. Nevertheless, the CMPC is successful and manages the world's largest production market. Elements of the Japanese production culture have been successfully used worldwide to modernize production facilities. Can Chinese elements also lead to global success?<br />
<br />
The following 5 elements appear at least compatible on the international market:<br />
<br />
'''1. informal decision making through horizontal and vertical network management'''<br />
<br />
In China, important and unimportant decisions are seldom made by competent committees or officials, but rather are investigated informally.<br />
<br />
我们在前几章提到，中国的管理和产业文化有自己的特色，不同于日本和美国的管理和产业文化。虽然中国的管理和产业文化管理世界上最大产业市场，但是日本的产业文化已经为全世界所通用，推动了全球产业设施的现代化。那么中国的产业文化是否能够走向全球呢？<br />
下面是能与国际市场相容的五条：<br />
第一条，通过横纵向网络管理系统传达非正式的决策<br />
在中国，重要或不重要的决定很少由有实力的机构和政府组织拍板，大多是来自非正式的调查。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 01:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The hierarchical position in the company of those involved in the decision-making process is irrelevant, only their professional competence. Questioning the most competent is possible because this questioning is completely detached from the honor and reward system, but takes place in a parallel world, the so-called personal relationship system (Chinese: guanxi 关系). Due to this decoupling, the responsible decision-maker does not mind questioning other, not responsible but more competent colleagues/employees/outsiders. At the same time, the colleague/employee/external is motivated to give the best possible decision support, since he can score points in the parallel world.<br />
<br />
The results are well-founded and accepted decisions.<br />
<br />
参与决策过程的人在公司中的等级地位无关紧要，只有他们的专业能力。对最有能力的人提出质疑是可能的，因为这种质疑完全脱离了荣誉和奖励系统，而是发生在一个平行的世界，即所谓的个人关系系统中。由于这种脱钩，负责任的决策者并不介意质疑其他不负责任但更有能力的同事/员工/外人。同时，同事/员工/外部人员也有动力给予尽可能好的决策支持，因为他可以在平行世界中得分。<br />
<br />
结果是有理有据，被接受的决策。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:57, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参与决策过程的人与其在公司的级别地位是不相关的，与之相关的仅仅是他的能力。质疑最有能力的人是可取的，因为这种质疑完全脱离了荣誉奖励系统，而是发生在一个平行世界，即所谓的人际关系系统中。基于关系系统的分离，决策者也就不介意质疑其他不负责任但是能力更强的同事、员工或者外人。同时，这些人也会更有动力去给予尽可能好的决策支持，因为他们会在这个平行世界中得分。<br />
最终得到有理有据并且可以接受的决策。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:49, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
'''2. playfully trying out new forms of production and management (attention: hermeneutics/sustainability)'''<br />
<br />
The play instinct in people up to old age is socially sanctioned. In phases when there is little to do in the office, a Mahjong or Go board or cards are taken out as a matter of course. Similarly, new methods, often imported from the West or Japan, are tried out with playful zeal. An incentive system, for example, challenges colleagues to earn as much capital as possible in the form of incentives in as short a time as possible. It is not unusual for hit lists to be posted in the office, so that colleagues encourage each other.<br />
2.积极尝试新的生产和管理形式（注意：诠释学/可持续性）<br />
老年人的游戏本能是受到社会认可的。有时候，在办公室几乎无事可做，拿出麻将、围棋牌或卡片是顺理成章的事。 同样地，也可以满怀热忱地试试从西方或者日本来的新玩法。 例如，设置激励系统，鼓励同事在尽可能短的时间内赚取尽可能多的财富。 赢家名单被张贴在办公室很常见，这样同事之间也可以互相鼓励。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 03:18, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
But it is important to pay attention to three aspects:<br />
<br />
1. the actual goals should be achieved without neglecting other aspects of the work or even worsening the overall result, because the colleagues are addicted to the urge to play. The introduction of new management or production strategies is nothing new for Chinese employees, they know this from political or education-oriented campaigns (e.g. traffic education). <br />
<br />
The second aspect that must be kept in mind is the understanding of the corresponding philosophies. For this it is important, for example, when importing Western management culture into China, that the correct Chinese term is first found for the fashionable e.g. English expression.<br />
<br />
我们要重点注意以下三个方面：<br />
1、最终目标的实现不能否定其他方面的工作，甚至恶化整个大局，因为同事们都沉迷于游戏。新型的管理或生产策略在中国员工看来都是见怪不怪了，他们从政治或教育运动（如交通教育）中了解到这一点。<br />
二要牢记理解相关哲学。说这一点重要，是因为当重要的西方管理文化进入中国时，正确的中文术语应首要出现以顺应潮流，比如英式表达。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:34, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但重要的是要注意这三个方面：<br />
1.实际的目标应该在不忽视工作的其他方面的情况下实现，因为同事们都沉迷于玩乐会使整体的结果恶化。对中国员工来说，引入新的管理或生产策略并不是什么新鲜事，他们从政治或教育导向的活动（如交通教育）中已经了解到这一点。必须牢记的第二个方面是对相应的哲学方面的理解，这一点很重要，例如，在向中国引进西方管理文化时，最重要的是首先找到正确的中文术语，如英式表达。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:09, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Terms that are translated incorrectly or not at all lead to success messages that a new system has been introduced, with what was understood by it being introduced instead. <br />
<br />
A third aspect that must be considered in this context is sustainability. Many new concepts that have been introduced are forgotten after a few weeks and the old rut has returned. Only individual, often senior employees still remember the newly introduced things and occasionally refer back to them without being able to enforce them on their employees.<br />
<br />
翻译不正确或根本没有翻译的术语会带来成功信息，即引入了一个新系统，而引入了该系统所理解的内容。<br />
<br />
在这情形下必须考虑的第三个方面是可持续性。许多引入的新概念在几周后就被遗忘而老一套又回来了。只有个别的，通常是高级员工还记得新引进的东西，偶尔也会提到，但不能强加在他们的员工身上。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
翻译错误或根本没有翻译的术语也会有所成果，其引入了一个新系统，并引入了该系统所理解的内容。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，可持续性是必须考虑的第三个方面。许多引入的新概念在几周后就为人们所遗忘，取而代之的是重蹈覆辙的老一套概念。只有个别人，通常是高层还记得新引进的东西，他们偶尔也会提起，但却无法强迫他们的员工也记得。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A process description system that is integrated into the daily work routine (e.g. daily used computer work surface) is useful here, where the employees make or execute decisions and processes in the given paths.<br />
<br />
All in all, the playful approach reduces fear of contact with new things, the daily work routine is varied and the employees gain further qualifications.<br />
<br />
'''3. speed and flexibility in product development'''<br />
<br />
One of the hallmarks of the Chinese manufacturing industry is the speed at which products are cribbed and developed further, or at which they react to changing customer requirements or market conditions.<br />
<br />
与工作日程（例如日常使用的计算机工作界面）相结合的过程描述系统非常有用，员工可以按照给定的路径来制定或执行决策或流程。<br />
<br />
总而言之，游戏化的方法减少了接触新鲜事物的恐惧，工作日程多样化，员工也能进一步获得资格。<br />
<br />
3.产品开发的速度和灵活性<br />
<br />
中国制造业的一个标志是产品加工和发展的速度之快，以及它们对不断变化的客户要求或市场条件作出的快速反应。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 12:26, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
将过程描述系统集成到日常工作程序中(例如，日常使用的计算机工作界面)在这里是有用的，在这里雇员在给定的路径中制定或执行决策和过程。<br />
总而言之，这种好玩的方式减少了人们对接触新事物的恐惧，每天的工作日程变得多样，员工们也获得了更多的资格证书。<br />
“‘3。产品开发的速度和灵活性"<br />
中国制造业的特点之一是产品被抄袭和进一步开发的速度，或者它们对不断变化的客户要求或市场条件作出反应的速度。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 01:46, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
The ambition that Chinese product developers put into developing solutions for specific requirements is comparable to the play instinct described above.<br />
<br />
他希望中国的产品开发人员为特定需求开发解决方案，这一雄心壮志与上述游戏本能不相上下。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This high speed and flexibility strengthens the competitiveness of Chinese companies. Western companies can learn these qualities by locating in China and thus benefit from these experiences in the comparatively sluggish production location in their home countries.<br />
<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。西方企业可以在中国开公司来学习这些品质，从经验中获益，与本国相对迟缓的生产环境来说。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。处在本国相对迟缓的生产环境下的西方企业可以落户中国来学习这些品质，并从这些经验中获益。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 11:07, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. focusing on personal competence instead of things or functions'''<br />
<br />
4注重个人能力而不是事物或职能--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Interesting and certainly typical Chinese is the fixation on people instead of the thing.<br />
<br />
有趣的是，中国人是典型的对人不对事。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
有趣无疑的是，大凡中国人都对人不对事。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 11:50, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
[[File:majuan]]<br />
An original feature is the logistics. As this picture illustrates, existing primitive means are exploited to the utmost. Admirable is the matter-of-course way in which the extremes are mastered.<br />
<br />
For a long time, production capacity in China grew faster than logistics. Only at the beginning of the 21st century are delivery services and infrastructure (highways, high-speed train connections, etc.) catching up.<br />
<br />
最初的特征物流。正如这张图片所示，现有的原始手段被开发到了极致，能够驾驭极端的自然方式最令人钦佩。<br />
<br />
过去很长一段时间，中国的生产力比物流发展更快。到21世纪初期，快递业务和基础设施（高速公路，高速铁路等）才追赶上来。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:25, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
原始功能是物流。如图所示，现有的原始手段得到最大限度的利用。令人钦佩的是控制极端情况的过程方法。<br />
<br />
长期以来，中国的生产能力快于物流业的发展。在21世纪初，送货服务和基础设施（高速公路，高速铁路等）才开始迎头赶上。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
'''The Freedom of Intellectual Exchange'''<br />
<br />
Starting to work on the modern Chinese literary essay in the 1990s, I published my Ph.D. thesis ''The History of the Chinese Essay'' in 1998. Because it was written in German, I hoped since then to raise interest in this subject in the anglophone world, too. With this volume in hand, this wish has become true. Some of the topics I dealt with in my thesis like the development of the genre, biblio-biographies of several essayists etc., are elaborated here extensively by my collegues in English and more detailed than I could do it in my first ground work in German.<br />
<br />
知识交流的自由<br />
自1990年代开始从事现代中国文学论文研究以来，我于1998年发表了博士学位论文—《中国散文史》。因为它是用德语写的，所以我希望从那以后也引起英语界对此主题的兴趣。 有了这一论文在手，这个愿望就变成了现实。 我在论文中涉及的一些主题，例如体裁的发展，几位散文家的参考书目等，在这里由我的同事们用英语进行了详尽的阐述，且比我第一次用德语进行的工作更详尽 。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:51, 1 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Moreover, this collection documents the lively discussion, which started among sinologists in the last years of the 20th century.<br />
<br />
I remember quite clearly, how the idea of the conference was born during a meal at the Boston AAS conference hotel with King-Fai Tam. Leo Ou-fan Lee had helped to bring both of us together, knowing that we shared a seemingly specialized hobby, the modern Chinese essay. King-Fai was preparing two collection of essay translations, one with essays from mainland China and one from Taiwan. The first is scheduled for publication. I prepared another collection of essays with both, Chinese original and English translation, published by The University Press Bochum half a year ago. The common intention of both of us is to make more Chinese essays available in English translations.此外，这本书还记录了20世纪末汉学家之间展开的热烈讨论。我清楚地记得，在波士顿AAS会议酒店与谭王辉共进晚餐时，我们产生了举办会议的想法。因为知道我和谭王辉都爱好现代中国散文，李欧凡（Leo Ou fan Lee）介绍我们相识。王辉正在准备两本散文翻译集，一本是中国大陆的散文集，另一本是台湾的散文集。第一个计划出版。半年前，我准备了另一本论文集，包括中文原著和英文译本，由波鸿大学出版社出版。我们两个的共同目的是让更多的中文文章可以用英文翻译。--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 06:51, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
此外，这些文档还记录了20世纪最后几年间汉学家之间的热烈讨论。我清楚地记得，会议的想法是如何在波士顿AAS会议酒店与谭王辉共进晚餐时产生的。李欧凡（Leo Ou fan Lee）帮助我们走到了一起，因为他知道我们有一个看似特殊的爱好，那就是现代中国散文。王辉正在准备两本散文翻译集，一本是中国大陆的散文集，另一本是台湾的散文集。第一个计划出版。半年前，我准备了另一本论文集，包括中文原著和英文译本，由波鸿大学出版社出版。我们两个的共同目的是让更多的中文文章可以用英文翻译。--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 06:51, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
King-Fai Tam and me are both fascinated of the idea of promoting this long time neglected genre and to find out more about its characteristics and the reasons of its success in the 1920s and 1930s as well as in the 1980s and 1990s. On a napkin, we outlined an AAS panel, an international conference and a volume with essays on the essay. All of these ideas are now becoming real more or less in the way we planned it: The AAS panel became an NEAAS panel at Yale, the conference took place in August 25-27, 2000 at the Academy of Euro-Asian Economy and Culture in Achern, in the Black Forest, Germany.<br />
<br />
发展这个长期被忽视的体裁，发掘出它的特点，找出它在20世纪二三十年代和八九十年代获得成功的原因，谭王辉和我都对这个设想很兴奋。在一张餐巾纸上，我们勾画了AAS国际会议和一本散文杂志的雏形。当初我们提出的这些设想现今或多或少都实现了。当初设想的AAS会议变成了如今在耶鲁举办的NEASS会议。NEASS会议于2000年8月25日到27日在德国黑森林的阿克恩的欧亚经济文化学院得以成功举行。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:42, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
发展这个长期被忽视的体裁，发掘出它的特点并找出它在20世纪二三十年代和八九十年代获得成功的原因，谭王辉和我都对这个设想很兴奋。在一张餐巾纸上，我们勾画了AAS国际会议和一本散文杂志的雏形。当初我们提出的这些设想现今或多或少都实现了。当初设想的AAS会议变成了如今在耶鲁举办的NEASS会议。NEASS会议于2000年8月25日到27日在德国黑森林的阿克恩的欧亚经济文化学院得以成功举行。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:54, 1 December 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
14 scholars of Chinese literature, from the States, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and Germany took part. All of them share the fascination of the phenomenon of the essay. Language was no barrier: The conference was conducted in English with the exception of a few papers in Chinese with English abstracts.<br />
<br />
The collection of essays on the essay are the conference proceedings in hand, this book contains extended versions of the conference papers. It was published by The University Press Bochum in December 2000. More important is the fact, that through this opportunity, we now have lively email discussions and a website with updated information on the Chinese essay.<br />
<br />
来自中国大陆、台湾、英国以及德国的14位研究中国文学的学者参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中令人着迷的表达。语言没有边界：大会虽用英文举行，但也破例宣读了部分含有英文摘要的中文论文。<br />
<br />
按照大会的流程，这些论文中的一部分会组成一本文集。这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版，在2000年由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能进行实时邮件讨论，并且能在网站上看到不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
来自美国、中国台湾、英国和德国的14位中国文学领域的学者都参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中有趣的现象。语言无边界：大会除了部分论文是含有英文摘要的中文论文之外，其余都是用英文展开的。<br />
<br />
会议过程中的论文选集发到人们手中，这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版。在2000年12月由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能借助邮件展开激烈的讨论，并且能在网站上获取不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Here I would like to take the opportunity to thank the members of the organizing committee Charles Laughlin, Xinmin Liu, King-Fai Tam, and Alexandra Wagner for their great help. I very much enjoyed the discussions via email.<br />
<br />
A common philosophy stands behind the whole project: We want to share information, help each other and do not care about language barriers. Everybody can contribute in English or Chinese, some of us like me being non-native English speakers.<br />
<br />
We encourage the reader to make use of the large margins for personal notes in the awareness of pursuing a tradition dating back to the very origins of essay writing.<br />
在这里，我要感谢组委会成员查尔斯·劳克林、刘新民、谭景辉和瓦格纳给我了极大的帮助。我非常喜欢通过电子邮件进行讨论。支撑整个项目的是我们共同的理念:我们希望跨越语言障碍互通有无，互相帮助。我们中有像我一样不是以英语为母语的人，所以我们可以使用英语或中文。我们鼓励读者利用大笔空白来备忘，以追求遵循可追溯到论文写作的传统。--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 14:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Nan<br />
<br />
这里，我要借此机会向组委会成员查尔斯·劳克林、刘新民、谭景辉和瓦格纳表达由衷的感谢，他们给予了我极大的帮助。我非常享受通过电子邮件与他们进行讨论的时光。支撑整个项目的是我们共同的理念:我们希望跨越语言障碍互通有无，互相帮助。尽管我们中有像我一样不是以英语为母语的人，但我们可以用英语或中文进行交流。我们鼓励读者利用页面上的空白写读书笔记，以延续能够追溯到散文写作最初时的传统。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 09:50, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Having most of the conference papers in hand with this book, everybody is welcomed to give a feed back. This kind of free intellectual exchange I first experienced in the States when Leo Ou-fan Lee invited me to stay from 1998-1999 as a visiting scholar at the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations at Harvard University.<br />
<br />
The contributors to this volume can only introduce and draw the attention of the readers to this Chinese genre, the joy of reading remains to the reader himself.<br />
<br />
M.W.<br />
<br />
这本书中含有大部分会议所用论文，因此，欢迎每位与会者给出反馈。我第一次进行这种自由的学术交流是在美国，当时李欧梵邀请我作为访问学者到哈佛大学东亚语言与文明系学习，时长为1998到1999年。这期期刊的撰写者只能吸引中国读者的注意力，但阅读的乐趣得靠读者自己领会。<br />
<br />
M.W.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 03:28, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
本书中有大部分的会议论文，欢迎大家给予反馈。我第一次体验这种自由的知识交流是在美国，当时是1998年到1999年，李欧梵邀请我作为访问学者留在哈佛大学东亚语言与文明系学习。<br />
<br />
本书的编者只能介绍这种中式体裁和吸引读者对这种中式体裁的注意，而阅读的乐趣得靠读者自己领会。<br />
<br />
M.W.--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 07:55, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
''The Flourishing of the Chinese Essay''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the periods of accelerated modernization, the Western-influenced one (1920s/30s) and the one of liberated economical actors (1980/90s), was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines and book series that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists. The emergence of this media show a clear trend: the essay is a genre of overwhelming and increasing interest among Chinese authors and readers.<br />
<br />
There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:<br />
<br />
中国散文的繁荣发展<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
加速建设现代化时期、西学东渐时期（1920至1930年代）、经济解放之一时期（1980至1990年代）论文出版出现繁荣发展。这在一定程度上得益于新的杂志和丛书的出现，它们主要被用作当代散文家的工具。这种媒介的出现表现出明显的趋势：于中国作者和读者而言，论文是一种压制和增长兴趣的媒介类型。<br />
<br />
在1990年代中期，中国的论文产量和受欢迎程度上升的三个原因是：--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:27, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
中国散文的繁荣发展<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
加速建设现代化时期、西学东渐时期（1920至1930年代）、经济解放之一时期（1980至1990年代）论文出版出现繁荣发展。这在一定程度上得益于新的杂志和丛书的出现，它们主要被用作当代散文家的工具。这种媒介的出现表现出明显的趋势：中国作者和读者对散文这种媒介类型具有浓厚的兴趣。<br />
<br />
在1990年代中期，中国的论文产量和受欢迎程度上升的三个原因是:--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 03:36, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
·The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ Donald Hall, The Contemporary Essay (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984) xiii. In this textbook, Hall has chosen a wide range of contemporary American essayists. In his introduction, Hall applies for clear writing, and active reading.]; <br />
<br />
·the increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
· a revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
Because of its increasing importance, the essay can now be assigned its proper place in the canon of contemporary genres and in the history of literature.<br />
<br />
当前中国社会的节奏非常快，需要消遣和简短的文本：我们生活在一个暴露的时代” [唐纳德·霍尔（Donald Hall），《当代随笔》（纽约：圣马丁出版社，1984年）xiii。 霍尔在这本教科书中选择了很多的当代美国散文家。 霍尔在介绍中要求文章清晰和积极阅读。<br />
·个性化意识的增强，论文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。<br />
通过论文这个媒介，引起人们重新讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。<br />
由于论文的重要性日益增加，现在可以将其在当代体裁和文学史中拥有适当的位置。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 04:49, 1 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the last two decades of the 20th century, the essay has been the main communication medium between the discourse of the intelligentsia and the mass of readers of daily newspapers. Therefore we have a genre which transports ideas of the elite in small pieces and common language and functions as the link between mass and elite culture.<br />
<br />
December 2000<br />
<br />
20世纪最后20年中，小品文成了知识分子和那些读日报的普罗大众沟通的主要媒介，由此，这种文学体裁开始以小篇幅和通用语将精英分子的思想传播开来，成为了大众文化和精英文化间的纽带。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在二十世纪最后二十年中，小品文成了知识分子话语圈和日报读者群的主要沟通媒介。因此，我们拥有了一种文学体裁，这种体裁能用小篇幅传播精英分子的思想，也能充当大众文化和精英文化之间的纽带。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:43, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Keynote: “Let us Assign the Essay its Proper Place in Chinese Literature!”'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. We are used to the established narratives of C.T. Hsia, Průšek, and Anderson, which let Chinese literature appear overshadowed by its elder brother, fiction. The latter has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularization of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
主题:“让我们给这篇文章在中国文学中指定一个合适的位置!”<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学历史叙事，勾勒出了一幅中国文学的不完整图景:缺乏散文的体裁。我们习惯于C.T. Hsia， Průšek,和Anderson建立的叙事学，这让中国文学在小说的面前显得黯然失色。民国初期，五四运动确立了主导叙事之后，小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，使后者得到了重视。<br />
<br />
我将列举几点原因来解释为什么散文实际上在数量上如小说和诗歌一样多，以及为什么它应该被高度重视。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 01:36, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[[Theory and Practice.docx]]==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
•The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history. The impact of the essay genre, with its direct language, its connection to life, and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers, was larger than the indirect effects of fiction or poetry.<br />
<br />
•The essay also reflects trends in society better than poetry and fiction. Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem, which is limited in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
这篇文章对整个中国社会产生了直接的影响。散文体裁的影响，它的直接语言，它与生活的联系，以及它通过报纸直接与个人读者接触，比小说或诗歌的间接影响更大。<br />
这篇文章还比诗歌和小说更能反映社会趋势。个人主义在散文中比诗歌更直接地表现出来，这在内容和形式上都是有限的。短小的散文体现了短暂的生命力，可以在上班的地铁上阅读，在那里，诗歌可能不会如此自然地被欣赏。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 14:23, 29 November 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
这篇文章对中国社会有着直接的历史影响。散文体裁以其简明的语言，与生活的联系，能以报纸为媒介直接影响到作为个体的读者，它比小说或诗歌所产生的间接影响更大。<br />
比起诗歌和小说，这篇文章更能反映社会趋势。相较于诗歌在内容和形式上的受限，散文能将个人主义更直接地表现出来。短小精悍的散文体现了快餐文化，在上班的地铁上也方便阅读，然而诗歌却不大可能如此自然地被欣赏。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 15:44, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
•The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, and does not require the large amount of time spent on reading novels. The essay itself is a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
•The volume of essay production exceeds the volume of xiaoshuo production.<br />
<br />
Can the picture of Chinese literature remain unchanged if we take the essay into consideration? As stated above, there is a large contrast between the true value and the current valuing of the essay. Let us assign the essay its proper place!<br />
<br />
•与诗歌相比，论文占人口的比例更大，不需要花大量时间阅读小说。论文本身是一种高度现实的类型，即使不仅仅是今天的类型。<br />
<br />
•论文的产量超过小说的产量。<br />
<br />
如果考虑到这篇论文，中国文学的图画能否保持不变？ 如上所述，论文的真实价值与当前价值之间存在很大的反差。让我们为论文分配适当的位置！--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
散文比诗歌更受欢迎，也不像小说一样要花大量时间阅读。如果散文不只是一种当代体裁的话，那么它本身也是一种高度现实性的体裁。<br />
•散文的产量超过了小说的产量。<br />
如果我们把散文考虑进去，那么中国文学的版块能保持不变吗?如上所述，在散文的真实价值和当前价值之间存在很大差别。让我们正确看待散文吧!--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 15:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
'''The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90); whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
'''未知的体裁'''<br />
<br />
由20世纪选集和文集讲述的文学历史叙事所绘画出的中国文学图景并不完整：即散文体裁的缺失。长期以来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）忽视了这种体裁的优点：然而，自从五四运动确立主叙事、民国初期重视小说文学和创作通俗化以来，散文的兄长--小说就一直受到珍视。现代选集会让读者相信，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学作品的支柱。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:10, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
···未知体裁···<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所记叙的文学史，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景：散文的体裁是缺乏的。长期以来，散文作为一种功利性文体被忽视（马格里斯1949年，施寒微1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年）；而它的兄长--小说，自民国初年重视小说文学和写作白话化以来，在五四运动确立的总叙事之后，一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信，诗歌、小说、戏剧三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:12, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
20世纪文学选集对于中国文学史的叙述是不完整的，其中缺失了散文这一体裁。长期起来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）地忽视了这一出色的体裁，但与此同时，由于五四运动树立起了以叙事为主的创作风格，到民国初期发展为重视小说体裁和通俗化创作，散文的兄长--小说，则一直受到重视。而现代文选则告诉读者，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学的支柱。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
Two times in the 20th century the Chinese essay was flourishing, first in the 1920s and 1930s, then in the 1980s and 1990s. <br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'', see works of Laughlin, Klaschka). The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文丛书 (essay bookseries). <br />
<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging ''xiangtu'' literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political ''zawen'' of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
得益于一些中国主要编辑的工作，整个论文文化是从杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并且自1970年代以来就被大量文集出版。这种热潮可与不加探索的乡土文学的文化热潮相提并论，乡土文学在自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起于台湾。<br />
<br />
让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇文章实际上与它的散文式的兄弟，小说以及抒情式的姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：<br />
<br />
这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以此种形式呈现）。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:41, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996 (see Denton). The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of ''novel'' and ''opera'' in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
<br />
其对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年出版的《中国现代文学思想》一书中有所体现。散文体裁的影响，其直接的语言，它与生活的联系(例如，它在与文化大革命的适应中所起的作用)，以及它通过报纸直接接触到个人读者。这种影响比小说或诗歌的间接影响更大。这首诗是一种逃避社会生活，逃避政治问题和时间的文体。<br />
胡适认为，在现代性的进程中，诗歌是最重要的，因为诗歌引起了情感。但它也依赖于图像和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏剧在社会变迁中的作用。但三文却能给事物命名，它反映了生命，宛如万花筒。现代主体性是以三文为工具建构的。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 09:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lives, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
<br />
散文也比诗歌和小说更好地反映了社会潮流:个人主义在散文中比诗歌更直接地表现出来，但在内容和形式上都有一定的局限性。短暂性体现在短文的简短形式上，人们可以在上班的地铁上读到这些短文，而在地铁里，人们可能不会那么自然地欣赏诗歌。<br />
<br />
阅读散文的人比读诗歌的人多，花在阅读小说上的时间也可以追溯到过去。散文本身是一种高度现实性的体裁，如果不只是当今的体裁的话。<br />
<br />
这篇文章告诉我们更多的是关于一个作家和他的时代而不是小说或诗歌，因为在这种体裁中，我们可以不受韵律限制地见到作者本人。我们以真实的眼光看待他所处的当代社会。许多作家在他们生命的后期开始从事散文写作，如鲁迅、巴金和王孟。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 15:11, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
-The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao, etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his zawen), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang'' lu derived).<br />
<br />
Let us assign the essay its proper place<br />
The consequence which must be derived from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! <br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature<br />
I will name a few points to illustrate what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Pršek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”制作量超过“小说”制作量：从十九世纪七十年代起，中国报纸（申报，时报等等。梁启超认为报纸的作用既自由又权威：一方面，他认为新闻媒体是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他赞成审查制度。）作为20世纪初期的大众传播媒介，报纸以序列化形式仅展示一个或两个虚构的故事，不过它发明了杂文专栏，如“杂感 ”（鲁迅从中发展了他的杂文），和“ 随笔”或“ 随想”（从其中衍生出像巴金的《穗香路》这样的著名收藏）。<br />
<br />
让我们为杂文指定适当的位置<br />
<br />
必须从以上提出的杂文价值与评价之间的对比中得出以下结论：让我们为散文指定适当的位置！<br />
<br />
重新考虑杂文将会改写中国文学的历史<br />
<br />
我仅举几例来说明杂文对中国文学的贡献，迄今为止，由于C.T. Hsia, Prçšek and Anderson等人的叙述，小说的光芒盖过了杂文。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 04:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the yuanyang hudie pai played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
<br />
我们习惯于建立叙事，例如《五四》文学的出现和成功. 但是这种观点忽视了这种作用，例如，在本世纪初的激烈的学术辩论中，元阳护蝶排在不同声音的合唱团中扮演了角色. 当时的五四分之一小组是众人之中的一个声音，只有在公共领域中它的激动和争论才得以成功，因此我们必须使用新的手段来将中文论文分配给自己的位置. 我们从简化的叙述中学到，区分和重建复杂的时间背景是绝对必要的. 对中国文学的理解仅取决于小说和诗歌的发展，而更广泛的理解将改变中国文学的整体面貌. 学术上的努力是在这种类型的方法中使用现代文学理论.<br />
石迪文石迪文[编辑]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 18:13, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
In the following, I will name two aspects (chronologically sorted by past, and modern times) to promote the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
1. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned<br />
How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay both in China and the West are notes written in the margins of books, as well as letters and travel notes saved. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber.''<br />
<br />
<br />
接下来，我将列举两个方面(按过去和现代的时间顺序)来推动这一论点，即考虑这篇文章将改写中国文学史，并改变我们目前对它的理解。<br />
1. 古典和前现代的随笔记录了中国的哲学，早期的主体性和中国本土的传统受到了质疑<br />
中国散文的历史定位是什么，它是如何产生的，它的一般背景是什么?一般说来，中西散文的始祖都是写在书本空白处的笔记，以及保存下来的书信和游记。这些笔记以其非正式的风格、对个性和主体性的表达，远早于中国第一部自传体小说《红楼梦》，不同于正统文学。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 07:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference[ This is older than the ones referred to in Morohashi, 5:529a / sequential page counting 5167a, and in the The Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language, vol. 73c / s.p.c. 6137c.] this far for the term sanwen that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù. 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatells, is limited. Luo Dajing 14:Baihai:1). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
从一开始，人们就认为散文的价值低于诗歌:最古老的参考文献[这比在Morohashi, 5:529a /连续页数5167a，和在中国语言的百科词典，第73卷/ s.p.c. 6137c中提到的更古老。)“散文”这个术语,我发现是罗大经提出(?- 1248年之后):“詩騷妙天下,而散文頗覺瑣碎局促”。诗歌以一种美妙的方式感化人类，散文则是不连贯的杂谈，影响有限。罗大经 14: Baihai: 1)。罗大经提出的另一种质疑则更为正式:与具有高度艺术性和百年历史的诗歌创作传统相比，在他看来，直接的、通常是白话的散文没有什么价值。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 09:19, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge. The reorganization originated from the observations of Copernicus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Ages.<br />
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In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of ''san'' 散 as to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises.<br />
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在西方，真正的“文章写作的艺术”于16世纪被提出来作为新的重组知识的媒介。这种重新组织来源于哥白尼的观察，这摧毁了中世纪的所有观念。<br />
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在中国，特别是公元四、五世纪对佛教的争论，导致了文学这一传统的起源。然而，中国的“散文(essay)”传统中，对“散”的理解即为驱散、空余、松散、放松、不规则的又自由的风格，在从对话中剥离出来之前不为人知的自由性散文诗或是仍能够在哲学书籍《论语》中见到的谚语。荀子通过他的哲学性论述确立了后来的散文雏形。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:33, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
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They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
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During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written in the paper margins originated the ''biji'' 筆記 (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming dynasty. The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
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他们是哲学说教文章的早期形式，其中的普通理论不仅仅引自正典作品，也是第一次源自个人经验。在今天个性仍是文章一个主要的特征。<br />
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古代，随笔主要在特定的子类别中显现：写在纸边的读书笔记起源于“筆記”（偶注），兴于明朝。边际主义是早期中西随笔传统的桥梁。偶注包含私人历史笔记，轶事，通信和沉思。然而，在中国，一直到清朝许多随笔集得以汇编，随笔才被看作一种体裁。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 06:59, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
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Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences. Until now, the Chinese pre-''Honglou meng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
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Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the “Eight legged essay” as as appealing and intoxicating as the “pleasure of doing opium.” (Zhou Zuoren 1932c, 148).<br />
从社会历史背景的角度出发，与短篇小说和长篇小说相比，散文描绘了不同的旧社会场景，其更贴近现实生活，因为它们多表达个人问题和经历。直到今日，中国前红楼梦个体文学仅仅通过诗歌的间接含义讲述，如若重新研究这些散文的话，我们便可获得更为丰富的观点以及社会历史景象。<br />
前现代散文文学不仅仅包括最著名的例子-形式严格的八股文，鲁迅自己也写过一些八股文类型的散文，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人认为“八股文”的语言韵律，就像“吸鸦片之乐”一样，妙趣横生、令人陶醉。(周作人1932c, 148)。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 05:33, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
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But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, 71).<br />
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Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''wen yi zai dao'' 文以載道 (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
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Liang Qichao developed a ''xin wenti'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
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但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
梁启超受西方语言的影响，发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒之前就开始流行起来，语言也变成了白话。<br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
受西方语言的影响，梁启超发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒媒介之前就流行起来，新文体的语言也变成了白话。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
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'''2. The essay as the medium of modernity'''<br />
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The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. It was short, dealt with reality, there was no limitation regarding the contents, therefore it was also capable of documenting and spreading the ideas about the best form of society. It was simply the best form to transport the thoughts of the intellectual leaders of the time to the public and to create a public sphere. Imagine the May Fourth Movement without essays! Most of Lu Xun's work consists out of essays!<br />
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Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming “needs” of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
2.散文作为现代媒介<br />
散文是20世纪初现代化社会的一种体裁。它篇幅短，内容贴近现实且没有限制。因此它也能够记录和传播社会最好的形态思想。这是向公众传递时代知识领袖的思想最好的形式，也创造一个公共领域。想象一下没有散文的五四运动吧!想象一下鲁迅的大部分作品都不是散文！<br />
为了应对战争和军阀主义，许多作家不得不定义和重新定义他们的地位和自我理解，并且在后来的现代化社会中，他们通常埋没自己的理想, 从更大的角度看待那些被作者声称是散文产物之一的社会“需求”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 15:14, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is “a genre of self-reflection”. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
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Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays.<br />
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I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).(文献 无需翻译)<br />
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但是从本质上说，这篇论文在形式和内容上设定了新的界限，因此不仅脱离了意识形态限制，而且在其中建立了自己的批判亚文化。这篇文章不仅是我们今天讨论的媒介和社会政治背景的记录，还是关于作家在不断变化的环境中寻找定位的个人奋斗的记录，因为这篇文章是“反思类型”。有些文章甚至像左派意识形态之一一样破坏了主叙述，通常只是将其与主观经验，现实或艺术联系起来去面对。<br />
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如果我们考虑论文的话，会对文学的整体理解发生了变化，如果我们既看作者的小说诗歌作品，又看他们的论文的话，对单一作者的观点也会改变。<br />
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我想提到文学的另一种立场，强调文学对生活的影响，特别是在革命前夕对生活的影响。按照这种观点，所有文学都是政治性的（詹姆森）。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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'''The Aesthetic of Marginalism and the Impact of the West on the Chinese Essay'''<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
Chinese and Western essays derived from the notes in the margins of books. With this step from the private to the public sphere, we find the impact of subjectivity and individualism on literature. The origin of the essay has influenced the later essay tradition in its ephemeral, subjective, marginal character; its claim for understatement; the conversational and colloquial style of expression; and its eclecticism. The essay itself often deals with one subject, but this topic is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
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边缘主义美学与西方对中国散文的影响<br />
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吴漠汀<br />
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摘要 <br />
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中西散文都是从书籍空白处的注释中衍生出来的。从私人领域到公共领域，我们发现了主体性和个人主义对文学的影响。散文的起源在短暂性、主观性、边缘性方面影响了后来的散文传统， 散文主张轻描淡写，会话和口语化的表达方式以及折衷主义。 散文本身经常涉及一个主题，但这个主题是从不同的角度来看待的。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
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The aesthetic of marginalism, invented by Schlette in 1977 and further developed by Pfeiffer and others in 1996, proves helpful for understanding the character of the essay. Following its methodological perspective, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view of the text body itself from the margins of the book. This enables the essayist to think unorthodoxly, the condition ''sine qua non'' of critique and protest. <br />
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In my paper, I use the concept of marginalism to explain the rhetorical means of digression in Lu Xun's essays. Lu Xun seems to digress: 1) on purpose for rhetorical effects; 2) going off-target for arts’ sake; 3) as an experiment; 4) for its own sake with socio-critical side blows; 5) as understatement with surprising effects. Further I will show marginalism in the founder of Western essayism, Montaigne, and the Chinese scholar Qian Zhongshu.<br />
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1977年施莱特发明、1996年菲弗等人进一步发展的边缘化主义美学，对理解本文的特点很有帮助。按照其方法论的观点，边缘主义使散文家远离书本实际对文本体本身有一种遥远的视角。这使得散文家能够非正统地思考批评和抗议的条件。<br />
本文运用边际主义的概念来阐释鲁迅杂文中离题的修辞手法。鲁迅离题的目的大概是:1)故意为了修辞效果;2)为了艺术而偏离目标;3)作为实验;4)由于自身缘故，带有社会批判的一面打击;5)轻描淡写，效果惊人。此外，我将展示西方散文论创始人蒙田和中国学者钱钟书的边缘主义。<br />
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--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 01:55, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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[http://www.example.com link title]==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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As for the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, both traditions are relevant: The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations, starting from 1907. From this, there first developed a Chinese essay tradition which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology. Later, the Chinese essay’s own proponents succumbed to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history alone. The legendary authors of the May Fourth movement considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition.<br />
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中国散文是源于本土传统？还是产自西方翻译？这个问题一直是个争议。但无论如何，这两种说法本身就具关联性：自1907年起直至现在，中国散文的体裁形式主要出自西方的散文译本。从这一点来看，中国散文自发展伊始就一直在语言、形式和术语上借鉴西方模式。后来，中国散文的推行者无奈只能仅仅诉诸于中国历史来证明中国本土散文的渊源。五四运动中涌现的传奇作家认为英语散文是中国散文的起源。但之后其中一些作家改变观念，通过证明中国散文自成一家来支撑自己的散文理论。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译学 Theory and Practice(1)(5)(1)[[Media:]]<br />
Wherever on earth human beings developed a high culture, the written language was its essence. Early traces we find in the pictograms of the Near East, Latin America and China. The more the characters remind of the ontological world, the more the written language itself was an object of cult. From the Chinese we know the use of characters in the tortoise shell oracles, from the Germans in sacrificial stones. Later, with the improvement of writing material, the first rolls were created, either from papyrus (Egypt), pergament (Europe) or bamboo (China). Due to the expensive material, written rolls were reserved to wealthier people. The texts were reduced to the documentation of important things.<br />
无论人类在地球上哪个地方发展了高级文化，书面语言都是其精华。我们在近东、拉丁美洲和中国的象形图中发现了早期的痕迹。文字越让人联想到本体论世界，书面语言本身就越成为人们崇拜的对象。从中国人的龟甲神谕和德国人的祭祀石中，我们知道汉字的使用。后来，随着书写材料的改进，第一批卷子被创造出来，或纸莎草(埃及)，或永久(欧洲)或竹子(中国)。由于材料昂贵，书卷只有富裕的人才会使用。这些文字被简化为重要事件的文献。<br />
--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 05:30, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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For the first time, it was possible not only to document events and therefore to extend the human mind and memory, but to communicate complex information from one author to another or more readers. At this stage, the first reading notes were written. Due to the lack of the precious writing material, the margins of the rolls were used. Still today we find these notes as well as on early European (for example ancient Greek) rolls as well as on Chinese ones. These notes were personal thoughts about the text, explanations of places and events maybe unknown to third readers, interpretations of unclear text passages, alternatives to seemingly miswritten characters, sometimes only marks for structuring the texts, which were used as school textsoles to teach reading, too.<br />
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这是第一次，不仅可以记录事件，从而扩展人类的思维和记忆，而且可以将复杂的信息从一位作者传达给另一位作者或更多的读者。在这一阶段，第一份读书笔记就此写下了。由于那时缺少珍贵的书写材料，所以用了书卷的边边角角。时至今日，我们在早期欧洲（例如古希腊）和中国的书卷上都能找到这些笔记。这些笔记是个人对于阅读文本的想法、第三方读者对于未知地方和事件的解释、对于不清晰文本段落的解释，对看似书写错误的字符的替代字符，有时只是用来构思文本的标记符号。学校也用这些笔记符号来作为课本来教授学生阅读。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:24, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第一次，不仅可以记录事件，扩展人类的思维和记忆，而且可以将复杂的信息从一个作者传递给另一个或更多的读者。在这一阶段，第一份读书笔记由此形成。由于缺乏珍贵的书写材料，书卷的空白处便用来填笔记。时至今日，我们仍然可以在欧洲早期（如古希腊）以及中国的书卷上找到这些笔记。它们是个人对文本的解读，包括为第三读者对其陌生的地点、事件以及晦涩的文本段落作出解释，订正看似写错的字符，有时是为了划分文本结构，这些笔记也被学校用作教授阅读的课本。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 00:15, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
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Some notes were intended for other readers, and from this in Europe and China the tradition of commentary developed. Other notes were of a private nature, personal comments to the text, not written down for other people. And both, in Europe as in China, the same evolution took place, when the authors of the notes discovered, that the notes were worth collecting. From these collections of notes they compiled short essays. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
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有些注释是为其他读者准备的，因此欧洲和中国的评论传统由此发展起来。此外，其他注释是具有私人性质的，是针对文本的个人评论，不是为别人写的。而这两者，无论在欧洲还是中国，都发生了同样的演变，当注释的作者发现这些注释值得收藏时，便会根据这些笔记汇编成短文。这些笔记与经典文学不同之处在于它的非正式文体、个性和主体性的表达，这是一个比中国第一部自传体小说《红楼梦》更早的主体性文献。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 06:27, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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一些注解是为其他读者准备的，因此在欧洲和中国，注解的传统得以发展。 其他注解是私人性质的，是对文本的个人评论，不为其他人写下。 而且，在欧洲和在中国，注解的作者发现了值得收集的笔记时，发生了相同的演变。 他们将这些注解集中汇编成了短文。 这些注解与经典书籍的不同之处在于其非正式的风格，个性和主观性的表达，比第一本自传中国小说《红楼梦》早得多的主观性文献。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:49, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
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The names given to these essays reminded of their origin. In Europe they were called “marginal notes,” “marginalia,” in China “brush notes” (''biji'' 筆記, or occasional notes). They were flourishing in the Ming dynasty. They could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynasty, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
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All these terms for the essay, and also the term “essay” itself, which means “try, attempt,” invented by Montaigne, reflect the ephemeral, subjective, marginal character of the essay. The term itself carried the claim for understatement, which is substantial especially when you want to express subjective, individual thoughts, in order not to seem schoolmasterly to the reader.<br />
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这些文章的名字使人想起了它们的起源。在欧洲，它们被称为“旁注”、“边注”，在中国被称为“笔记”（biji筆記，或临时记录）。它们在明朝盛极一时。它们可以是私人的史料、轶事、谈话和沉思。然而，作为一种特有的体裁，人们有散文意识的时候已经是清朝过后了，当时已有大量的散文选集被编撰出来。<br />
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这些文章的名字使人想起了它们的出处。在欧洲，它们被称为“边注”，“旁注”，在中国被称为“笔记”(biji筆記，或“偶注”)。它们在明朝很兴盛，可以包含私人的历史笔记、轶事、交流和沉思。然而，“自成一种”的散文意识并非起源于中国清代，当时已编撰了大量的散文选集。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:09, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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所有这些散文术语，以及蒙田创造出的“随笔”这个词本身，即“尝试，试图”，都反映出散文短暂的、主观的、边缘化的特点。这个词本身就带有轻描淡写的意思，尤其是当你想表达主观的个人想法时又为了不让读者觉得自己很有学究气的时候就更显得具有实质性。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
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From this origin, different characteristics of the essay came, which are still valid for essays today. One is the conversational style of expression, which comes while you create the sentences from the notes the very moment you are writing them down. From Greek philosophers we know that they sat relaxed in the yard, while one person was reading them their notes from the margins of the books which the philosopher transformed into sentences orally, while another person wrote it down. This also explains the colloquial character of the essays. In fact, the whole development of ideas was based on a conversation in mind with the author of the original role, and many Greek philosophical schools knew about the importance of dialogues for the development of thoughts.<br />
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从这一起源开始，文章就有了不同特点，这些特点对今天的文章依然有效。其中一个特点是对话式的表达方式，它是在你从笔记中创造出句子的同时，在你写下它们的那一刻出现的。从希腊哲学家那里我们知道，他们在院子里闲适地坐着，一人在给他们念书边上的笔记，哲学家把这些笔记转化为口头上的句子，而另一个人则把它写下来。这一过程也解释了文章的口语化特征。事实上，整个思想的发展都是建立在与原作者进行心灵对话的基础上的，许多希腊哲学流派都知道对话对思想发展的重要性。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从这一起源开始，文章就有了不同特点，这些特点对今天的文章依然有效。其中一个特点是对话式的表达方式：在你从笔记中创造出句子的同时，在你写下它们的那一刻出现的。从希腊哲学家那里我们知道，他们在院子里闲适地坐着的时候，一人在给他们念书边上的笔记，哲学家把这些笔记转化为口头上的句子，而另一个人则把它写下来。这一过程也解释了文章的口语化特征。事实上，整个思想的发展都是建立在与原作者进行心灵对话的基础上的，许多希腊哲学流派都知道对话对思想发展的重要性。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 06:31, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
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Another characteristic of the essay is its eclecticism. While reading an original text, the educated scholar constantly thinks of quotations and links to other works. Therefore many notes consist out of references to other works. The essay itself therefore often deals with one subject, but is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
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这篇文章的另一个特点是折衷主义，即在阅读原文时，学者们经常联想与其他文章的引述和联系之处，因而有许多注释没有标注对其他作品的引用。<br />
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这篇文章的另一个特点就是折衷主义。学者在阅读原文时，会时不时想到引用，或者与其他作品相联系。因此，许多注释都没有提到参考其他作品。这样一来，文章本来涉及一个主题，但从不同角度来看，文章就好像涉及多个主题了。<br />
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In 1977 Heinz Robert Schlette developed the aesthetic of marginalism, in 1996 Klaus-Peter Pfeiffer developed this concept further. It proves helpful for the understanding of the character of the essay. In its methodological understanding, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view from the margins of the book to the text body itself. Following Schlette, marginalism is only possible where dissident thinking is possible. Marginalism is the private sphere left to the reader during the reading process.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 05:34, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1977年罗伯特·施莱特发展出边际主义美学说，1996年克劳斯·彼得·菲弗进一步完善该学说，这有助于对这篇文章的特征进行理解。从方法论的角度上来说，边际主义给作者提供了从书本白边回溯到文本本身的宏大视角。施莱特认为，只有政见不同，边际主义才得以存在。边际主义是在阅读过程中留给读者的私人发展空间。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:19, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
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It is the condition sine qua non of critique and protest. A marginalist reader is one, who reads a text critically. Also Montaigne saw himself as a marginalist (Ulke, 31 - 38).<br />
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Let us now use the concept of marginalism to look on the 20th century Chinese essay. I choose here the example of Lu Xuns' essays. One of Lu Xun's rhethorical means in his essays is the digression. The digression is closely related to marginalism and essayism: <br />
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In some of his essays, Lu Xun digresses from his actual subject. This phenomenon increases in his later work. Following Wilpert, digression is one possible expression of conscious scepticism and a warning signal, that something is wrong.<br />
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这是批评和抗议的必要条件。 边缘主义的读者就是带有批判性阅读文章的人。 同样，蒙田（Montaigne）视自己为边缘主义者（Ulke，31-38）。<br />
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现在让我们用边缘主义的概念来研究20世纪中国的论文。 在这里，我以鲁迅的论文为例。 离题是鲁迅在其论文中的修辞手段之一。 题外话与边缘主义和散文主义密切相关：<br />
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鲁迅在他的一些论文中偏离了他的实际主题。 这种现象在他晚期的文章中有所增加。 在威尔珀特之后，离题是有关于怀疑意识和警告信号的一种表达的可能性，即某些事情出错了。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:10, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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这是批评和抗议的必要条件。边际派读者会批判性阅读。蒙田也（Montaigne）将自己视为边缘主义者（Ulke，31-38）。<br />
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现在我们来用边缘主义的概念研究20世纪中国的散文。在此以鲁迅的散文为例。离题是鲁迅散文的一个修辞手法。题外话与边缘主义和散文主义密切相关：<br />
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在他的一些文章中他会偏离它的实际主题。这种现象在他随后作品中尤为显著。在威尔珀特之后，离题是怀疑意识和警告信号的一种可能性表达，即出错。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 01:49, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
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Walf 1996 in his article “Marginalism in the Daoism” portrays the margi¬na¬lis¬m as an aesthetic, which in China are linked close to the tradition of scepticism of Wang Chong (27 - 97). As a youth, Lu Xun was optimistic about the impact of literature on society. He soon lost this optimism, as documented in “Preface to ‘Call to Arms’” (Lu Xun 1922b). Finally, he became a sceptic regarding the possibilities of literature to change society.<br />
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1, digression on purpose<br />
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In 1926, in his essay on “Wuchang, the Ghost of Perishable Life” (Lu Xun 1926b) Lu Xun digressed to contemporary critic on his contemporary Chen Xiying. In “Illustrations of 24 Examples of Children Piety” (Lu Xun 1926a), he protested against the slogan “Down with the colloquial language”. Lu Xun uses here historiographical and autobio¬gra¬phical essays for appeals of daily-political value.<br />
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沃夫1996年在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，这在中国与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。他很快就失去了这种乐观，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学改变社会的可能性产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中转移了对他同时代的陈希英的当代批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1996年沃夫在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，在中国，这种边缘主义与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。但这种乐观很快就消失不见，，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学能否改变社会产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中改变了与他同时代的陈希英的批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:51, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1996年沃夫在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，这种边缘主义与中国的王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。但这种乐观很快就消失不见，正如鲁迅在《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学能否改变社会产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在《无常，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)一文中改变了他对同时代的陈西滢的评判。在《24孝图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他反对“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用回忆性和自传体散文来呼吁白话的日常和政治的价值.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 05:10, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
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2, not targeted digression<br />
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In May 1927, Lu Xun starts his “Morning Blossoms Picked at Dusk - Afterword,” continues to write it until July 11 (Lu Xun 1928b). It becomes a full-length essay, which again describes historiographically the character of the servant of the underworld Huo Wuchang and Si Youfen. <br />
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3, Marginalism as experiment<br />
In the essay “What the Youth Should Read” (Lu Xun 1919), the actual essay does not appear in the text body, but in the footnote. On a questionnaire Lu Xun answers the question about recommended literature shortly, that he never paid attention to this and therefore could not recommend anything. But he makes a footnote, where he starts writing freely. The subject of the questionnaire with the essay in the footnote corresponds parodistically to the classical “discussion” of a “subject”.<br />
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2.非针对性的离题<br />
从1927年5月开始，鲁迅撰写《朝花夕拾后记》直到7月11日（鲁迅 1928b）。这是一篇长篇散文，其中再次历史性地描述了活无常和死有分这两个来自阴间的人物。 <br />
3.实验性边际主义<br />
关于“青年应该读什么”（鲁迅1919），这篇文章没有出现在正文中，而是出现在脚注中。鲁迅在问卷中简要回答了有关推荐文学的问题，他提到自己从未关注过这一问题，因此没有什么可推荐的作品。但是他在脚注里写了一些内容。对于这个文章出现在脚注里的问卷来说，该问卷的主题与经典探讨的主题严重偏离。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 04:55, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.非针对性的离题<br />
从1927年5月开始，鲁迅撰写《朝花夕拾后记》直到7月11日（鲁迅 1928b）。这一长篇散文再次历史性地描述了黑白无常这两个来自阴间的人物。 <br />
3.实验性边际主义<br />
关于“青年应该读什么”（鲁迅1919），这篇文章没有出现在正文中，而是出现在脚注中。鲁迅在问卷中简要回答了有关推荐文学的问题，他提到自己从未关注过这一问题，因此没有什么可推荐的作品。但是他在脚注里写了一些内容。对于在这篇文章脚注中出现问卷，其主题与经典探讨的主题出现了严重偏离。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:10, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei<br />
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==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
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4, Marginalismus for its own sake with sociocritical side blows<br />
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In 1924, Lu Xun writes the consciously trivial essay “My Moustache” (Lu Xun 1924). In this essay, he makes fun of the things, other people are interpreting into the shape of his moustache. After that, he writes the even more trivial essay “From the Moustache to the Teeth” (Lu Xun 1925a), where he mocks about the fact, that the readers are reproaching him with banality.<br />
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5, Marginalism as understatement with surprising effect<br />
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Montaigne, too, consciously introduces his essays with understatement. Lu Xun wraps explosive contents into essays, which are titled with marginal headers: In the essay “Idle Thoughts at the End of Spring” he compares the paralyzing effect of Confucianism with the poison of a dangerous wasp (Lu Xun 1925b).<br />
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4、社会批判的一面打击了边缘主义<br />
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1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他调侃的事情，别人都在解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
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5、边缘主义是一种效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
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蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:39, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4、边缘主义本身就带有社会批判的一面<br />
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1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他取笑的事情，别人都解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
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5、边缘主义是效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
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蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:14, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
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In “Casual Remarks under the Shine of a Lamp” he assumes the Chinese people, that they wanted to be slaves forever, in history as well as in the future (Lu Xun 1925c). In the autobiographical essay “Lightweight Reminiscences” he explains his decision to go to study in Japan (Lu Xun 1926c).<br />
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Another example for the awareness of the origin of the essay is Qian Zhongshu's essay collection ''Marginalia of Life'', Shanghai 1941. In it, Qian mocks about human failures, like hypocrisy, humorlessness and groups of people like guards of morality, charlatans, literary reviewers, etc. (see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173).<br />
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'''Questioning the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
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在《灯光下的随评》中，他认为不论是过去还是将来，中国人都想成为永远的奴隶。在自传体散文《无关紧要的回忆》中，鲁迅表明他决意去日本学习。散文起源认识的另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的“围城”散文集。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，比如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群如道德卫士，江湖骗子和文学评论员等的人。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在《灯光下的随评》中，他认为中国人想成为永远的奴隶，不论是在过去还是在未来(Lu Xun 1925c)。在自传体散文《轻量回忆》中，鲁迅表明他决意去日本学习(Lu Xun 1926c)。关于这种意识的起源在文章中的体现，另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的散文集《写在人生边上》。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群人如道德卫士、江湖骗子、文学批评家等等。(see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173) 质疑中文文章的真实性--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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To solve the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Washington Irving's essays by Lin Shu 1907, Joseph Addison's by Ma/Gan 1911). The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations (for Chinese translations of English essays in the 1980s and 1990s see appendix). First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only.<br />
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为了解决有关中国文论是起源于本土传统还是受西方翻译影响的争议，人们认为这两种传统有相通之处：从1907年开始，西方翻译就通过中文翻译引入文学改革运动的作家们的文论，（1907年林纾翻译的华盛顿欧文的文论，1911年马/甘翻译的约瑟夫·艾迪生的文论）。 该类型的当前形式主要是基于西方文论翻译的影响（有关20世纪80年代和90年代英语论文的中文翻译，请参见附录）。 首先发展了中国散文传统，有意识地在语言，形式和术语上依赖西方模式，其拥护者很快屈从于仅从中国历史中继承中国文论传统的诱惑。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:00, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Pršek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
中国教科书中出现了一种看似无法打破“文言散文”的中国传统（于在春，1978至1982年，李喜尚1985年）。中国学者对中国传统散文写作的价值和西方对其影响仍有争议。一些人承认西方的影响对当今我们理解中国散文十分重要。（王斌，1992年,范培松，1993年；西方的总体影响参考普罗西克，1964年，盖利克，1966年，麦克杜格尔1971年）。其他学者认为西方的影响被高估了。1996年丹顿表明中国缺少理解西方文学理论的理论背景，建议我们首先按照本国传统理解散文。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:49, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
汉语教科书中出现了一种看似完整的“文言散文”中国传统（于再春，1978至1982年，李喜尚1985年）。然而，学者们对中国传统散文的价值以及西方对其影响仍有争议。有些人承认，西方的影响在我们现在所理解的中国散文中十分关键。(王斌,1992年，范培松，1993年；西方的总体影响参考普罗西克，1964年，盖利克，1966年，麦克杜格尔1971年）也有学者认为西方的影响被高估了。在1996年，丹顿指出，中国缺少理解西方文学的理论背景，并建议我们首先基于民族传统来理解散文。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:55, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition: for example, Lu Xun with his theory “'Zhankai' shuo yu 'mengya' lun “展開”說與“萌芽”論” (Theory of “Starting” and “Blossoming”) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin Dynasty (265-420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the biji (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his “Gonganpai yu Yingguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合 成”論” (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the Engli¬sh Essay).<br />
<br />
后来，其中有些作家转变了自己的想法，他们通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证据，来支持散文中本人的理论：比如，鲁迅及其理论——“展开”说与”萌芽“论——视金朝（265-420）散文中的斗争性和批判性特征为中国“散文之父”；另外，周作人首先研究英国散文（1921），随后研究明朝笔记，但是他仍然尝试将英国散文融入自己公安派与“英国小说‘合成’论”之中。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:31, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
后来，其中有些作家改变了自己的想法，他们通过寻找一种中国本土散文传统的证据，来支撑自己的散文理论：比如，在鲁迅及其“展开说”与“萌芽论”中，将金朝（265-420）散文中的斗争性和批判性特征视为中国“散文之父”；另外，周作人首先研究英国散文（1921），随后研究明朝笔记，尽管他仍然尝试将英国散文融入自己公安派与英国小品“合成”论中。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 12:32, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1934, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1932].<br />
<br />
Wang Zengqi in 1993 regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays. The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的许多作家都可以被称为传奇，他们演绎着个人的观点对叙述史实有多大的影响。所以作家都认为英文文章是中文文章的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾五四运动时期文学作品里的中国传统文化没有留下，当代文学作品中也没有体现，中国文学主要是用来学习的，人们主要是通过查阅其来证明其中的理论。你可以找到每一时期每个话题的例子，因为文章海纳百川。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的传奇作家可以告诉我们个人观点对史实阐述而产生的影响有多大。这些作家都认为英国散文是中国散文的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾，在五四运动时期文学作品中中国传统文化没有占据一席之地，在当代文学作品中也没有得到传承。中国文学适合用来学习研究，因为人们可以通过查阅来证明文章中的理论。正是因为文章海纳百川，所以你可以找到任何时期任何话题的范例。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:45, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
'''Formation of Modern Subjectivity and Essay:''' <br />
<br />
'''Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain”'''<br />
<br />
'''Jianhua Chen'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
How to define the modern Chinese essay? Is it modern because of using ''baihua''? Does it start from its naming of ''sanwen''? While scholars identified its origins with May Fourth literature, the complicated trends of literary modernity in the first two decades of the 20th century was neglected. Relating Zhou Shoujuan, a major figure in the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school, to his contribution to the formation of modern Chinese essay has to encounter the problems of literary canons in modern China. <br />
<br />
Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (''Jiuhua zhang li'') reveals that this 1917 vernacular “pillow talk” (''qinghua'') in the wedding night came out of chaotic conditions of literary genre before the generic system of poetry, fiction, prose, and drama is established in the May Fourth period.<br />
<br />
如何界定现代汉语散文?是因为使用了“百花”才变得现代吗?它是从“三文”的名字开始的吗?虽然学者们将其根源归结为五四文学，但20世纪头20年文学现代性的复杂趋势却被忽视了。把鸳鸯蝴蝶派的主要人物周瘦娟与他对中国现代散文形成的贡献联系起来，必然会遇到中国现代文学经典的问题。<br />
<br />
周瘦娟的《九花帘》揭示了这段1917年《新婚之夜》中的白话“枕边话”（“清华”）是在“五四”时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧的通俗体系建立之前，从文学体裁的混乱状态中走出来的。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:01, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
如何界定中国现代散文?是因为使用了“白话”才成为现代散文吗?“散文”这一名字出现就有了现代散文吗?当学者们将其根源归结于五四文学，便忽视了20世纪前20年文学现代化的复杂趋势。鸳鸯蝴蝶派的重要人物周瘦娟对中国现代散文的形成作出了重要贡献，但仍面临着现代中国文学经典的问题。<br />
周寿鹃的《九花帐里》揭示了在五四时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧等整体体系尚未建立之前，1917年出版的《新婚夜》中的白话“情话”是在文学体裁混乱的情况下产生的。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:56, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Obsessed with first person narratives it hybridizes diary, love-letter, autobiography, and journalist reportage. I will argue that this Butterflies obsession with subjective genres in the early 20th-century lays a foundation for the growth of modern Chinese essay. <br />
<br />
The theatrical devices used in this work create a double self in the narrative space - the self as a performer and the self in the beholders’ gaze. This paper emphasizes that the rhetoric of theatricality is indebted to the repertoires of traditional poetry and drama, which become unavailable when the New Literature triumphs in the 1920s. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, I will elaborate how the theatricality helps to construct an early Republican subjectivity based on the divisions between the individual, family and nation-building.<br />
<br />
痴迷于第一人称叙事，它杂糅了日记、情书、自传和记者报道。我将认为，《蝴蝶》在20世纪初对主观文体的这种痴迷，为中国现代散文的成长奠定了基础。<br />
这部作品所使用的戏剧手段在叙事空间中创造了一个双重的自我--作为表演者的自我和观看者目光中的自我。本文强调，戏剧性的修辞是依赖于传统诗歌和戏剧的剧目，而当新文学在20世纪20年代取得胜利时，这些剧目就变得不可用了。<br />
此外，我还将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建构一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设之间划分的早期民国主体性。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:10, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
由于痴迷于第一人称的叙述，它混合了日记，情诗，自传和新闻报道这些体裁。我认为 20世纪初对《蝴蝶》这种主观体裁的痴迷为中国现代散文打下了基础。<br />
作品中的戏剧手段在叙述空间中创造出了双重自我- 身为表演者的自我和旁观者眼中的自我。本文强调戏剧性的修辞得益于传统诗歌和戏剧，当20世纪20年代新文学成为主流时传统诗歌和戏剧就退出了舞台。<br />
此外，我将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建立一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设划分之上的早期的民国主体性。 --[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
''Twilight is that moment of the day that foreshadows''<br />
<br />
''the night of forgetting, but that seems to slow time itself,''<br />
<br />
''an in-between state in which the last light of the day may''<br />
<br />
''still play out its ultimate marvels.'' <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen. ''Twilight Memories''<br />
<br />
By way of tackling the origins of modern Chinese ''sanwen'', this paper opens up a zone of “twilight memories” of literary modernity early in the twentieth century, which has recently haunted the field of modern Chinese literature. In terms of modern Chinese ''essay'' or ''prose'', how do we define this genre? Is it modern because it uses ''baihua''? Does its ''modern'' start from being called ''sanwen''? How was the May Fourth generic system established? And what were its consequences to literary history? <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Making Time in a Culture of Amnesia (New York and London: Routledge, 1995) 3（文献 无需翻译）<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, searching for Chinese literary modernities other than May Fourth have continued with rigor. In this vital current of scholarly reflections on Chinese literary modernities, prominent are Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova’s emphasis on late Qing origins of modern Chinese literature (“The Origins of Modern Chinese Literature,” in Merle Goldman, ed., Modern Chinese Literature in the May Fourth Era (Cambridge and Mass.: Harvard University Press 1977) 17-36; The Turn of the Century Novel (Toronto University Press, 1981), Perry Link’s path-breaking study of the Mandarin ducks and Butterflies fiction (Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies: Popular Fiction in Early Twentieth Century China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981)), Liu Ts’un-yan’s advocacy of “Middle-blow Fiction” (Chinese Middle-blow Fiction: From the Ch’ing and Early Republican Era (Hong Kong: The Chinese University, 1984)), and recently David Wang’s exciting and sophisticate interpretation of late 19th-century novels (Fin-de-Siecle Splendor: Repressed Modernities of Late Qing Fiction, 1848-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997)). In a larger context, approximately in the same period, this basically north American academia has interacted the rapidly changed literary criticism in China - from the theories and practices of “rewriting literary history” with a revision of “twentieth-century Chinese literature” (Chen Guoqiu, ed., Zhongguo wenxueshi de xingsi (Reflections on the history of Chinese literature) (Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1993).（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
“黄昏是一天中有预兆的时刻”<br />
“遗忘之夜，却似乎延缓了时间本身，”<br />
“一种中间的状态，在这种状态下，可能是白天的最后一丝阳光”<br />
“仍在上演它的终极奇迹。”<br />
Andreas Huyssen。<br />
《暮光之城》的记忆”<br />
本文通过对中国现代“散文”起源的探究，开辟了20世纪初文学现代性的“朦胧记忆”区，这一“朦胧记忆”区最近一直困扰着中国现代文学领域。从现代汉语的“文章”或“散文”来看，我们如何定义这一体裁?它之所以现代是因为它使用了“白话”吗?它的“现代”是从被称为“散文”开始的吗?五四通用制度是如何建立的?它对文学史的影响是什么?<br />
自20世纪80年代以来，对“五四”以外的中国文学现代性的探索一直在继续。<br />
在对中国文学现代性的学术反思中，最突出的是Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova对晚清中国现代文学起源的强调(“现代中国文学的起源”，Merle Goldman, ed.，《五四时期的现代中国文学》17-36;世纪之交的小说，Perry Link对鸳鸯蝴蝶小说的开创性研究(《鸳鸯蝴蝶:二十世纪初中国的通俗小说》)，刘子彦对“中庸小说”的倡导，以及最近王大卫对19世纪晚期小说的激动人心的、复杂的解读。在一个更大的背景下，大约在同一时期，这一基本上是北美的学术界从“重写文学史”的理论和实践与《二十世纪中国文学》(陈国秋主编，《中国文学》)的修订，相互影响了迅速变化的中国文学批评。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
With these questions, our inquiry into the formation of modern sanwen is inevitably engaged with a process of canon formation, and perhaps this is the appropriate genre by which we can trace the birth of modern subjectivity. In analyiss of Zhou Shoujuan’s (1894-1968) “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (Jiuhua zhang li), a vernacular autobiographical fiction published in 1917, I will reveal no more than a historical chaos of literature in which a subjectivity was constructed with complex strands in fusion and contestation. This subjectivity owed much to first person narratives Zhou had intensely experimented in his earlier writings; its double voice was not only helped by the traditional theatricality and poetics, but also linked to the modern spatial perception of cinematic representation.<br />
<br />
有了这些问题，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周寿娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示一场文学的历史混沌，在这种混沌中，用融合和争鸣的复杂线索建构了一种主体性。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
随着这些问题的出现，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周瘦娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示的不过是一场文学的历史混乱，在这种混乱中，主体性是由复杂的线在融合和争鸣中建构起来的。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:27, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
To set the terms from the outset, the ''sanwen'' will be treated historically as a canonical category grown out of the May Fourth literature. The term ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction, small talk) by which Zhou’s work was categorized will also be historicized. Immune from the modern generic system, it was transitionally intertwined with prose, fiction, drama, and other subgenres in the repertoire of traditional literature. My analysis of the work in question aims at revealing literary modernity of the period in its own terms, rather than redeem Zhou, a key figure of the so-called “Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school” (''Yuanyang hudie pai''), for his contribution to the birth of modern essay. Nor will I provide a generic definition of modern essay other than open up a new terrain to inquire different genealogies of literary modernity.<br />
<br />
从一开始“三文”就是一个从五四文学中衍生出来的经典范畴，用于历史研究。他将“小说”单独归为一类，于是“小说”这一词(小说、闲谈)也成为了历史。它不受现代通用体系的影响，与散文、小说、戏剧以及传统文学剧目中的其他子体裁交织在一起。我对这部作品的分析，只是为了揭示那个时期文学的现代性，而不是为了补偿他。他是一个所谓的“鸳鸯蝴蝶派”的关键人物，因为他对现代散文的诞生做出了贡献。我不会提供一个现代散文的一般定义，只会为文学现代性的不同谱系的探究开辟一个新的领域。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 05:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从一开始，“三文”就被历史性地视为五四文学中衍生出来的经典范畴。周在其作品中将“小说”归为一类，于是“小说”一词(小说、闲谈)也被历史化。它不受现代通用体系的影响，与散文、小说、戏剧以及传统文学剧目中的其他子体裁交织在一起。我对这部作品的分析，旨在从文本本身揭示那个时期文学的现代性，而不是为了补偿周--当时所谓“鸳鸯蝴蝶派”的关键人物--对现代散文的诞生所做出的贡献。我将不会为现代散文下一个一般的定义，只将针对文学现代性不同谱系的探究开辟一个新的领域。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:59, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
'''Literary Modernization: Generic and Canonical'''<br />
<br />
One of the spectacles in the literary arena of late 1990s China was the revival of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies (hereafter Butterfly) literature. Along with countless reprints of Butterfly fiction commercially catering to the post-socialist urban readers, there were sympathetic academic reappraisals that apparently challenged the May Fourth canon. Since the 1980s, the rapidly changed landscape of literary criticism marked a transformation of the critical codes from “revolutionary literature” to “literary modernity.” “Pure literature” (''chun wenxue''), a core value of literary modernity, was developed by a new generation of literary critics and academics and was ambiguously engaged with the post-socialist conditions: on the one hand, literary criticism was academically institutionalized and practiced with certain intellectual authorities; on the other hand, the “pure literature” was suspicious of its modernist poetics which implied a subversive force to the status quo.<br />
<br />
In recent few years around a dozen of scholarly-edited series of Butterfly literature appeared, not to mention other numerous compilations for commercial purpose. To mention a few: Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (Nanjing: Nanjing chubanshe, 1994); Fan Boqun and Fan Zijiang, eds., Yuanyang hudie-Libailiu pai jingdian xiaoshuo wenku (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996); Wei Shaochang, ed., Yuanyang hudie pai libai liu xiaoshuo. (Tianjin: Chunfeng wenyi chubanshe, 1997); Yu Runqi, ed., Qingmo minchu xiaoshuo shuxi (Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian chuban gongsi, 1997). （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
1990年代后期中国文学舞台上的奇观之一是文华鸭和蝴蝶（以下简称蝴蝶）文学的复兴。除了无数版的《蝴蝶小说》在商业上迎合后社会主义都市读者的小说外，还有一些富有同情心的学术评估显然挑战了“五四”教规。自1980年代以来，文学批评的格局迅速变化，标志着批判密码从“革命文学”到“文学现代性”的转变。作为文学现代性的核心价值的“纯文学”（“纯文学”）是由新一代的文学评论家和学者开发的，并与后社会主义的环境am昧地联系在一起：一方面，文学批评是在学术上制度化并在某些智力权威上实践；另一方面，“纯文学”怀疑它的现代主义诗学，这暗示着对现状的颠覆力量。<br />
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在最近几年中，出现了大约十二本经过学术界编辑的蝴蝶文学系列，更不用说其他许多用于商业目的的汇编了。仅举几例：范伯群主编，《中国近代通俗作》《平传丛书》（南京：南京市出版社，1994）；范伯群和范子江，主编，《 yang阳呼迪-李白柳排经编小说说文库》（南京：江苏文艺出版社，1996）。魏绍昌主编，Yuan阳护蝶派立派刘小硕。 （天津：春风文艺出版社，1997）；于润奇编，《清末民初小说集》（北京：中国文联出版公司，1997）。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:47, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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二十世纪九十年代末中国文坛的一个奇观是鸳鸯蝴蝶（以下简称蝴蝶）文学的复兴。为了迎合后社会主义城市读者的需求，蝴蝶派小说进行了无数次的再版，还有一些富有同情心的读者也对此重新做出评价，这显然是对五四文学主义发起了挑战。20世纪80年代以来，迅速变化的文学批评格局标志着批判原则从 "革命文学 "转变为 "文学现代性 "。"纯文学"作为文学现代性的核心价值，是由新一代文学批评家和学者发展起来的，并与后社会主义条件下的文学批评进行了暧昧的交锋：一方面，文学批评在学术上被制度化，并由某些权威学者实行；另一方面，"纯文学 "对其现代主义诗学持怀疑态度，意味着它具有对现状的颠覆性力量。[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:46, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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Today, the difference between May Fourth and Butterfly was not discussed in terms of “revolutionary vs. reactionary” or “progressive vs. backward,” but rather in terms of ''ya'' (elitism, elegance) vs. ''su'' (populism, commonality). While the Butterfly scholarship carved out a critical space in the name of “popular,” the price was high: their proteges can only be canonized through the codes of May Fourth literary modernity. If what underlay the literary modernity, - the premises of progressive history or of national literature - remained unquestionable, then Butterflies can only be considered inferior.<br />
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如今，五四学派与蝴蝶学派之间的区别不在于“革命与反动”或“进步与后退”，而在于“雅”（优雅的精英主义）与“俗”（具有共同性的平民主义）方面的讨论。 蝴蝶奖学金以“大众”的名义开辟了一个批判空间，但其代价是高昂的：他们的庇护者只能通过遵守五四文学现代性的规范来获得推崇。 如果说文学现代性的基础（进步的历史或民族文学的前提）仍然是不容置疑的，那么蝴蝶学者只能屈居下等。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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For example, in his recent reevaluation of ''Yuanyang hudie pai'', Wei Shaochang, whose pathbreaking bibliography of Butterfly published in the early 1960s made a study of this school possible, affectionately called this term “a beautiful cap” (''meili de maozi''). Yet this metaphor implies a re-justification of the “cap” imposed on it by the May Fourth writers. Accordingly, Wei maintained that even the best Butterfly works, despite their accomplishments, fail to compete with Lu Xun, Mao Dun and other modern literary giants in terms of intellectual and aesthetic qualities. <br />
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Furthermore, until recently scholarly interests in Butterfly never went beyond fiction.<br />
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See Wei Shaochang, Wo kan Yuanyang hudie pai (My view of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies literature) (Taiwan: Commercial Press, 1992) 1-11. One month ago, the first international conference on Butterfly school was held at Suzhou University, China, and one of its designed events was to celebrate the publication of A History of Modern Chinese Popular Literature, an enormous and enduring project fulfilled by the Chinese department of the host university. With a massive masquerade of Butterfly literature from the late Qing to Republican era (1,500,000 characters), this book boldly claims a new theory that the modern Chinese literature is constituted by a “pair of wings” - May Fourth and Butterfly. In this revision, the literary histories heretofore are invalid since they missed the other half - the popular literature. Thus, a new correct history of modern Chinese literature was called for. Impressively, this theory was unanimously accepted by all the participants, including notable May Fourth scholars Jia Zhifang, Yan Jiayan, and Qian Gurong. Nevertheless, this acceptance seemed more theoretical than practical, more sympathetic than critical. The problem remained unsolved and more crucial to the future of Butterfly scholarship: How to evaluate Butterfly in terms of aesthetic values? During the conference, the debates over the term “tongsu” (popular), by which the Butterfly was labeled, revealed certain anxiety. This anxiety had some reason: if Butterfly is limited to the popular, it would be inferior to the “pure literature” (chun wenxue), and, of course, ultimately it would be subject to the elite - May Fourth. In other words, if this popular “wing” is not strong enough, the double wing theory itself would hardly hold. The hidden core of the debates is that the May Fourth canon continues to dominate the field of literary criticism.(文献，无需翻译)<br />
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例如，早在1960年代初魏绍昌发表了具有开创性的鸳鸯蝴蝶派书目，使这一派别的研究成为可能。最近他对“鸳鸯蝴蝶派”重新进行了评价，将其亲切地称为“美丽的帽子”。然而，这种隐喻却暗示着五四作家对鸳鸯蝴蝶派扣上“帽子”的再一次辩护。因此，魏先生坚称，哪怕是取得成功的最出色的鸳蝶派作品，论才智，论美学，他们都无法与鲁迅，茅盾和其他现代文学巨人媲美。<br />
此外，到目前为止，人们对鸳蝶派的学术兴趣从未超越小说。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:10, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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In 1997, a new claim for Butterfly essay arose when an eight-volume series ''The Compendium of Essays by Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school'' (Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi) was published. Implicitly, by the term ''daxi'' in the title, this series contended with the May Fourth canon, as it reminded one of the well-known ''Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi'' (The Compendium of Modern Chinese Literature) in ten volumes published in 1935, which became a monumental for the May Fourth literature. In his introduction, Yuan Jin, chief-editor of this ''Compendium of Butterfly Essay'', asserts that prior to the May Fourth period Butterflies had greatly achieved in essay writings. <br />
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Yuan Jin, Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi: 1909-1949 (Shanghai: Dongfang chuban zhongxin, 1997) 3-4. （文献，无需翻译）<br />
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1997年，《鸳鸯蝴蝶派文章汇编》（Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi）八卷本丛书出版，蝴蝶文章出现了新的主张。这套丛书在书名中暗含着与五四典籍相抗衡的意思，因为它让人想起了1935年出版的著名的《中国现代文学纲要》十卷本，成为五四文学的不朽之作。这本《蝴蝶散文汇编》的主编袁锦在序言中断言，五四时期之前蝴蝶在散文创作上已经取得了很大的成就。<br />
袁进，《鸳鸯湖底派三文大义》。1909-1949 (上海：东方楚岸中新，1997) 3-4。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 12:37, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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Although after the 1920s most of them gradually accepted the new concept of ''sanwen'' used by May Fourth writers, they wrote in both vernacular and classical, and their essays still inherited the traditional literature, specifically the styles of ''xiaopin'' and ''biji''. Emphatic on their thematic and aesthetic characteristics as “representing quotidian life, the private feelings and tastes,” Yuan suggests that the Butterfly essay has its own literary and cultural roots. <br />
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The ''Compendium of New Literature'' serves a linkage ''par excellence'', for it displays how a canon is formed by defining a genre.<br />
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尽管在20世纪20年代以后，他们大多数都逐渐接受了五四作家用的“散文”这个新概念，他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承着传统文学，尤其是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁强调这些文章的主题和美学要素“体现着现代生活，私人感情，和品位，”他认为蝴蝶散文的文学性和文化都有着自己的来源。<br />
《新文学纲要》起着连接伟大作品的作用，它体现了经典是如何通过定义一种文学流派而形成的。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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虽然20世纪20年代以后，他们中的大多数人逐渐接受了“五四”作家有关“散文”的新观念，但他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承传统文学，特别是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁着重指出，《蝴蝶随笔》具有“代表日常生活、私人情感和情趣”的主题和审美特征，并认为《蝴蝶随笔》有其独特的文学和文化根源。《新文学纲要》起着连接“卓越”的作用，因为它展示了经典作品是如何通过定义一种流派而形成的。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 05:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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As the view that the form of modern Chinese essay was born from May Fourth literary movement was still prevailing, it is necessary to see how this modern myth was made. At least, a kind of authentic definition of modern essay was explicated by Yu Dafu (1896-1945) and Zhou Zuoren (1885-1968) in their introductions to the ''sanwen'' anthologies they separately compiled for the ''Compendium''.<br />
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At the time, almost two decades had elapsed since the May Fourth movement. And the New Culture, as incessantly embracing diverse isms from the West on the one hand and tortured by national and intellectual crises on the other, became more ideologically charged and consequently split into antagonistic camps.<br />
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For example, Fan Peisong. Zhongguo xiandai sanwen shi (A History of Modern Chinese Essay) (Nanjing: Jiangsu jiaoyu chubanshe, 1993) 3. The first sentence: “The history of modern Chinese essay opened its curtain when the May Fourth new cultural movement started.”（文献，无需翻译）<br />
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有观点任务中国现代散文的形式诞生于五四文学运动，这一观点仍然盛行，该现代迷思是如何产生的值得一看。至少，郁达夫（1896-1945）和周作人（1885-1968）在他们各自为《纲要》编撰的“散文”选集时，于引言部分给予了现代散文一个真正的定义。<br />
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“五四文学运动是现代中国散文形式的诞生地”这一观点至今仍在流行，该现代迷思是如何产生的值得一看。至少，郁达夫(1896-1945)和周作人(1885-1968)在为《纲要》分别编撰的“三文”选集的引言中，对现代散文的一种真实定义进行了解释。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:03, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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当时，五四运动已经过去了近二十年。新文化运动一方面不断地接受来自西方的各种主义，另一方面又受到民族和知识危机的折磨，更受意识形态的控制，并因此分裂成对立的阵营。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 08:26, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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As for these invited editors, their relationships (for example, between Hu Shi and Lu Xun, or between Mao Dun and Yu Dafu) were ruined by political arguments, or by personal quarrels and insults. All these, however, did not prevent them from being together to make a new literary myth. It was unlikely that they would return to the old days, yet this tremendous project certainly offered each of them a role of literary master in reshaping the May Fourth history.<br />
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至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系（如胡适与鲁迅的关系，茅盾与郁达夫的关系），则毁于政治争论，或个人的争吵与侮辱。然而，所有这些，都不妨碍他们在一起创造新的文学神话。他们不可能再回到从前，然而这个巨大的工程无疑给他们每个人提供了作为文学大师重塑五四历史的机会。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:06, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系(例如胡适和鲁迅的关系，茅顿和郁达夫的关系)被政治争论、个人争吵和侮辱所破坏。然而，这一切并没有阻止他们共同创造一个新的文学神话。他们不太可能回到过去的日子，但这个宏大的计划无疑让他们每个人都成为了重塑五四历史的文学大师。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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Compromises were necessary, yet, as a matter of fact, the ''Compendium'' cannot be easily assessed as a whole, for all the works included were miscellaneous and conflicted in content and form. As most editors claimed, using ''baihua'' is the hallmark for the new literature, but there was some flaw in their consensus of excluding the Butterfly School and the Shanghai School (''haipai''), for both schools also wrote in ''baihua''; rather, the exclusions implied moral bias against urbanism. It was no wonder that a great collective effort was made to reconstruct the conception of new, which itself was authoritative, at least theoretically, inbred with the ideas of progressive history, humanistic universality, and the utopian future.<br />
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妥协是必要的，但事实上，《纲要》不能轻易地作为一个整体加以评估，因为所包括的都是杂七杂八的内容，并且在内容和形式上都有冲突。正如大多数编辑所说，使用白话是新文学的标志，但他们在排除蝴蝶派和上海派(haipai)的共识上有一些缺陷，因为这两个派也用白话文写作;相反，这种排除暗含了对城市主义的道德偏见。毫无疑问，人们作出了巨大的集体努力来重建“新”的概念，这个概念本身至少在理论上是权威的，它与进步的历史、人道主义的普遍性和乌托邦的未来相结合。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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Thus, traced back to the moment of revolutionary departure, the new literature was portrayed as a myth of rootless origins, a timeless creation, isolated from the past; accordingly, the series presented their self-portraits as literary revolutionaries and cultural iconoclasts. In defining the modern essay, Yu Dafu can hardly figure out where the term ''sanwen'' comes from, left with a vague notion that it probably comes from the translation of the English term “prose.”<br />
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As Yu stressed in his introduction, the greatest contribution the ''sanwen'' genre makes to May Fourth literature is the free expression of individualism.<br />
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因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根起源的神话，一个与过去隔离的永恒的创造；在此基础上，以文学革命者和文化偶像派的形象展现了他们的自我形象 .在界定现代散文时，郁达夫很难找出“三文”这个词的来源，留下了一个模糊的概念，即它可能来自于英语“散文”这个词的翻译。<br />
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正如余在导言中强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根源的神话，一个与过去隔绝的永恒的创造；因此，这一系列作品呈现了他们作为文学革命者和文化偶像破坏者的自画像。郁达夫在定义现代散文时，很难弄清楚“三文”这个词的来源，只留下一个模糊的概念，认为它可能来自英语“散文”一词的翻译 <br />
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正如俞正声在引言中所强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:43, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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He is fascinated by this new and independent genre, with its multiple modes of representation and creative linguistic capacities distinct from those of fiction, poetry and drama. It is no accident that as a novelist well known for his autobiographical fiction displaying his sentimental, decadent and masochist personae, Yu believes that the essay should be a kind of self-writing in nature. In the same vein, Zhou Zuoren asserts that the modern essay was born from the linguistic shift from ''wenyan'' to ''baihua'', which of course should be attributed to the May Fourth literary achievement. He also gives the highest credit to this genre for its casualty, fluidity and flexibility - its specific capabilities of expressing the author’s own material and spiritual world.<br />
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他着迷于这一新的独立的文体，其多样的表现方式和创造性的语言能力不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧。作为一个以表现自己感伤、颓废、受虐倾向的自传体小说而闻名的小说家，自然而然地，郁达夫会认为散文本质上应该是一种自我的书写。周作人同样认为，现代散文是在“文言”向“白话”的语言转换中诞生的，这当然要归功于“五四”的文学成就。他还高度赞扬了这一体裁的随意性、流动性和灵活性——这些特质可以表达出作者的物质和精神世界。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:11, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他着迷于这一新的独立文体，其具有不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧的多种表现方式和创造性的语言能力。绝非偶然，作为一个以自传体小说表现自己多愁善感、颓废和受虐倾向而著称的小说家，郁达夫认为，散文在本质上应该是一种自我的书写。同样，周作人断言，现代散文诞生于从“文言文”到“白话文”的转变，这当然应该归功于五四文学的成就。他还对这一文体的随意性、流动性和灵活性--表达作者自身物质世界和精神世界的特殊能力给予了最高的评价。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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In exalting the sanwen for its charismatic power, both Zhou and Yu exhibit a kind of anxiety, symbolically related to their status not only as masters of modern essay but, more interestingly, as spokesmen of May Fourth individualism. Their anxiety were charged with different motivation and rhetoric, however, for in the mid-1930s, their political and cultural stands were in stark contrast. More pessimistic to China’s internal and external crises, Zhou retreated from the revolutionary frontier of New Culture and turned to cultural conservatism. On the other hand, Yu was more inclined toward the Left Wing radicalism to redeem himself from his early decadent proclivity.<br />
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在赞扬散文的魅力时，周作人和郁达夫都表现出一种焦虑，这是由于他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的发言人。 然而，他们的焦虑来源于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周作人对中国内忧外患更加悲观，因此他从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，郁达夫为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，所以更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:33, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周瑜在提升三文的魅力时，表现出一种焦虑，象征着他们不仅是现代散文的大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的代言人。他们的焦虑带有不同的动机和言辞，但在 1930 年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。对中国的内外危机更加悲观的是，周从新文化的革命前沿退缩，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，余更倾向于左翼激进主义，以弥补自己早期的堕落倾向。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在赞扬散文的魅力力量时，周和郁都表现出一种焦虑，这象征着他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是“五四”个人主义的代言人。然而，他们的焦虑被归咎于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周对中国内忧外患更加悲观，从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，俞正声更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:03, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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While characterizing the modern essay in social and ideological context, Yu emphasized the essayists’ responsibility to search for a harmony between the individual, nature and society. Moreover, he pointed out that May Fourth writers have endured an intellectual ordeal as they had first embraced the individuality and finally discovered the necessity to connect it to society and collectivity thanks to their moral conscience awakened by the bloody May Thirtieth incident. In contrast, Zhou showed a strong tendency of aestheticism and nihilism when claiming that he dislikes discussing ''sanwen'' in terms of history, political partisanship or any new isms.<br />
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在描述社会和意识形态背景下的现代论文的特点时，于强调了论文家在个人，自然与社会之间寻求和谐的责任。 此外，他指出，“五四”作家首先接受了个性，然后由于血腥的“五月三十号”事件唤醒了他们的道德良心，最终发现了将其与社会和集体联系起来的必要性，因此经受了一次智力考验。 相比之下，周声称自己不喜欢在历史，政治党派或任何新思想上讨论“三文”时，表现出强烈的唯美主义和虚无主义倾向。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Yu Dafu. “Daoyan,” in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi - Sanwen er ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu chuban gongsi, 1935) 1-19.（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
在描述社会和意识形态背景下的现代散文的特点时，于强调了散文家在个人、自然与社会之间寻求和谐的责任。 此外，他指出，“五四”作家首先接受了个性，然后由于血腥的“五月三十号”事件唤醒了他们的道德良心，最终发现了将其与社会和集体联系起来的必要性，因此经受了一次智力考验。 相比之下，周声称自己不喜欢在历史，政治党派或任何新思想上讨论“三文”时，表现出强烈的唯美主义和虚无主义倾向。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:00, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Despite their different views, they actually shared the historical perspective in discussing the development and characteristics of modern essay, and neither of them could see beyond their own historical limits. In their reinterpreting the ''new'' literature, the history of form was encoded by the new ideology. First of all, integral with the canonical codes and process, the Compendium definitively presented the modern generic division of ''xiaoshuo'', ''shige'', ''xiju'', and ''sanwen''. Lydia Liu called this four-way division a “self-colonizing project” as these terms were perfectly translatable into “fiction,” “poetry,” “drama,” and “familiar essay,” respectively, in English. Historically, as she pointed out, the canonization of these “translated” norms of literary form radically subverted the classical canon as the legitimate source of meaning for Chinese culture and literature.<br />
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尽管他们意见分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，他们都无法超越自己的历史束缚。 在他们重新解释“新”文学时，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码的。 首先，与规范代码和过程集成在一起，该纲要明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将此四分方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，因为这些术语完美地翻译成英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式“已译”规范的规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管意见存在分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，这些文章都无法超越自身的历史束缚。 他们在重新解释“新”文学时指出，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码而成的。 首先，该纲要将规范代码和过程融合在一起，明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将这四种方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，这是因为这些术语能完美对应英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式的翻译标准规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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Both Yu and Zhou took this modernized generic system for granted. The genre of essay, according to Zhou, represents the finest achievement of New Literature thanks to its capacities to represent widest scopes of life and individual emotions and reflections, with multiple, sophisticate techniques and styles, yet it is succeeded lastly compared to fiction and drama. Zhou’s discontent can be heard when he traced the tradition of modern essay back to the late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', a move showing his pro-tradition revision that was arguable within the May Fourth camp. But he treated ''sanwen'' as an integral part in the system of four genres, and his discussion of formal problems was restricted by this systemic framework.<br />
<br />
郁达夫和周作人都视这种现代化的通用体系为理所当然。在周看来，散文这种文体代表着新文学的最好成就。因为散文能够以多样的，复杂的技巧和风格体现广阔的生活视野和个人的情感与思考，它最终与小说和戏剧相比也是成功的。周的不满可以从他追溯现代散文传统到晚明时期的小品文的中寻迹。此举表明了他对传统的修正，也引发了五四阵营中的争论。但他将散文视为四种文体体系中的一个重要组成部分，对形式问题的探讨就受到了这一体系框架的制约。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 10:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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郁和周都认为这种现代化的通用体系是理所当然的。 在周看来，散文代表着新文学的最佳成就，这是因为散文能够以多样，复杂的技巧和风格，展现最广泛的生活画面和个人情感和思考，最终与小说和戏剧相比较也是成功的。 周的不满体现在他追溯现代散文的传统至明晚期的“小品文”，此举表明他亲传统的修正，在五四阵营中是有争议的。 但是他将“散文”视为锶中文体系中不可或缺的一部分，他对形式问题的讨论受到这种系统框架的制约。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 08:11, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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It was with this canon of modernized generic division that both Zhou and Yu described sanwen in rational terms, defining its linguistic and literary features in order to assert its superiority to other genres. This assertion was grounded on the legitimacy of the generic system and ultimately verified the system as a scientific and organic whole. In characterizing ''sanwen''’s representational capacities, Zhou used three terms: narrating, reasoning, and expressing emotions. More elaborate was Yu’s characterization with four terms, each of which was matched with an English equivalent in parenthesis – “description,” “narration,” “exposition,” and “persuasion” or “argumentation.” A slightly variant explication was allowed when he at the same time showed his favor to other categorical terms such as the reasoning, lyricism, description, and narration.<br />
借由现代化通用体系的这一正典，周和郁都从理性角度来描述散文，定义其语言学与文学特征，以确保散文优越于其他所有体裁。这一断言是基于通用体系的合理性，并且从根本上验证了这一体系是个科学的有机整体。在描述散文的代表性特征时，周用了三个词：“叙述”、“论证”和“表达情感”。而郁则使用了“描绘” "叙述"“说明”和"说理"或"论证"四个词来描绘其特征，更加详尽精致，并且每个词后，在括号里都有其相对等的英文词汇解释。但是郁认为细微不同的阐释也是允许的。以此同时，他也认同其他类别的术语表达，如推理，抒情，描写和记叙。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:06, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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Here Zhou’s notion of ''meiwen'' (beautiful essay) invites our special attention as it is involved with his historical speculation of the genre, which nonetheless suggests something else. Citing his published articles in chronological order, Zhou shows how he had tirelessly explored ''sanwen'' as a new form and at the same time elaborated his own theory of the genre. As he says he still cherishes his original idea that essay should be as perfect as ''meiwen'', which he had advocated as early as the late 1910s. This historical tracing seemed not only to review his insights from the mirror of history, as a matter of fact it aimed at reshaping his politics of “aesthetic essay” in the new cultural situation.<br />
在这里，周的“美文”（美文）概念引起了我们的特别关注，因为这涉及到他对该类型的历史推测，但仍暗示了其他观点。 周以时间顺序引用了他发表的文章，展示了他如何孜孜不倦地探索三文作为一种新形式，同时阐述了他自己的体裁理论。 正如他所说的那样，他仍然怀着最初的想法，即论文应与《美文》一样完美，他早在1910年代末就倡导了《美文》。 这种历史追溯似乎不仅是从历史的角度回顾他的见解，事实上，其目的是在新的文化形势下重塑他关于“美学论文”的政治。<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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Nevertheless, Zhou’s historicity in the 1935 introduction might reveal more about his painstaking search for the ideal concept of literature if he had drawn deeper from his memory. As early as 1908, he wrote a long essay, whose importance was manifested by its title “On the Significance and Mission of Writing and the Mistakes in Recent Chinese Literary Criticism” (Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi). It reveals his initial idea of ''meiwen'' as he had already talked about it, yet the fact that it was neglected by Zhou in 1935 might be more revelatory, for in 1908 what he really argued for was the term ''wenzhang'' (literature) rather than ''meiwen''. In other words, the excavation of Zhou’s literary past repressed by himself opens up a zone of “twilight memories” to serve my purpose.<br />
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然而，如果周能从自己的记忆中汲取更多的话，他在1935年序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对文学理想的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论写作的意义和使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，他的重要性就体现在这篇长文上。正如他之前所说，这本书揭示了他对“文学性”的最初想法，但更具有启示性的是，这本书在1935年被周忽视了，因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对曾为周所压抑的文学的挖掘，打开了一个“朦胧记忆”的区域，为我的目的服务。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，如果周能回忆起更多细节的话，他在1935年所作序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对理想化文学概念的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论文章之义以及其使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，其重要性正如标题所言。这本书揭示了他对美文的最初想法，但令人惊喜的是，周的这一观点早在1935年提出过，但却未得到重视。因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对周树人文学经历的挖掘为我展现了一块“暮光记忆”的区域，对本篇文章的论述大有裨益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:07, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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The essay shows how he intensely seeks a legitimate idea of literature between the terms of ''wenzhang, wenxue, and xiaoshuo'', or in a sense it epitomizes a battlefield of naming literature at the time. While sharing the contemporary intellectual consensus that literary discourse is one of the most viable medium to reshape national spirit, Zhou attempts to construct a system of literature by glorifying the idea of ''wenzhang'' which he identifies with the Latin word ''literature''. The ideal of wenzhang is embodied by artistic and affectionate expressions in archaic style (no wonder this essay was written in classical language). In order to enthrone his concept of ''wenzhang'' as a kind of new authentic classicism, he annotates the term by deriving from Western literary theories on the one hand, and on the other he combatively denounces other influential terms such as ''wenxue'' or ''xiaoshuo''.<br />
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本文从文章、文学、小说三个方面表明了他在文学方面的探索。从某种意义上说，这也是当时名为文学的战场的缩影。在认同文学话语是重塑民族精神最可行的媒介之一这一当代知识分子共识的同时，周试图通过美化“Literature”这一拉丁词文学来构建文学体系。理想的文章体现在艺术和深情的表达上（难怪这篇文章是用古典语言写的）。为了使“文章”这一概念成为一种新的正宗古典主义，他一方面借鉴西方文论对“文章”进行注释，另一方面又对“文章”等其他有影响的词进行了有力的抨击，比如“文学”或“小说”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:44, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
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Paradoxically, Zhou criticizes Liang Qichao’s notion of ''xiaoshuo'' for its utilitarian bent, yet he embraces it to such an extent that he equates it with the ''wenzhang'', lest it should be furnished with true sincerity in describing reality so as to move human emotions. The terms ''sanwen'' and ''meiwen'' do appear, once for each, and yet were casually treated; the former means trivial and lack of aesthetic quality, and the latter is less than a concept.<br />
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矛盾的是，周批评梁启超“小说”的功利主义倾向，却又欣然接受，甚至将小说与文章相提并论，惟恐文章在描写现实时表现出真诚，从而打动人心。“散文”和“美文”这两个词确实各自出现过一次，但却被随意对待;前者意味着琐碎和缺乏审美品质，后者则称不上是一个概念。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:54, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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矛盾的是，周批评梁启超的“小说”功利主义倾向，但又欣然接受，甚至将其等同于文章，惟恐它在描写现实时表现出真诚，从而打动人心。“散文”和“美文”这两个词确实都出现过一次，但都被随意对待;前者意味着琐碎且缺乏审美品质，后者则算不上是一个概念。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:14, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity China, 1900-1937 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995) 235.<br />
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Charles A. Laughlin excellently analyzed Zhou Zuoren's advocacy of late Ming xiaopin and its tension within the May Fourth literary theory in his paper "Legacies of Leisure: Late Imperial Influences on the 20th Century Chinese Essay" held at the essay conference in Achern (Germany) in August 25-27, 2000.<br />
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Zhou Zuoren, “Daoyan”, in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi, Sanwen yi ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu gongsi, 1935) 1-14.<br />
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Zhou Zuoren, “Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi.” In Wang Yunxi, Wu Guoping, and Huang Lin, eds., Zhongguo wenlun xuan, jindai juan (Selections of Chinese literary criticism, The modern period) (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996) 689-725.<br />
（文献无需翻译）<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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Obviously, the text, with his idea and style, looked outmoded by 1935. He had lost the battle of naming. The contestation of these terms resulted in the establishment of literary hierarchy consisted by the concepts of ''wenxue'' that meant literature in general sense, and the genres of ''xiaoshuo'' and ''sanwen'' as its major constituents. While forgetting his past as a neo-classicist, Zhou’s memory was effected by the canonical process of modern division of genres. Nevertheless, dimly echoing his early neo-classical vision he rebelled against the literary division while identifying the “beautiful essay” with late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', though in the end he must remain as a modern master essayist, filled with agony and nostalgia.<br />
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显然，1935年时，再回首他的这篇文章，从思想和风格来看，都已经过时了。周作人已经输掉了这场命名之战。关于这些术语的论战，直接促成了文学分层。而文学分层主要是由“文学”概念构成，并且还主要包含“小说”和“散文”这两个体裁。周作人虽然业已忘却他身为新古典主义作家的过去，不过他的思维还是受到了现代体裁划分的经典过程影响。不过，在用明朝晚期的“小品文”来判别“优美的散文”同时，简单地重复周作人反对文学层次划分的早期新古典主义思想，他也还是满腹悲伤与思乡，哪怕最终他必须捍卫自己现代散文大师的身份。<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
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'''Search for New Form and Subject'''<br />
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While the Poetry Revolution (''shijie geming''), Prose Revolution (''wenjie geming'') and Fiction Revolution (''xiaoshuojie geming''), launched by Liang Qichao from 1899 to 1902, signified that Chinese literature entered the modern epoch, the division of literary genres emerged. The most influential and controversial was the Fiction Revolution, for it was traditionally despised yet directly linked with the mass politics that loomed at the threshold of the century. In his famous essay “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People” (Lun xiaoshuo yu qunzhi zhi guanxi), Liang claimed that “fiction is the crowning glory of literature,” and that the “new fiction” should embody a new national soul. This intellectual subservience to populism was not whimsical, rather the subversion of poetic reign within the hierarchy of traditional genres served a metaphor for the collapse of traditional value system.<br />
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寻求新形式、新主旨<br />
梁启超在1899年至1902年发动的诗界革命、文界革命和小说界革命，预示着中国文学开启了现代化的纪元，不同的文学体裁开始出现。小说界革命是影响力最大的，也最受争议，因为它历来受到鄙视，但与降临于世纪之初的群众政治有着直接联系。梁在其著名文章《论小说与群治之关系》中声称“小说是文学的无上光荣”，“新小说”应该体现一种新的民族魂。这对于有民粹主义倾向的知识分子来说，不是在异想天开，相反，它颠覆了诗歌在传统体裁等级制度下的统治地位，象征着传统价值体系的崩塌。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:32, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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寻求新形式、新主旨<br />
1899年至1902年，梁启超发起的诗界革命、文界革命和小说界革命，预示着中国文学开启了现代化的纪元，开启出现不同的文学体裁。小说界革命是影响力最大的，也最受争议，因为它历来受到鄙视，但与降临于世纪之初的群众政治有着直接联系。梁在其著名文章《论小说与群治之关系》中声称“小说是文学的无上光荣”，“新小说”应该体现一种新的民族魂。这对于有民粹主义倾向的知识分子来说，不是在异想天开，相反，它颠覆了诗歌在传统体裁等级制度下的统治地位，象征着传统价值体系的崩塌。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 12:53, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
As Ted Huters explicated, the transformation of prose theories in late Qing period resulted in the ascendancy of the status of “writing” (''wen'') that is closer to the modern conception of “literature” (''wenxue''). Yet, the Fiction Revolution changed the generic course drastically. Widely anticipated for its superiority in mass education, the concept of xiaoshuo was elevated to the ontological level, as important as that of ''wen''. Although the Prose Revolution carried with it the power of “new prose style” (''xin wenti'') invented by Liang himself, it could hardly compete with the Fiction Revolution. While the “new prose style” was limited in its modes of expression, the literary contours were more vibrant with the movement of ''xiaoshuo''. Put it simply, in this period, what determined the formation of modern essay were the theory and practice of ''xiaoshuo'' rather than those of ''wen''.<br />
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正如胡志德（Ted Huters）所阐明的那样，清末时期的散文理论导致“文”地位的上升，更接近于现代的“文学”概念。然而，小说革命彻底改变了通用路线。由于小说在大众教育的地位显著，小说的概念已提升到本体论的水平，与“文”的地位同等重要。虽然散文革命有梁启超提出的“新文体”，但其地位还是难以与小说革命相媲美。“新文体”在表达方式上受限，但其文学轮廓比小说革命更加鲜明。简而言之，在这个时期，决定现代散文形成的原因是小说理论和实践的出现，而非“文”理论和实践的提出。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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As a matter of fact, literary tradition was reinvented by the notion of new fiction. Contrary to Liang’s expectation, ''xin xiaoshuo'' was still entangled with its tradition; selected and combined by new rules, the tradition offered ''new fiction'' possibilities to adopt literary techniques from the West. Perhaps Liang and his followers created this ambiguity, as the ''xiaoshuo'' came from the Japanese translation of Western “fiction” or “novel” and at the same time it was mixed with traditional popular genres of drama and ''tanci'' (musical and performing story-telling). Ironically, while claiming for its capacities to represent the human realms with “complexity, penetration, vividness, and thoroughness” (''quzhe touda, linli jingzhi''), it was also offered with almost a full range of traditional literary genres for choice.<br />
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实际上，文学传统是由新小说的概念再创的。与梁启超的期望相反，“新小说”仍然与其传统相联系；通过新规则的选择与结合，这一传统为“新小说”提供了接受西方文学技法的可能性。也许梁启超和他的追随者创造了这种模棱两可，因为“小说”来自于日本对西方"fiction“或"novel"的翻译，与此同时，它又混合了传统的流行戏剧和”弹词“（音乐和表演故事）。具有讽刺意味的是，尽管它以”复杂,渗透，生动，彻底“宣称人类领域的能力，它也出于自己的喜爱得到了一种全方位的传统文学种类。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:42, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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实际上，文学传统是由新小说的概念再创的。不如梁启超期待的那样，新小说仍与其传统有着千丝万缕的联系；受新规选择、结合，这一传统为新小说吸收西方文学技巧提供了可能。因为“小说”来自于日本对西方"fiction“或"novel"的翻译，与此同时，它又混合了传统的流行戏剧和”弹词“（音乐和表演故事），所以也许是梁启超及其追随者创造了这种模棱两可。讽刺的是，尽管新小说宣称其具有代表人类所涉及领域的能力，该能力具有“复杂性、穿透性、生动性及彻底性”，新小说同样具有几乎所有传统文学有的文学类型，供人们选择。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 07:27, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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There was a tension within the “new fiction” between its lofty mission to save China and its tradition of “small talk” - fiction for popular desires. The pendulum did not go back to the “small talk” until the mid-1910s when a new wave of urban periodicals surged, this time catering to intimate space and individual pleasure. This was the time of despair and expectation, of reshaping the public and private spheres, full of conflicts between tradition and modernity in terms of social norms of love, marriage and family. New interests in romances were accompanied with the aspiration for first person narratives from the West, such as memoir, love-letter, diary, and confession. It was no accident that popular magazines and newspapers were saturated with the sad love stories, among which Xu Zhenya’s (1889-1937) ''Yu li hun'' (Jade Pearl Spirit) became a bestseller in 1914.<br />
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“新小说”中有种矛盾，即既要带有拯救中国的崇高使命，又要保留迎合大众需求的“闲谈”风格的传统，这两者的矛盾。但“新小说”的风格并没有偏向“闲谈”风格，直到19世纪10年代中期，掀起了一股城市期刊的浪潮，在此期间，“新小说”倾向于有关亲密关系与个人取乐的内容。这是期望与绝望共存的时期，不仅重塑了大众和私人的范围，在社会有关爱情、婚姻和家庭方面的规定上充斥着传统与现代的冲突。对爱情小说也有新的关注，兼带着学习西方以第一人称叙述的期望，例如自传，情书，日记及忏悔。不出意外的，流行杂志与报纸上充斥着悲伤爱情故事，其中包括1914年畅销书作家徐枕雅的《玉梨魂》（1889-1937）。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:36, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
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This weird combination - a tragic romance interwoven with the author’s memory of youth and the style of archaic parallelism - seemed to attract more the refined reading public. Wu Shuangre (1884-1934), a writer also known for tragic romance, redefined the ''xiaoshuo'' as the “opposite to the big discourse (''dashuo''),” his emphasis on the ''smallness'' of fiction was urged by new desire and social needs.<br />
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这种怪异的组合-悲剧性的浪漫情怀与作者对青年的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-这似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。 吴双热（1884-1934），又是一位以悲剧性的浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“与大话语（“大说”）相对”，新的欲望和社会需求促使他强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:11, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种奇怪的组合-悲剧性的浪漫故事与作者对青春的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。吴双热（1884-1934），一位以悲剧性浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“大篇幅（大说）的对立面”，他受到新欲的望和社会需求的敦促，强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:05, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
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Zhou’s intellectual background behind his critique of Liang Qichao and Lin Shu should not be ignored. Influenced by Zhang Taiyan whom Zhou and his brother Zhou Shuren (later Lu Xun) followed during their stay in Japan, Zhou’s archaic vision of literature was based on the conviction that learning from the West by deriving from the Chinese past with deeper and wider scopes can prevent from the danger of populism and mass politics. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People.” Trans. Gek Nai Cheng, in Kirk Denton, ed., Modern Chinese Literary Thought, 74-81.<br />
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Theodore Huters, “From Writing to Literature: The Development of Late Qing Theories of Prose.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 47 (1987) 51-90.<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
周批判梁启超和林纾背后的知识背景不容忽视。周和他的兄弟周树人(后来的鲁迅)在日本期间跟随张太炎，受张太炎的影响，周对文学的陈旧看法是建立在这样一种信念之上的，即从更深更广的范围借鉴中国的过去，学习西方，以此防止出现民粹主义和大众政治的危险。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周批判梁启超、林纾的学术背景不容忽视。周和他的兄弟周树人（后鲁迅）在留日期间追随章太炎，受章太炎的影响，周的古代文学观建立在这样一种信念上：即从中国过去中汲取教训，以更深刻、更广的范围学习西方，可以防止民粹主义和大众政治的危险。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:44, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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See, “Zhongguo weiyi zhi wenxue bao Xin xiaoshuo” (The only literary magazine New Fiction in China). Xinmin congbao 14 (1902). When the New Fiction magazine was inaugurated in 1902, Liang and his colleagues lent its representational capacities the widest scopes of lifeworld and the richest literary resources, though in the name of “Western fiction.” The genres include popular song, rhythmic expressions such as drama and musicala storytelling.<br />
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参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们以“西方小说”的名义，将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。<br />
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参见《中国唯意志文学报新小说》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民从报14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志创刊时，梁启超和他的同事们虽然打着 "西洋小说 "的旗号，将其代表能力赋予了全世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。体裁包括流行歌曲、戏剧等韵律性的表现形式和音乐剧故事。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们虽以“西方小说”的名义，但将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参见《中国唯意志文学报新小说》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民从报14（1902）。1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们虽以“西方小说”的名义，但将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 03:54, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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Zhou meticulously experimented with first person narratives in the mid-1910s. In the wake of collapse of traditional values, literature became a vent for repressed psychology, and meanwhile functioned in reordering the structures of feelings and perceptions that purported to pave a way to rebuilding national spirituality. Therefore, intellectual anxiety was attached to seeking new literary genres. At the time, Zhou was spotlighted on the literary arena with ''Saturday'' (Libailiu), a weekly popular magazine aimed to entertain and educate urban readers mainly by the principles of literary pleasure aimed to articulate and regulate desires of everyday life and consumer psychology. This boom of urban print culture signified an inversion to the previous Fiction Revolution devoted to patriotism and national ethos; its representations focused more on the private realms and individuals, revealing a clearer character of the “small talk.” In this sense, Zhou’s intense uses of first person narratives were a necessity for him to represent a kind of the autonomous individual in urban space as an integral part of the periodical culture.<br />
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周在20世纪10年代中期对以第一人称来叙事进行了细致的尝试。在传统价值观瓦解后，文学成为压抑心理的发泄渠道，同时也重构了情感和观念结构，为重建民族精神铺平了道路。因此，寻求新的文学体裁必然伴随着知识分子的焦虑。当时，周以《星期六》（Libailiu）走红文坛，这是一本旨在娱乐和教育都市读者的周刊，主要以文学愉悦为原则，旨在表达和调节日常生活欲望和消费心理。这种都市印刷文化的繁荣，标志着它与以往致力于爱国主义和民族精神的小说革命发生了逆转；它的表现更多地集中在私人领域和个人身上，揭示了“闲谈”更为鲜明的特征。从这个意义上说，周对第一人称叙事的大量运用是在城市空间中表现一种自主个体的必然，是期刊文化的重要组成部分。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:19, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” appeared in 1917, in the ''Pictorial Story'' (Xiaoshuo huabao) edited by Bao Tianxiao, who announced from the outset that this monthly fiction magazine aims to promote the ''baihua'' fiction. In a history of Chinese literature published in late-1950s, this story was picked out as a typical Butterfly work: “[it is] empty and poor in its content, full of meaningless words and sentences.” However, this biased criticism neglected the fact that this short story was a pioneering ''baihua'' fiction, which appeared in a fiction magazine, which advocated the ''baihua'' prior to the May Fourth movement! <br />
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《九花帘幕》出现于1971年由包天晓主编的《晓说花宝》中，他从一开始就宣布，这本小说月刊旨在推广“百花”小说。在20世纪50年代末出版的《中国文学史》中，这个故事被选为典型的蝴蝶作品:内容空洞贫乏，充满无意义的字句。然而，这种偏颇的批评忽略了这篇短篇小说是“百花”小说的先驱，它出现在一本小说杂志上，早在在五四运动之前就主张“百花”。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 03:52, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1971年，《九花帘幕》在由包天晓主编的《晓说花宝》中出版，他从一开始就宣布这本小说月刊旨在推广白话小说。在20世纪50年代末出版的《中国文学史》中，这部小说被评选为一部典型的蝴蝶作品：“（这本小说）内容空洞贫乏，充满了毫无意义的字句。”然而，这种偏颇的批评忽视了这篇短篇小说是白话小说的先驱，在一本小说杂志上出版，在五四运动之前就提倡白话文！--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:25, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
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Indeed, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was labeled as ''xiaoshuo'', but the notion of ''xiaoshuo'' in the teens ambiguously crossed the boundaries of old and new, and Zhou had barely the idea of modern ''sanwen''. Rather, shown by the story mixed with the elements of poetry, prose and drama, his understanding of ''xiaoshuo'' was conventional and transitional. Interestingly, some critic conceived that the notion of ''sanwen'' was stemmed from ''xiaoshuo''. In 1914, Cheng Zhi’s essay “Miscellaneous Remarks on Fiction” (Xiaoshuo conghua) holds that nowadays only ''xiaoshuo'' can do what literature can do; it is so important and enchanting that it can fulfill the task of literature while artistically expressing human emotions and aesthetic thoughts. Since all literary expressions, according to him, appeal to optic and audio perceptions, ''xiaoshuo'' contains both ''sanwen'' (prosaic) and ''yunwen'' (rhythmic) texts. The former can be the vernacular or literary language; the latter includes romance drama and rhythmic story-telling. As the chart intricately shows, the ''sanwen'' is sandwiched: on one side it grows out of the trunk of ''xiaoshuo'', and on other side it bifurcates its own branches of literary and vernacular languages. We cannot decide to what extent this concept of ''sanwen'' can be related to that of the May Fourth generic system, yet its connotations were still valid in the Butterfly use after the 1920s.<br />
<br />
确实，“九花帘”被贴上了小说的标签，但早期小说的概念就模糊地跨越了新旧界限，而周树人几乎没有现代散文的思想，而是结合诗歌，散文和戏剧的元素，表明他对小说的理解是传统的和过渡的。有趣的是，一些评论家认为“散文”的概念源于小说。 1914年，成智的论文《小说的杂记》断言，如今只有小说才能做到文学所能做的；它是如此的重要和迷人，以至于它可以在完成艺术创作上表达人类情感和美学思想的同时，完成文学的任务。据他介绍，由于所有的文学表达形式都需要视觉和听觉上的理解，因此小说既包含散文（韵律）又包含韵文（韵律）。前者可以是乡土语言或文学语言；后者包括浪漫主义戏剧和有节奏的故事讲述。如图所示，散文被夹在中间：一方面从小说的树干中长出来，另一方面将其自己的文学和白话分支起来。我们无法确定“散文”的概念在何种程度上可以与“五四”通用系统的概念相关联，但其含义在1920年代后的蝴蝶使用中仍然有效。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 06:47, 1 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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The chaotic conditions of literary genres opened up new possibilities, and “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” as a kind of self-representation, exhibited Zhou’s obsession with subjective writings, blended with the elements of dairy, love-letter, confession, and fictional autobiography. Here, I only briefly show Zhou’s devotion to two kinds of the first person narratives - autobiography and lover-letter. These forms adopted by Zhou, no matter it belongs to the concept of ''xiaoshuo'' at the time or more to the ''sanwen'' in today’s standard, had a specific charm of lyricism and sensuality that most appealed to him. One type referred to the subgenre of autobiography - amorous memoirs - a colorful branch in Ming-Qing erotic-sentimental tradition, represented by Mao Xiang’s ''Memoirs of the Plum Shadow Studio'' (Ying mei an yiyu) and Jiang Tan’s ''Reminiscences of the Autumn Lamp'' (Qiu deng suoyi). These texts were included in an anthology titled ''Selections of Memoirs'' (Yiyu xuan) Zhou edited and published in 1920s.<br />
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杂乱无章的文学体裁，开启了新的可能性，《九花帘》作为一种自我表征，展现了周作人对主观书写的执着，融合了乳品，情书，自白，虚构自传等元素。在这里，我只简单地展示了周小川对自传和情书这两种第一人称叙事的倾注。周小川所采用的这些形式，无论属于当时的“小说”概念，还是更多地属于今天的“三文”标准，都具有一种特定的抒情性和感性魅力，最能吸引周小川。一种类型是指自传的子体裁--风情回忆录--明清情色传统中的一个丰富多彩的分支，以毛翔的《梅影画室回忆录》和蒋坦的《秋灯回忆录》为代表，其中以《梅影画室回忆录》和《秋灯回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表，以《秋灯回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表，以《梅影画室回忆录》为代表。周小川在20世纪20年代编辑出版的《回忆录选》中收录了这些文本。<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
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Another inspiration came from Washington Irving, whom Zhou considered a literary genius. He highly praised Irving’s ''Sketch-Book'' for its “creativity and uniqueness”; he appreciated most “Westminster Abbey,” “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” “The Broken Heart” and “RipVan Winkle.” Interestingly, Zhou understoods Irving through the window of Chinese literary past. He translated the ''Sketch-Book'' into the form of ''biji'', with his comments saturated with the classical poetics: “His writings are secluded and flagrant, limped and stretching far (''youxin danyuan''), like violets in flower-shrubes; they are also delicate and charming, drifting aloof (''qingqian piaoyi''), like a pen thrown into the sky becomes a capricious dragon.”<br />
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另一个灵感来源于华盛顿·欧文，周认为欧文是一个文学天才。周因欧文作品《见闻札记》中的创造力和独特性高度赞扬了这部作品。周最欣赏的就是《威斯敏斯特教堂》、《沉睡谷传奇》、《破碎的心》和《瑞普·凡·温克尔》。有趣的是，周通过中国文学的窗口了解欧文。他将《见闻札记》翻译成笔记的形式，他的评论充斥着古典诗学：“他的著作隐蔽而又明目张胆的，一坡一拐而延伸得很远（“ 忧心淡远”），像灌木丛中的紫罗兰；它们既细腻又迷人，飘荡的超然感（清浅飘逸），就像扔向天空的钢笔变成了反复无常的龙。”--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:34, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
另一个灵感来源于华盛顿·欧文，周认为欧文是一个文学天才。其《见闻札记》一书独具创新与独特性，周高度赞扬了这部作品。周最欣赏《威斯敏斯特教堂》、《沉睡谷传奇》、《破碎的心》和《瑞普·凡·温克尔》。有趣的是，周通过过去的中国文学窗口来了解欧文。他将《见闻札记》翻译成笔记的形式，他的评论充斥着古典诗学：“他的著作隐蔽而又明目张胆的，艰难前进而又延伸得很远（“ 忧心淡远”），像灌木丛中的紫罗兰；它们既细腻又迷人，飘荡超然（清浅飘逸），就像扔向天空的笔变成了反复无常的龙。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:40, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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Zhou’s mania for love-letters evinces his pursuit of the fashion, chic and commercial, in contrast to his literati personality immersed in the erotic-sentimental poetics. Raoul Findeisen rightly pointed out that the genre of love-letter enhances to codify the heterosexual love in modern Chinese literature. This form was introduced into China hand in hand with the assimilation of Western-style customs and the idea of free communication between man and woman. At least in 1911, ''qingshu'' as a translated term for “love-letter” appeared in a funny essay “Ji qingshu zhi xinfa” (A new way to send a love-letter) in ''Shenbao''. As a piece of passionate ''qinghua'', “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” should be connected to Zhou’s “Qingshu hua” (On love-letter), a series of essays he contributed to ''Shenbao'' in 1919. These essays talk about the world famous love stories of Napoleon, Byron, Hugo, and many others, and specifically about how they wrote love-letters. For example, amidst wars Napoleon never forgot to write to Josephine; Zhou translated his words: “I am begging you to receive my thousand kisses, and don’t give me back any of your’s, otherwise my blood will boil.” Also with great zeal he talks about how Hugo wrote 120 letters to his fiancee Adele Forcher.<br />
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与沉浸在情色诗意中的文人个性形成鲜明对比的是，周的恋爱狂潮表明他追求时尚，别致和商业。拉乌尔·芬德森（Raoul Findeisen）正确地指出，情书的流派增强了对现代中国文学中异性恋的理解。这种形式是与西方习俗的融合以及男人和女人之间自由交流的思想一起被引入中国的。至少在1911年，“情书”作为“爱情书信”的翻译词出现在“神宝”中的搞笑文章“集情书之新发”中。作为一个充满激情的“清华”，《九朵花的窗帘》应该与周的《清华》有关，这是他在1919年为《神宝》撰写的一系列论文。这些文章谈论了拿破仑，拜伦，雨果和许多其他人的世界著名爱情故事，特别是关于他们如何写情书的故事。例如，在战争中，拿破仑从未忘记写信给约瑟芬。周翻译了他的话：“我求你接受我的一千个吻，不要把你的任何一个还给我，否则我的血就会沸腾。”他还以极大的热情谈论了雨果如何给未婚妻阿黛尔·佛彻（Adele Forcher）写了120封信。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 07:00, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
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Known as master of the “sad love story” in the mid-1910s, he wrote numerous short stories which appeared in around a dozen periodicals and newspapers; among them a number of first person narratives were in best quality. While breaking with the traditional love discourse and modes of romance, his love stories depicted new urban subjects in newly formed public spaces such as the public park, tramcar, medical clinic, and movie theater. Most noticeable is his ''Short Stories from Famous European and American Writers'' (Oumei mingjia dianpian xiaoshuo congkan) published in 1917, revealing his ways of dealing with the personal pronounces under chaotic conditions. Among fifty stories included, twenty-six stories belong to first person narrative. Interestingly, in all the eight vernacular texts the first person pronoun is ''wo'', and in the rest eighteen stories in classical language, the first person pronouns are variantly used between ''yu'', ''yu'' and ''wu''.<br />
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作为1910年代中期描写爱情悲剧的大师，他写了许多短篇故事，并发表在众多期刊和报纸上；其中，那些以第一人称的角度叙述的故事是最好的。他打破了传统爱情故事的语言和抒情方式，他的爱情故事描述了发生在公园、电车、诊所、电影院等新式公共空间的新的城镇主体。更惹人注意的是，他的译作《欧美名家短篇小说丛刊》在1917年出版，揭示了他在嘈杂的环境中处理个人观点的方式。书中所包含的50个故事，其中26个从第一人称的角度进行叙述。有趣的是，在8篇用方言写的文本中，第一人称的代词用的是“wo”，在剩下的18篇用古典语言写的故事中，第一人称的代词多用“yu”“yu”和“wu”。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:05, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
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This selection of ''wo'' for the vernacular seemed identical to the establishment of “I” as the male subjectivity in May Fourth literature, but they bore different logic of modernity. Perhaps there was another kind of “translated modernity” in Zhou: the vernacular ''wo'' is not the absolute in the whole anthology. Zhou’s selected uses of the personal pronouns include not only the first person pronouns but the second and third person pronouns, showing a chaotic state of literary subject. He is more plural and playful while experimenting with both the vernacular and the classical, and one is not subject to the other. Fascinated by multiple possibilities in the new literary situations, he was more concerned with ways of using different first person pronouns to suit different modes and styles of representations, in accordance with his own linguistic sensitivity and capability.<br />
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白话小说中“我”一词的选择似乎与“五四”文学中确立“ l”作为男性主观性是相同的，但是它们具有不同的现代逻辑。 在鲁迅的作品中也许还有另一种“翻译的现代性”：白话用词"我"在整个选集中不是绝对的。 周对人称代词的使用不仅包括第一人称代词，还包括第二和第三人称代词，表现出文学主体的混乱状态。 他尝试了同时使用白话文和文言文并把它们放在平等的位置，具有多元化的特点。在新的文学情境中，他着迷于多种可能性，更加致力于利用自己的敏感的语言天赋，使用不同的第一人称代词来适应各种表达方式和风格。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:42, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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Fan Boqun pointed out that Zhou contributed to modern literature in its early phase by experimenting with psychological forms such as diary, epistoral fiction, and that his creative writings were indebted to his translation. See, “Zhu, bian, yi jie jing de ‘wenzi laogong’: Zhou Shoujuan pingzhuan” (A literary laboror in his refined achievements of writing, editing and translating: A biography of Zhou Shoujuan), in Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (A series of modern Chinese popular writers) vol. 4, 177. If this was a late credit to Zhou, there had been another one about his 1917 translation of Famous European and American Short Stories. In the early 1960s he wrote to his daughter revealing the fact that his 1917 translation was praised by Lu Xun and awarded by the Republican Education Bureau, and that he did not know this until he had read Zhou Zuoren’s memoir in the early 1950s. This information was revealed after his literary career was criticized as a reactionary current against the new literature.<br />
<br />
范伯群（Fan Boqun）指出，周小川（Zhou Xiaochuan）对现代文学的早期贡献在于心理文学方面，例如日记、书信体小说等，同时，他的翻译对其创作贡献极大。见“朱，卞，易节经得‘文子劳公'：《周守隽（Zhou Shoujuan)评传》”（文学工作者，在写作、编辑、翻译方面取得卓越成就:《周守隽传》），范伯群编:《中国现代通俗作家丛书》第4卷，177页。如果说这本书是周小川迟来的荣誉的话，那么他1917年翻译的欧美著名短篇小说就是他的另一荣耀。上世纪60年代初他给女儿写的信中表明，他1917年的译作受到了鲁迅的赞赏和民国教育局的嘉奖，但是这一点还是他在上世纪50年代初读周作人的回忆录中知晓的。他的文学生涯被批判为反对新文学的反动潮流后，这一信息才透露出来的。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
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Lydia Liu deals with the use of first person pronoun wo that designates “I” as a central issue of “translated modernity” in modern Chinese literature. Along with wo becoming the only victor in the contests of first person pronouns through heavy traffic of transnational cultures, the male vernacular subjectivity is established (see Lydia Liu, 154-55).<br />
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The Poetics of Persuasion“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was the author’s “love talk” (''qinghua'') to his bride in the first night of marriage, a passionate confession of his bitter past, with sentiment and self-esteem, and meanwhile he expresses his love and hope for their conjugal life in the future. The narrative begins with a third person account of how the author’s wedding ceremony was held in ''Yeshiyuan'', one of famous public parks in the city, and how in the night his friends gathered in the wedding chamber making fun of the new couple.<br />
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莉迪亚·刘指明“I”的第一人称代词“我”的运用作为现代中国文学中翻译现代化的核心问题。随着wo成为通过跨国文化在阻力很大的前进路线上第一人称代词竞赛的唯一胜利者，男性白话主体性得到了确立（见莉迪亚·刘，154-55）。<br />
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《九花帐里》是作者在新婚夜晚对他新娘的情话,他充满激情,带有情绪和自尊地忏悔着他痛苦的过去，同时表达了他对未来夫妻生活的爱和希望。故事以第三人称开始叙述，描述了作者在城市著名的公园之一，也是园的婚礼是如何举行的，在新婚夜里他的朋友聚在新房里如何打趣这对新人的。 --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:13, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
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This brief opening is like the “prologue” in premodern vernacular stories, a device originated from thirteen-century drama. By this convention a stage is set for the drama of the pillow talk, predicting his theatricality. Nevertheless, with the phrase “Zhou Shoujuan says” at the very beginning, the tradition is inverted, for in old days, fiction writing is not a respectful job and the author’s name never appeared. While the vernacular storytellers were too humble to claim his authorship, literati were too proud to do so. Perhaps it was Lin Shu who self-consciously broke with the tradition as he signed his name on the novels he translated.<br />
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这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，一开始就用“周守娟说”这句话来颠覆了传统，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，但文人却为之骄傲。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:04, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头的 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不敢。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，其手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，作者为枕边话剧搭建了舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么体面的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不屑。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:52, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
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This self-referential information at the outset is more than a self-promotion: it sets a tone of respectfulness and expectation, evoking a blissful and jubilant atmosphere for what follows. Moreover, the voice from a famous writer suggests new semantics of love and new ways of expressing love. Of course, the marriage is a new chapter in his life; it was the fashion to have a Western-style wedding (''wenming jiehun'') in a public park. The guests are celebrities, novelist, journalists and print entrepreneurs, such as Bao Tianxiao, Chen Diexian, Ding Song, indicative of a newly born social stratum recognized by the urban public.<br />
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这种自我参照的信息在一开始就不仅仅是自我推销:它设定了尊重和期待的基调，为接下来的事情唤起一种幸福和欢乐的氛围。此外，一位著名作家的声音暗示了爱的新语义和表达爱的新方式。当然，婚姻是他人生的新篇章;在公园举行西式婚礼是当时的时尚。受邀的嘉宾有名人、小说家、记者和报业大亨，如鲍天晓、陈蝶仙、丁松等，他们代表着城市公认的新生社会阶层。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
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When Zhou promises to satisfy his friends’ curiosity about what he said to the bride “inside the curtain” in the first night, he deliberately shifts the scene from the backdrop to the main tableau - the curtain. His wedding, albeit part of his private life, was already exposed by Bao Tianxiao and Chen Diexian who, as Zhou mentioned, had written about this event and published them in newspapers. And Zhou himself announced that his own pillow talk would appear in the ''Pictorial Story''. Aware of his privacy under the public gaze, Zhou spotlighted the “curtain” as center stage, namely in the innermost space of the chamber; this is bold and unconventional. Of the marriage rituals and symbols familiar to the Chinese, those descriptions related to the wedding chamber are most erogenous and mysterious, arousing their erotic and voyeurist desire.<br />
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当周承诺满足朋友们对他在第一个晚上“在帘子里”对新娘说的话的好奇心时，他故意将场景从背景转移到主要场景——帘子上。他的婚礼虽然是他私生活的一部分，但已经被鲍天晓和陈叠贤曝光，正如周所提到的，他们写了这件事并将其发表在报纸上。周本人也宣布，他自己的枕边谈话将出现在《画报》上。在公众的注视下，周意识到自己的隐私，他把“帘子”作为中心舞台，即房间的最内部空间;这是大胆的并且是非常规的。在中国人所熟悉的婚姻仪式和象征中，涉及婚房的描述是最性感的和最神秘的，激起了他们的情欲和窥探欲。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:07, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
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In ''Six records of a floating life'' (Fusheng liu ji), a classical autobiography, Shen Fu (1763-?) vividly depicts, “I saw by the light of our wedding candles that Yun’s figure was as slim as before. When her veil was lifted we smiled at each other. And we had shared the ceremonial cup of wine and sat down together for the wedding banquet, I secretly took her small hand under the table. It was warm and it was soft, and my heart beat uncontrollably.” However, readers might be disappointed as there is no such details they expected. Yet to great writers, dealing with the first wedding night is a moment to play with readers’ expectation. For example, in one of Li Yu’s stories, after the bridegroom undresses the bride, he is shocked by the fact that she is a “stone woman” who lacks the sexual organ! In ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', when Baoyu lifts the bride’s veil, he finds Baocai instead Daiyu - he is cheated by his family seniors who makes the substitute; thus the dark side of traditional marriage system is unveiled and the tragic theme of the novel reaches its climax.<br />
在“浮华生活的第六记录里”(浮生六记)，一本经典自传体，沈复(1763-)生动地描绘到，“借着婚烛我看见云的身材和以前一般苗条。当她的面纱被揭开后，我们面面相觑了一下。我们喝了交杯酒，然后一道坐下加入婚宴。我暗自抓住了她在桌下小巧的手。很暖和，很柔软，我的心按耐不住地跳动着。”然而，读者可能会觉得失望，因为这里没有出现他们期待的细节描述。而对于大作家而言，描写新婚夜可以符合读者的期待。比如，在李煜的一篇故事里，新娘给新郎更衣后，他看见新娘是“铁女子”后震惊了，她没有性器官”。在“红楼梦”里面，当宝玉讲新娘的面纱揭开时，发现是宝钗而不是黛玉--他被家里的长辈欺骗了，新娘被调换了。因此，传统婚姻体制的阴暗面被揭开了，小说的悲剧性主题也达到了高潮。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:31, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
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The narrator’s loving voice begins with: “My Phoenix Lady: This is the first night of our marriage, the first day to raise the curtain of our family life. Whether our chamber will be paradise or hell, the drama opens from the present; whether our life will be sad or happy, we will open our theater today.” The long and passionate pillow talk is lyrical and decorative in style, with verbal and imagery rhetorical devices such as the poetic couplets and parallel sentences, metaphors, and repetitions, blending the classical and Western-style vocabulary and grammar. The bridegroom says: <br />
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From now on, you become a member of my family; your name Hu Fengjun is crowned with the surname Zhou. Since you stepped into the door of Zhou, naturally you will do something for his family. The domestic duty falls on us with weight; we should carry it together: the half of it is on my shoulder, the other half on your’s. We should become one heart in order to overcome innumerable difficulties ahead of us. My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care. If sometimes I am worried, you should understand me, and care about me.<br />
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叙述者充满爱意的声音开始说道：“我的凤凰夫人：这是我们结婚的第一晚，这是拉开我们家庭生活帷幕的第一天。无论我们的房间是天堂还是地狱，这部戏都是从现在开始的。 无论我们的生活是悲伤还是幸福，我们今天都会开始我们的剧场。”漫长而充满激情的枕边细语是抒情的和装饰性的，带有言语和意象的修辞手段，如诗对联和平行句子，隐喻和重复，融合了古典和西式的词汇和语法。<br />
新郎说：从现在开始，你成为我的家人； 你胡凤君之名将冠以周姓。自你走进周家门起，你自然会为他的家人做些事情。 家务负担沉重地落在我们身上；<br />
我们应该一起承担：一半在我的肩上，另一半在你的肩上。我们应该结成一颗心来克服我们面前的无数困难。 我的老母亲需要你的优质服务，<br />
多户家庭需要您的精心照顾。如果有时候我感到焦虑，您应该了解我，关心我。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 14:23, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
叙述者用充满爱意的声音开始说道：“我的凤凰夫人：这是我们结婚的第一晚，这是拉开我们家庭生活帷幕的第一天。无论我们的房间是天堂还是地狱，这部戏都是从现在开始的。 无论我们的生活是悲伤还是幸福，我们今天都会开始我们的剧场。”漫长而充满激情的枕边细语是抒情的和装饰性的，带有言语和意象的修辞手段，如诗对联和平行句子，隐喻和重复，融合了古典和西式的词汇和语法。<br />
新郎说：从现在开始，你就是我的家人； 你胡凤君之名将冠以周姓。自你走进周家门起，你自然会为他的家人做些事情。 家务负担沉重地落在我们身上；<br />
我们应该一起承担：一半在我的肩上，另一半在你的肩上。我们应该结成一颗心来克服我们面前的无数困难。 我的老母亲需要你的优质服务，<br />
多户家庭需要您的精心照顾。如果有时候我感到焦虑，您应该了解我，关心我。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:24, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
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The most important word for husband and wife is “love,” which comes from their mutual understanding and mutual care. If we love each other until the last day of our life, we will spend our whole life in a wonderland with flower and the moon. Every second of our time is gilded with honey and sugar; everywhere in this world is as beautiful as rose. At our ears we often hear the singing birds; before our eyes we often see the flowers in smile. In four seasons, we always have bright and fantastic landscapes around us; the sky looks embroidered, even from cruel storm and frost there grows out the splendid Spring.<br />
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Therefore it is truly important for a couple to love each other, and nothing else is so important. If you have a plenty of money but no love, if you are so tightly fastened by the “red string” that you cannot escape from it, then although you are still husband and wife, how can you feel any happy? Since the ancient time, countless virtuous women were victimized as such. In this first day of our marriage, we should think of a way to make our love forever: each day we should let our hearts meet and mirror each other.<br />
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夫妻之间最重要的词是“爱”，它来自于彼此的理解和关心。如果我们相爱直到生命的最后一天，我们将在一个有花有月的仙境度过我们的一生。我们的每一秒都充满了甜蜜与糖;世界上任何地方都像玫瑰一样美丽。我们经常听到鸟儿在耳边歌唱;我们经常看到微笑的花朵出现在眼前。在四季中，总是有明亮的和奇妙的风景在我们周围;天空看起来像绣了花一样，即使是残酷的风暴和霜冻也会带来灿烂的春天。<br />
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因此，夫妻彼此相爱是非常重要的，没有什么比这更重要了。如果你们有很多钱却没有爱情，如果你们被那根“红线”拴得死死的，那么即使你们还是夫妻，你们怎么能感到幸福呢? 自古以来，有无数贤惠的妇女成为这样的受害者。在我们结婚的第一天，我们应该想办法让我们的爱永远:每一天我们应该让我们的心相遇，彼此关照。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 09:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
A reader of modern taste may frown at the rhetoric of excess and hyperbole, the naive self-indulgence, and the Chauvinist male voice in this early ''baihua'' prattle. But in this early modern phase, what most fascinates the contemporaries are its novelty and hybridity of diverse images and grammars; i.e. the unfamiliar is within the familiar, the modern within the traditional. Perry Link asserted that Butterfly fiction provides “psychological comfort” to the urban readers who feel the pressure of modernity. Yet, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” provides something more positive than the “psychological comfort”: the narrator’s persuasive voice throughout this pillow talk.<br />
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具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和沙文主义的男性声音感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和大男子主义色彩的男性话语感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Embedded in a kind of love philosophy mixed with late Ming discourse of passion (''qing'') and the Romantic influence from the West, this love talk asserts that true love is primarily based on mutual understanding and mutual compassion. A persuasive tone, rather than the didactic or authoritative, prevails the text, and when the persuasion itself it a crucial way to reach and fulfill true love and compassion, its effect depends on refined speech and aesthetic values. For instance, the use of rhythmic repetitions aims to be chantable and enchanting; this audio characteristic is discernibly linked to traditional poetry and drama. The variations of the parallel sentences, poetic couplet, idiomatic phrase and resonant words display the author’s grasp of the repertoire of traditional literature. The sentences “My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care” resemble the “four-six” parallelism; the pair of colloquial phrase ''haohao'er'' (well, greatly) comes from vernacular drama or fiction. A contemporary reader might be excited by this Western-style couplet, “You are like the warm sunshine in the summer; I am the bright moon in the autumn.” Or readers may be fascinated by the fresh expression such as “We a pair of mandarin ducks were hit by the Cupiter’s arrow.”<br />
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这段情话蕴含着一种爱的哲学，夹杂着晚明的激情话语和西方浪漫主义的影响，主张真爱主要是建立在相互理解和相互同情的基础上的。一种有说服力的语气，而不是说教或权威，主导着文本，而且当说服本身成为达到和实现真爱和同情的关键途径时，它的效果取决于精炼的语言和审美价值。例如，有节奏的重复的使用目的是要吟唱和迷人;这种音频特征与传统诗歌和戏剧有着明显的联系。从平行句、对联、成语、共鸣词的变化中可以看出作者对传统文学剧目的把握。“我的老母需要你的好服务，多家需要你的关怀”这句话就像“四六”的平行句;这对口语化的短语“好啊”来自于白话戏剧或小说。当代的读者看到这副西式对联可能会兴奋不已:“你像夏日里温暖的阳光;我是秋天的明月。或者读者可能会被“我们是被Cupiter 's arrow射中的一对鸳鸯”这样的新鲜表达所吸引。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:48, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Narrative strategies are organized around the poetics of persuasion. By the resonant repetitions and variations the narrator changes his manners and tones to make his linguistic performances most persuasive. The nuanced tones range from the stronger “you should,” to the milder “naturally you will” and to the asking “do you understand.” Apart from the prosaic sentences that function in describing things or reasoning the love sermon, the parallel sentences are divided into two kinds: one addresses melodiously to the bride and the other describes lyrically the fantastic scenes.<br />
叙事策略是围绕说服诗学而构成的。通过反复的共鸣，叙述者调整他的举止和语调，使他的语言表演更具有说服力。 细微的色调从较强的“您应该”到柔和的“您自然会”或 询问“您明白了吗”等等。 平行句除了在描述事物或讲述爱情之道中起作用外，平行句子还分为两种：一种是向新娘悠扬悦耳地称呼，另一种是抒情地描写梦幻般的场景。 --[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 10:45, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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叙事策略是围绕说服诗学而构成的。 通过反复的共鸣，叙述者改变了他的举止和语调，使他的语言表演更具说服力。细微的色调从较强的“您应该”到柔和的“您自然会”以及询问“您是否理解”等。 除了在描述事物或讲述爱情之道中起作用外，平行句子还分为两种：一种是向新娘悠扬地称呼，另一种是抒情地描写梦幻般的场景。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 14:35, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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In order to set role models for the bride, a gallery of world-famous women are introduced to add another dimension of the persuasive, mixed with eroticism and ethics, literary references of the East and West. Mrs. Tolstoy helps her husbands devote to and achieve in writing. Liang Hongyu, a legendary heroine who joins her husband to defeat the foreign invaders in thirteenth-century China. It is a persuasive way for a cultural balance in transnational traffic: while the latter a local patriot is internationalized, the former is internalized a la traditional “virtuous wife and good mother.”<br />
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为了给新娘树立榜样，一家画廊引入了一个举世闻名的一些女性以增加说服力，并结合了情欲和伦理学，东西方的文学作为参照。 托尔斯泰夫人帮助她的丈夫投身于写作，并取得巨大成就。 传说中的女主人公梁红玉与她的丈夫一起击败了在十三世纪来中国的外国入侵者。 这是在不同国家实现文化平衡的一种有说服力的方式：后者是本地爱国者的国际化，而前者则是传统的“贤妻良母”的内在化。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:15, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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为了给新娘树立模范，引用了大量世界知名女性来增加另一种层面上的说服力，还夹杂着中西方文学参考书目中的色情描写和道德规范。托尔斯泰夫人帮助她的丈夫致力于写作并取得成就。梁红玉，一个具有传奇色彩的女英雄，和丈夫一起打败了十三世纪中国的入侵者。这是一种有说服力的方法，以实现跨国文化平衡。后者是为国的当地爱国人士，前者是则是为家的传统上的贤妻良母。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 03:40, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
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So far the kind of masculine persuasion is tinged with pedagogy and the sublime, what follows turns to be sweet and flattery. The narrator says he received a letter from his friend, in which the bride is likened to the beautiful Spring Goddess of Greek mythology, to the sweet Julie and the noble Botia, the heroines in Shakespeare’s plays. This symbolic showcase of female world celebrities, whether it be factual or imaginary, articulate to circulate and assimilate not only modern knowledge but refined taste for urban readers; at the same time, the author shows off his familiarity with the Western novelties necessarily acquired by this fashionable writing. Also noticeable is the intertextual traffic in the circulation and assimilation of cultural information occurred in everyday urban space. While the Julia and Botia are transplanted from Lin Shu’s classical translations onto his writing, Zhou popularizes the Western classics and meanwhile elevates the vernacular. One more tricky detail: all about these foreign literary women, as the narrator says, are from his friend’s letter in English, which adds this pillow talk a savor of exoticism and universality. By this Zhou plays out the fancy and fashion with a fashionable style in this fiction.<br />
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至今男性的说服力还带有教育和至高无上的色彩，随之而来的是蜜语和恭维。叙事者说他收到一封朋友的来信，信中把新娘比作希腊神话中美丽的春天女神，比作莎士比亚戏剧中的女主角，甜美的朱莉和高贵的波蒂娅。不管这象征性的对于世界知名女性形象的表述是真或假，这不仅清晰地传达和吸收了现代知识，而且提高了都市读者的品味； 同时作者也展现出他对时髦读物中必会涵盖的西方新奇事物的熟悉。同样值得注意的是，在日常都市中，互文性在文化信息的传播和吸收中已经出现。当朱莉和波蒂娅从林纾的经典文学译文中植入到周的写作中时，他不仅推广了西方经典也提升了白话文的地位。还有一个更加棘手的细节：如叙事者所说，关于外国文学女性的一切都是来自他朋友的英文来信，信中多了枕边谈话的异国情调和大众性的味道。在这部小说中，周以一种时髦的风格演绎了花哨与时尚。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 03:09, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
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Cinematic Representation and Republican Subjectivity<br />
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In this story, the ''curtain'' crucially serves thematic and formal purposes. It is a piece of furniture that is decorative and ritualistic in the innermost space of the conjugal life, yet by infusing this interior curtain with a cinematic curtain, the narrator creates an illusion of a double curtain, which facilitated his double voice. His self is represented as an individual and collective being, and at the same time speaks to the private and public audience.<br />
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电影呈现和民国主体性<br />
<br />
在这个故事中，幕布在主题和形式目的表现上起到至关重要的作用。窗帘是一种在夫妻生活中最隐秘空间里具有装饰性和仪式性的家具，但通过将这种室内幕布与电影幕布融合在一起，叙述者创造了一种双重幕布的幻觉，从而为表达双重声音起到作用。他的自我表现为个人和集体的存在，同时又向私人（演员）和公众（观众）交谈。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:31, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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电影表现和共和主体性<br />
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在这个故事中，幕布对主题和形式至关重要。幕布是一件在夫妻生活中的最隐秘空间里具有装饰性和仪式性的家具，但通过将这种室内幕布与电影幕布融合在一起，叙述者创造了一件双重幕布的幻觉，从而促进双重声音。他的自我表现为个人和集体的存在，同时又与私人和共同听众对话。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:43, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
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The phrases “raising the curtain” (''kaimu'') and “opening our theater” (''kaichang'') are cliches for something to start, but the term ''mu'' referring to the theatrical or cinematic curtain was new, after the oral drama and film were introduced from the West at the turn of the twentieth century. Zhou’s pronouncement of opening a theater addressed to the bride sounds happy for pronouncing their new family life; also it is theatrical as the narrator consequently conjures up a “paradise” within the curtain, where birds sing and flowers smile in the spring. Nevertheless, the repetition of theater at the outset of this ''qinghua'' addresses not only to his bride - the exclusive beholder inside the curtain, but also to an audience, namely this curtain faces the implied beholders. Readers are already aware from the prologue that the author predicts to show this pillow talk to his friends. The visual characteristic of the text is inscribed by the imagery title “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” and by the metaphor of curtain the intimate space is turned into a theater under the public watch. Against a larger cultural canvas, as a kind of imported cultural material, the curtain was applied as a new decorum in urban spaces, such as art studio, or photograph studio. Consequently, it functioned in shaping modern perception about the relations between space, life-world and work of art.<br />
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“拉开帷幕”（开幕）和“开放剧场”（开场）是老生常谈的话题，但“幕”指的是戏剧或电影的帷幕，是二十世纪初从西方引进话剧和电影之后的新词。周先生说要给新娘开戏院，这听起来像是在宣告他们新家生活的幸福，同时也是戏剧性的，因为叙述者由此在幕布内想象出一个“天堂”，在那里鸟语花香，春意盎然。然而，这段情话一开始就重复的桥段不仅是给新娘即帘子里的专属看客看的，也是给观众看的，换句话说这帘子面对的是隐含的看客。读者从序言中已经知道，作者预言要把这番枕边话给朋友看。文本的视觉特征是通过意象标题“九花帘中”来刻画的，通过帘子的隐喻，私密空间变成了公众注视下的剧场。在更大的文化背景下，幕布作为一种舶来的文化材料，以一种新的装饰品被应用于城市空间，如艺术工作室，或摄影工作室。因此，幕布在塑造现代人对空间、生活世界和艺术作品之间关系的认知方面发挥了作用。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201123_trans&diff=11623820201123 trans2020-12-20T05:22:11Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhou Shuyao 周书尧 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
History of Chinese Studies <br />
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国际汉学史<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler 吳漠汀 (Witten/Herdecke University, Peking Normal University 德國維籐大學，中國北京師範大學)<br />
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Abstract: The roots of Chinese Studies lie as early as Chinese people started to reflect on parts of Chinese culture, which was as early as Chinese culture emerged. Especially foreign people defined Chinese culture distinctly in separation of their own culture, like ancient Greek philosophers and early delegations from the Roman Empire.<br />
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摘要：汉学的根源可以追溯到中国人开始对中国文化进行反思的时候，也可以追溯到中国文化出现之初。尤其是一些外国人，如古希腊哲学家和罗马帝国的早期代表团，他们定义下的中国文化是与自己本土文化完全分开的。<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
From the very beginning, Western Scholars of Chinese Studies were closely cooperating with Chinese partners, so that Chinese Studies cannot be limited to Overseas Chinese Studies. Merchants went beyond their trade business and created travel reports and first translations of Chinese literature. Missionaries for the first time studied systematically the Chinese language and culture, translated the Chinese Classics and Four Books into Latin.<br />
起初，研究汉学的西方学者与中国伙伴密切合作，所以汉学研究并不局限于海外汉学研究。商人不仅从事商业贸易，撰写旅行游记，并且首次翻译了中国文学。传教士第一次系统研究了中国语言和文化，将中国文学名著和四书译成拉丁语。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 01:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
Their idealized descriptions of China stimulated the Chinoisérie and the positive reception of China among philosophers of the enlightenment, which saw China as a secular empire. Then, the China-image turned to the worse with Western scholars ascribing China a static nature creating the so-called “Great Divergence”.<br />
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他们对中国的理想化描述促进中国风形成以及促使启蒙哲学家对中国的积极接受，这种变化已然是把中国看作一个世俗帝国。随后，中国形象恶化，西方学者把中国定性为静态，形成了所谓的“大分流”。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们对中国的理想化描述促成了中国风的形成以及启蒙时期的哲学家对中国的积极印象——一个世俗帝国。随后，中国形象恶化，西方学者将中国归为消极种类，形成了所谓的“大分流”。 —— By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:36, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
This narrative was challenged in the early 1980s with the start of the Opening and Reform Policy. Finally colleges and professorships were established first in the West and then in China. Today, Chinese Studies in the West and in China are enriching each other and are inseparably connected.<br />
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Key Words: Chinese Studies, Sinology, Hanxue, Guoxue, delegations, philosophers, merchants, travel reports, translations, missionaries, enlightenment, Chinoisérie, Great Divergence<br />
上世纪80年代初，随着改革开放政策的开始，这种说法受到了挑战。最后，学院和教授职位首先在西方建立，然后在中国。今天，西方的中国学与中国的中国学相互 促进，密不可分。<br />
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关键词:汉学、汉学、汉学、国学、代表团、哲学家、商人、游记、翻译、传教士、启蒙、中国文化、大分流--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 08:07, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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上世纪80年代初，在改革开放政策实施以后，这种说法遭到了质疑。最后，学院和教授职位首先在西方建立，然后在中国。今天，西方的中国学与中国的国学研究相互促进，密不可分。<br />
<br />
关键词:汉学、汉学、汉学、国学、代表团、哲学家、商人、游记、翻译、传教士、启蒙、中国文化、大分流--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 11:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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== Headline text ==<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Definition 定義<br />
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Chinese Studies, also called Sinology (in German: Sinologie) or China Studies (in German: Chinawissenschaften, Chinakunde), is the academic discipline to study China in its geography, history, society, culture(s), language(s), literature(s) etc. It is mainly divided into the study of ancient and premodern China and of modern and contemporary China.<br />
定义 Definition<br />
汉语研究是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言等的学术科目，人们也称之为汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或者叫中国研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde）。汉语研究主要分为中国古代和近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 03:40, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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定义 <br />
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汉语研究也称作汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或中文研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde），这是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言等各方面的学科，并主要分为中国古代研究、中国近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 03:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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定义<br />
汉语研究也称作汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或中文研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde），是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言、文学等方面的学科，主要分为中国古代研究、中国近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:13, 23 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In the Chinese language, internationally the term “Hanxue” is used (first used in Japan as kangaku漢學/汉学, parallely to the term “Hanyu” 漢語/汉语 for Chinese). The term is not meant discriminative against non-Han minorities, since we have terms like “Hanyu” or “Germanic Studies” (the Germans were an ethnic tribe of many in todays Deutschland). In Chinese, domestically more often the terms “guoxue” 國學/国学 or “Zhongguo xue” 中國學 etc. are used.<br />
在中文里，“汉学”这一词在国际上被广泛使用（它最早在日本被称为汉学，类似中文被称为“汉语”)。这一词语并不意味着排斥非汉人的少数群体，因为我们也有类似于“汉语” 或“日耳曼研究” （日耳曼人是指在当今德国占数较多的一个的民族)的词语。中国国内“国学”或“中国学”等词更为广泛使用。By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:44, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在中文里，“汉学”一词在国际上被广泛使用（它最早在日本被称为漢學/汉学，类似于中文中“漢語/汉语”一词)。这一词语并不意味着歧视非汉人的少数民族，因为我们也有类似于“汉语” 或“日耳曼学” （日耳曼人是指在当今德国占数较多的一个民族)的词语。在汉语中，“國學/国学”或“中國學”等词更为广泛使用。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:37, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
There is a trend to divide Chinese Studies in sub disciplines dealing with traditional or modern China, while the term “Sinology” is more often applied to the traditional part. In quantity, scholars dealing with traditional China become less and those dealing with modern or contemporary China more. Of course, there are other exotic terms for phenomena related to China or Chinese people, like the term “Tang People Street” 唐人街 for Chinatowns.<br />
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汉语研究之下往往又分为不同的子学科，致力于研究中国古代或现代，然而“汉学”这一术语更适用于中国古代。在数量上，研究中国古代的学者越来越少，而研究中国现代或当代的学者则越来越多。当然，还存在一些与中国或中国人相关现象的外来词，如“Tang People Street” 即唐人街。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Some Chinese scholars interpret the term “Hanxue” as reserved for the study of China by foreigners, implying often that the real “guoxue” could only be conducted by Chinese scholars, arguing you need to grow up in China in order to understand it. However, confronted with the case of overseas Chinese scholars or Western scholars growing up and working in China, the limitation of this racist distinction becomes obvious.<br />
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有些中国学者将“汉学”一词解释为外国人研究中国的专有术语，这往往暗示真正的“国学”只能由中国学者来进行，认为只有在中国长大的人才能理解“国学”。然而，当涉及在中国长大和工作的海外华人学者或西方学者时，这种种族差异的局限性就显而易见了。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 07:08, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Although in history we have rare examples of foreigners who were able to study China without Chinese partners (starting with language teachers) or without visiting the country, and Chinese Studies today often is conducted by mixed teams of domestic and foreign scholars.<br />
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尽管有史以来，外国人不结交中国伙伴或是没去过中国就研究中国的例子鲜少出现。如今研究中国的通常都是都是由国内外学者组成的团队。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:39, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然在历史上，我们很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴的情况下(这些伙伴开始会是语言教师)或在没有访问过中国的情况下研究中国的例子，但如今的中国研究往往是由国内外学者以混合团队的形式进行的。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管在历史上我们很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴（从语言老师开始）或没有访问中国的情况下来中国学习的例子，但是今天的中国研究通常由国内外学者组成的混合团队进行。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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纵观历史，很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴（最初为语言老师）或没有拜访过中国的情况下研究中国，而且直至今日，中国研究也通常是在国内外学者协同合作的情况下进行的。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:13, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
The discipline itself, as established at universities, had a natural focus on language and literature (philology). Today, we have a broad range of sub disciplines like Chinese literature [epigraphy], language, culture, philosophy/ethics/aesthetics, history, political science, sociology, economy) 正如大学所建立的那样，该学科本身就专注于语言与文学（语言学）。如今，我们拥有广泛的子学科，例如中国文学[金石学]，语言，文化，哲学/伦理/美学，历史，政治学，社会学，经济）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:30, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
Emergence<br />
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Although the first university professorships as we know them today were established only in the 1814, we find the origins of Chinese Studies in early descriptions of China by philosophers. That the empires knew early about each other is proven by delegations, exchanged even two thousand years ago between the Roman Empire and China.<br />
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诞生<br />
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虽然，如我们今天所知，第一个大学汉语教授职位于1814年才确立，关于汉学的起源我们能追溯到哲学家对中国早期的描述。各国代表团证实了各帝国之间相互知悉的事实，而早在两千年前，罗马帝国和中国之间就有了往来。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
兴起<br />
尽管我们今天所知的第一个大学教授职位是在1814年才设立的，但我们在哲学家对中国的早期描述中发现了国学的起源。早在两千年前，罗马帝国和中国之间就交换了代表团，这证明了两个帝国很早就已经相互了解。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 13:55, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Later we have records and first translations of travelling merchants (Marco Polo lived in the 13th century and travelled on land and by ship) and then by missionaries (starting with the 16th century). Later we have western philosophers (like Leibniz) and reports in journals dedicated to China.<br />
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后来，我们有了旅行商人的记录和第一批翻译作品（13世纪的马可·波罗（Marco Polo）在陆地和海上旅行），然后有了传教士（从16世纪开始）。 再后来，我们有了西方哲学家（例如莱布尼兹（Leibniz）），他们在研究中国的期刊上进行报道。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:33, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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后来出现了行商的记载和第一批翻译作品（13世纪的马可·波罗（Marco Polo）在陆地和海上航行），之后出现了传教士（始于16世纪）。 再后来，出现了西方哲学家（例如莱布尼兹（Leibniz）），以及他们探索中国所留下来的有关记载。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 08:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The first scholarly view on China had the Christian missionaries, who studied Chinese language and culture in China. Therefore, the first translations of Chinese classics were done into Latin. The term “sinology” since the Latin term “sina” for China seems to point to the Qin Dynastie since 221 BCE. The main purpose of the missionaries was to baptize and therefore they also translated the bible into Chinese and reported on the so far mostly unknown China to Europe, reports which met a huge interest and demand in Europe.<br />
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基督教传教士是最早对中国持有学术观点的人，他们在中国研究中国语言和文化。因此，第一批翻译的中国经典著作也就翻译成了拉丁文。汉学“sinology”一词源于拉丁语中的“sina”，意指公元前221年以来的秦朝。传教士的主要目的是施洗，因此他们也将《圣经》翻译成中文，并向欧洲报道迄今几乎不为人知的中国，这些报道满足了欧洲巨大的兴趣和需求。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:23, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Resources 资源<br />
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There are a lot of national histories of Chinese Studies so far, but no detailed international or global history (see references).<br />
The Overseas Chinese Studies Center 海外漢學研究中心 at Peking Foreign Language University 北京外語大學 under the leadership of Zhang Xiping張西平 has been renamed in the 2010s to Research Center for the Study of Chinese Culture 中國文化研究中心#. Here a list of works on the History of Sinology:<br />
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资源<br />
迄今为止，有许多关于汉学研究的民族历史，但是并没有十分详细的国际或者全球历史（参阅参考资料）<br />
在张西平的领导下，北京外国语大学的海外汉学研究，在2010年改名为中国文化研究中心。以下是汉学研究作品的列表。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 13:13, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
First contacts: Trade (without written documents)<br />
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Genetic evidence shows that there were trade relations from Mesopotamia to Europe and China as early as 11000 BCE (cows, horses) and 10000 BCE (crops). <br />
China very early became an export region, as we can trace the genes of animals back to China 10000 BCE (pigs), 8000 BCE (chicken), and of silk cloth 5000 BCE.<br />
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首次接触：贸易（无书面文件）<br />
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基因证据表明：早在公元前11000年了，美索不达米亚就和欧洲，中国有牛羊贸易关系，公元前10000年，就有了农作物贸易关系。追溯到公元前1000年的猪和公元前8000年的鸡身上的动物基因，以及公元前5000年的丝绸来看，中国很早就是个出口地区了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 02:03, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首次接触：贸易(无书面文件)<br />
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遗传证据表明，早在公元前11000年(出现如像牛、马等动物贸易)和公元前10000年(出现农作物的贸易)，美索不达米亚与欧洲和中国之间就有贸易关系。追溯到公元前10000年猪的贸易和公元前8000年鸡的贸易，从中发现的动物基因，以及公元前5000年所交易的丝绸来看，中国很早就成为了一个出口地区。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:18, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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遗传学证据显示，早在公元前11000年美索不达米亚就和欧洲就有了牛马贸易往来；早在公元前10000年，美索不达米亚就和中国有了作物贸易往来。追溯动物基因，我们可以发现，公元前10000年中国就有了猪，公元前8000年就有了鸡，公元前5000年就有了丝绸。因此，中国很早就成为了商品出口地区。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:28, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Emergence of Chinese Studies: Philosophers<br />
Aristotle (384-322 BC) writes in the 4th century BC: “Those who live in a cold climate and in Europe are full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and skill; and therefore they retain comparative freedom, but have no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over others. Whereas the natives of Asia are intelligent and inventive, but they are wanting in spirit, and therefore they are always in a state of subjection and slavery.”[ Aristoteles: Politeia, Book VII, Part VII, translated by Benjamin Jowett, http://evans-experientialism. freewebspace.com/aristotle_politics07.htm, last visited Dec 5, 2010. In German: „Die Völkerschaften nämlich, welche innerhalb der kalten Gegenden in Europa wohnen, sind zwar voll Muth, aber weniger mit Geist und Kunstfertigkeit begabt. Daher behaupten sie zwar leichter ihre Freiheit, aber sie sind zur Bildung staatsbürgerlicher Gemeinwesen untüchtig [...]. Die Völkerschaften Asiens dagegen sind klugen und kunstfertigen Geistes, aber ohne Muth. Daher leben sie in Unterwürfigkeit und Sklaverei.“, from: Aristoteles: Werke. Griechisch und Deutsch, vol. 6, ed. by Franz Susemihl, Aalen 1978 (Reprint of the edition Leipzig 1879), p. 409.]<br />
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汉学的起源：哲学家<br />
亚里士多德（公元前384年-公元前322年）在公元前4世纪写道：“那些生活在欧洲寒冷地区的人们精气神十足但是缺乏智慧和技巧；所以虽然他们保留了相对的自由，却没有政治组织，也没有管理的能力。然而，亚洲人聪明且富有创造力，但是他们缺乏勇气，所以他们总是顺从和被奴役。” [ 亚里士多德：《政治学》，第七卷，第七部分，由本杰明·乔伊特翻译，http://evans-experientialism. freewebspace.com/aristotle_politics07.htm，最近一次访问日期2010年12月5日。德语原文为： „Die Völkerschaften nämlich, welche innerhalb der kalten Gegenden in Europa wohnen, sind zwar voll Muth, aber weniger mit Geist und Kunstfertigkeit begabt. Daher behaupten sie zwar leichter ihre Freiheit, aber sie sind zur Bildung staatsbürgerlicher Gemeinwesen untüchtig [...]. Die Völkerschaften Asiens dagegen sind klugen und kunstfertigen Geistes, aber ohne Muth. Daher leben sie in Unterwürfigkeit und Sklaverei.“，引自：《亚里士多德作品集-希腊人和德国人》，第六卷，由Franz Susemihl, Aalen在1978年出版（1879年在莱比锡再版），第409页。]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:39, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The Emergence of Religious Missions with the Study of China as a by-product<br />
Between 1593-1607 the Spanish Dominican mission in Manila operated a press and produced 4 books on Christian belief. <br />
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1593-1607西班牙多明我会使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书<br />
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In 1583 the influential Jesuit Matteo Ricci arrived in Canton and spent the rest of his life in China.<br />
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1583利玛窦（耶稣会会士）抵达广州，在中国度过余生。<br />
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宗教传教的出现<br />
1593年至1607年间，西班牙多米尼加使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书。<br />
1583年，颇具影响力的耶稣会士利玛窦（Matteo Ricci），抵达广州，在中国度过余生。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:30, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1593-1607西班牙多明我会使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书，这是汉学研究中有关宗教使命起源部分的衍生产物。<br />
1583年，颇具影响力的耶稣会士利玛窦（Matteo Ricci），抵达广州，并在中国度过余生。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:10, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
Interest by European emperors in the beginning of the 18th century<br />
In France, the study of China and the Chinese language began with the patronage of Louis XIV. In 1711, he appointed a young Chinese, Arcadio Huang to catalog the royal collection of Chinese texts. Huang was assisted by Étienne Fourmont, who published a Chinese grammar in 1742.<br />
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在法国，对中国和中国语言的研究始于路易十四的赞助。在1711，他任命了一位年轻的中国人Arcadio Huang对皇家藏书的中文文本进行目录整理。黄的助手艾蒂安Fourmont，在1742年发表了一本中国语法书。<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1732 a missionary priest of the Sacred Congregation "De propaganda fide" from the kingdom of Naples, Matteo Ripa (1692–1746), created in Naples the first Sinology School of the European Continent: the "Chinese Institute", the first nucleus of what would become today's Università degli studi di Napoli L'Orientale, or Naples Eastern University. Ripa had worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the imperial court of the Kangxi Emperor between 1711 and 1723. Ripa returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, all teachers of their native language and formed the Institute sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to teach Chinese to missionaries and thus advance the propagation of Christianity in China.<br />
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1732年，来自那不勒斯的传布信仰圣部的传教牧师Matteo Ripa马国贤（1692–1746），在那不勒斯创建了欧洲大陆的第一个汉学学校：“中国学院”，它后来成为了今天的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711和1723之间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画家和雕刻师。马国贤从中国回到那不勒斯时，带回了四个年轻的中国基督徒。他们都是汉语教师，组建了学院，在教皇克莱门特十二世的批准下向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。<br />
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1732年，那不勒斯王国“圣公会”的传教士马国贤（Matteo Ripa)在那不勒斯创建了欧洲大陆第一所汉学学校“中国学院”，即后来的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711至1723年间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画师和雕刻师。当他回国的时候，他带回了四个年轻的中国基督徒。他们在教皇克莱门特的授意下，组建学院、担任汉语教师，向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:45, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1732年，那不勒斯王国“传信部”的传教士马国贤（Matteo Ripa)在那不勒斯建立了欧洲大陆第一所汉学学校“中国学院”，即当今的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711至1723年间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画师和雕刻师。在回到那不勒斯时，他带了四个年轻的中国基督徒。在教皇克莱门特十二世的授意下，他们组建学院，担任汉语教师，向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Chinoiserie<br />
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Chinese objects of art as symbols of Chinese cultural tradition early spread to Europe, reaching the peak in the 18th century during the period of Chinoisérie“中国风”. Fascinated Collectors saved several artefacts for following generations. Their selection criteria allow to approach the guiding aesthetic principles behind their fascination. European imitations of these artefacts show in their similarities and differences to the originals and to the own cultural traditions the principles they followed to catch the reason for the experienced exoticism during the consumption of the cultural goods. Imitated imitated Chinese-style architecture, imitated Chinese paintings and imitated characters in paintings, tattoos and design, reveal what principles Westerners believed to guide Chinese traditional art.<br />
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中国风<br />
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作为中国传统文化象征的中国艺术品很早就传播到了欧洲，在“中国风”时期达到了顶峰。对此十分着迷的收藏家们为后人保存了几件文物。他们的选择标准很接近他们所欣赏的指导性美学原则。欧洲的工艺模仿品表明了他们自己的文化传统和原型的相似性和差异性，他们遵循的原则符合在文化商品的消费过程中对异国情调的体验。在绘画、纹身和设计方面的模仿特点、模仿中国风格的建筑和仿作的中国画，揭示了西方人眼里的中国传统艺术的指导原则。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:05, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Europe: Enlightened Philosophers end of the 18th century 欧洲：第18世紀末的启蒙哲学家<br />
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During the enlightenment process in Europe, philosophers in their search for a vision of a world without religious control, discovered China and wanted to understand it as a secular ideal alternative to Europe. (Leibniz: Novissima Sinica, The Orphan of Zhao, Voltaire: wrote play “L'orphelin de la Chine” portrait of Confucius, Giambattista Vico.<br />
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启蒙哲学家在欧洲汉学（莱布尼茨：《中国近事》，伏尔泰：《赵氏孤儿》、孔子肖像，维柯。<br />
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1789-… Enlightened philosophers: Saw China as an enlightened kingdom with ethics instead of church and religion<br />
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1789…启蒙哲学家：看到中国作为一个有伦理的开明王国而不是教会和宗教伦理<br />
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一个不受宗教控制的世界时<br />
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在欧洲的启蒙运动中，哲学家们在寻找一个不受宗教控制的世界时，了解到了中国这一国度，并将其视为欧洲脱离世俗的替代品。（莱尼兹：诺威西玛·辛尼卡，《赵氏孤儿》，伏尔泰：写下孔子朱安·巴蒂斯塔·维柯的剧本《中国的左撇子》。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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一个不受宗教控制的世界时<br />
在欧洲启蒙运动的进程中，哲学家们在寻找一个不受宗教控制的世界时，发现了中国，并希望可以将其视为欧洲脱离世俗理想替代品。莱尼兹：诺威西玛·辛尼卡，《赵氏孤儿》，伏尔泰：写下孔子朱安·巴蒂斯塔·维柯的剧本《中国的左撇子》 --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 09:10, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Europe: Professorships<br />
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The study of Assyriology and Egyptology developed before the serious study of China because of their connections to the Bible; the study of Indology represented a breakthrough in the development of linguistics. Chinese texts, perhaps because they did not have these connections, were the last to be studied in European universities until around 1860 except in France (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 6, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
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由于和圣经的紧密联系，亚述学、埃及学的研究在正规的中国研究前发展充分；印度学研究代表了语言学发展的突破口。可能是因为中国文本和它们没有联系，所以直到1860左右，它才成为除了法国外的欧洲大学最后的研究对象。<br />
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由于和圣经联系紧密，亚述学、埃及学的研究在中国正式研究前就已经展开了；印度学研究是语言学发展的突破口。或许是因为中国文本缺乏这些联系，所以直到1860年左右，它才成为除法国外欧洲大学最后的研究对象。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:35, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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欧洲：教授职位展正式<br />
由于和圣经的联系，亚述学和埃及学的研究的发展都在中国研究之前；印度学的研究在语言学中是一个极大突破。中国的文本可能是因为缺少这些联系因而在欧洲大学界最后才开始研究直到大约1860年，法国除外（Zurndorfer,中国圣经学 1999版，p.6, 引自维基百科《汉学》，2018年8月6日）。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 07:20, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
The first college to study Chinese was established in Italy. At the Academy in St. Petersburg in Russia, on March 23, 1741, the lecturer 伊拉利昂·罗索欣 started to teach Chinese Studies. He was also part of a mission sent to emperor Kangxi in Qing Dynasty.de<br />
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首个教授汉语的大学创建于意大利。1741年3月23日，在俄罗斯圣彼得堡的学院，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣开始教授汉语学。他还参加了清朝对康熙帝进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 01:22, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首个学习汉语的学院创建于意大利。1741年3月23日，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣在俄罗斯圣彼得堡学院开始讲授汉学。该讲师也曾参加清朝对康熙帝进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:54, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首个研究汉语的学院是在意大利建立。 1741年3月23日，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣在俄罗斯圣彼得堡学院开始教授汉语。他还参加了清朝对康熙进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 07:24, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
On December 11, 1814, the first Professorship of Chinese and Manchu was established at the Collège de France, the sinologist 雷慕莎 Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat, who taught himself Chinese, filled the position, becoming the first professor of Chinese in Europe. By then the first Russian Sinologist, Nikita Bichurin, had been living in Beijing for ten years. <br />
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1814年12月11日，法兰西公学院成立了首个汉学和满学的讲座席位。汉学家雷慕莎（Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusa）自学了中文，获得了这一席位，成为了欧洲第一位汉学教授。而之后的第一个俄罗斯汉学家尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 07:56, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1814年，研究中国和满族的讲学席位在法国的大学成立。雷慕莎自学了中文，占据了这一位置，成为了欧洲第一个汉学教授。而之后的第一个俄罗斯汉学家尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。<br />
1814年，首个研究中国和满族的讲学席位在法国的大学成立，雷慕莎自学中文，登上了这一席位，成为了欧洲第一个汉学教授。而之后的第一个俄罗斯汉学家尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 00:47, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1814年12月11日，首个汉学和满学的讲座席位在法兰西公学院成立，汉学家雷慕莎（Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusa）自学了中文，登上了这一席位，成为了欧洲第一任汉学教授。而之后俄罗斯的汉学奠基人尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
Abel-Rémusat's counterparts in England and Germany were Samuel Kidd (1797–1843) and Wilhelm Schott (1807–1889) respectively, though the first important secular sinologists in these two countries were James Legge and Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. Scholars like Legge often relied on the work of ethnic Chinese scholars such as Wang Tao (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 8-14, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
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雷慕莎的同仁分别有英国的Samuel Kidd（1797–1843）和德国的Wilhelm Schott（1807–1889），虽然在这两个国家头等重要的世俗汉学家是理雅各和加贝伦茨。理雅各等学者常常依靠华人学者如王韬等人的作品。<br />
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阿贝尔·雷穆萨在英国和德国的同行分别是塞缪尔·基德（Samuel Kidd，1797-1843）和威廉·肖特（Wilhelm Schott，1807-1889），不过这两个国家最早出现的重要世俗汉学家是詹姆斯·莱格和汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德加布伦茨。像莱格这样的学者经常依赖于像王韬这样的华裔学者的作品。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:08, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Stanislas Julien served as the Chair of Chinese at the Collège de France for over 40 years, starting his studies with Rémusat and succeeding him in 1833. not only of classical texts but also works of vernacular literature, and for his knowledge of Manchu. Édouard Chavannes succeeded to the position after the death of Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys in 1893. Chavannes pursued broad interests in history as well as language (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 8-14, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
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儒莲担任法兰西学院的汉学教授超过40年，他与雷慕莎一起开始他的研究，并在1833年继承了雷慕莎的工作。他以不仅针对古典文学、而且涉猎白话文学作品的翻译工作和和对满族的了解而闻名。沙畹在德理文于1893去世后继承了他的位置，沙畹在历史和语言领域上兴趣广泛。<br />
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斯塔尼斯拉斯·朱利安（Stanislas Julien）在法兰西学院（Collègede France）担任中文主席40多年，从雷穆萨（Rémusat）开始学习，并于1833年继任。他不仅学习古典文学作品，还学习白话文学作品，并了解满族。 爱德华·沙畹在1893年侯爵·圣赫尔·圣丹尼斯（Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys）去世后继任。沙畹追求历史和语言的广泛利益（Zurndorfer，中国参考书目1999年第8-14页，引自Wikipedia“ Sinology”， 2018年8月6日）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 09:13, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Rulian served as a professor of Sinology at the French Academy for more than 40 years. He started his research with Remusa and inherited Remusa's work in 1833. He is famous for his translation work not only for classical literature, but also for vernacular literary works and his understanding of Manchu. Chavannes inherited his position after De Liwen died in 1893. Chavannes has a wide range of interests in history and language. --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 09:13, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
After the Opium war 1840, the Department of Oriental Studies at Cambridge University and the SOAS/London University were established.<br />
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In 1875, Leiden University in the Netherlands started and in 1890 the sinologist 考狄 founded the first academic journal by Westerners on China, the Toung Pao 通报.<br />
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1840年鸦片战争后，剑桥大学东方研究院和英国伦敦大学亚非学院成立。<br />
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1875年，荷兰莱顿大学成立，1890年，汉学家考狄创办了第一个由西方人撰写的关于中国的学术期刊—《通报》。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:10, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
In 1912, Richard Wilhelm, who had lived in China for about 30 years, taught at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Frankfurt and established a Chinese Seminar “中国学社” and together with Beiping’s Furen University the journal华裔学志.<br />
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At the end of the 19th century, in Sweden the University of Gotheburg established East Asian Language and Culture Seminar, starting with Sven Hedin, who explored Western China, followed by the the Chinese linguist 高本汉.<br />
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1912年，在中国居住了约30年的理查德·威廉在法拉克福的弗里德里希·威廉大学任教，并成立了中文研讨会“中国学社”，并与北平辅仁大学合作创办了《华裔学志》杂志。<br />
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19世纪末，瑞典哥德堡大学创办了东亚语言文化研讨会，首创人是研究中国西部的斯文·赫丁，其后是中国语言学家高本汉。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:02, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
The image of China as an essentially Confucian society conveyed by Jesuit scholars dominated Western thought in these times. While some in Europe learned to speak Chinese, most studied written classical Chinese. These scholars were in what is called the “commentarial tradition” through critical annotated translation. <br />
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那时，中国在西方的形象是靠耶稣会学者传达的，本质上是儒家社会的形象，这样的形象主导了西方思想。在欧洲，有一些人学习说汉语，但大部分人学习写文言文，这些学者学习时会使用批判性的注释，属于“注释传统”的行列。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:05, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在那个时候，中国在西方的形象在本质上是以耶稣会学者传达的儒家社会为主。在欧洲，有些人学学习说中文，大多数人则学写书面文言文。这些学者们通过批判的注释性翻译处在了所谓的“注释传统”。<br />
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当时，耶稣会学者所传达的中国本质上是儒家社会的形象主导了当时的西方思想。在欧洲，虽然有些人学说汉语，但大多数人学的是文言文。这些学者是在所谓的“评论传统”通过批评注释翻译。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:32, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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耶稣会士学者传达的中国作为一个儒家社会的形象在当时根深于西方人的思想中。 尽管有些欧洲人学会了说中文，但大多数人仍然学习古典汉语。 这些学者通过批判性的注释翻译而处于所谓的“注释传统”中。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 01:31, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
This emphasis on translating classical texts inhibited the use of social science methodology or comparing these texts of other traditions. One scholar described this type of sinology as “philological hairsplitting” preoccupied with marginal or curious aspects (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 14-15, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018). Secular scholars gradually came to outnumber missionaries, and in the 20th century sinology slowly gained a substantial presence in Western universities.<br />
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这种强调翻译经典文本的做法阻碍了社会科学方法论的使用或与其他传统的文本的比较。有学者称这类汉学描述为专注于边缘或好奇方面的“语言学上的吹毛求疵”。世俗学者逐渐多于传教士，并在西方大学为20世纪的汉学慢慢积累了实质性存在。<br />
这种对翻译经典文本的强调抑制了社会科学方法论的使用或对其他传统文本的比较。有学者将这种类型的汉学描述为专注于边缘或好奇方面的“语言学上的吹毛求疵”。世俗学者的人数逐渐超过传教士，并且到了20世纪，汉学在西方大学中也慢慢占据了一席之地。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 13:43, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Sinology in Germany <br />
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Today, in Germany there are about 30 universities and universities of applied sciences with Chinese Studies.<br />
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Since the beginning of the 19th century, people started to conduct research on China. In 1829–1831, the orientalist Carl Friedrich Neumann bought 12,000 Chinese books in Canton, which he shipped to Munich and which became the foundation of the East Asian Collection of the Bavarian State Library as well as the Berlin State Library. Since 1833 Wilhelm Schott taught Chinese and Chinese philosophy in Berlin.<br />
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德国的汉学<br />
如今，在德国有大约30所大学以及应用科学大学开设了汉学专业。19世纪伊始，人们开始研究中国。1829年至1831年，东方学专家卡尔·弗里德里希·诺伊曼于广州购置了12000本中文书籍，将其运至慕尼黑。这一举措使慕尼黑成为了巴伐利亚州立图书馆和柏林州立图书馆东亚收藏所的基础。1833年起，威廉·肖特在柏林教授中文与中国哲学。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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德国汉学<br />
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今天，大约有30所德国大学和应用科技大学开设了汉学专业。19世纪伊始，人们开始研究中国。1829年至1831年，东方学专家卡尔·弗里德里希·诺伊曼于广州购置了12000本中文书籍，将其运至慕尼黑，这一举措奠定了巴伐利亚州立图书馆和柏林州立图书馆东亚收藏所的根基。1833年起，威廉·肖特在柏林教授中文与中国哲学。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:58, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Pioneering research on China were the geological-geographical research trips by Ferdinand von Richthofen since the early 1860s. In 1887 the first Chinese language classes and sinological classes started at the Seminar for Oriental languages in Berlin. In 1889, the first German Chair of Sinology was established at the University of Leipzig, the first full professor was Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. In 1912 the 2nd chair was established in Berlin with J. J. M. de Groot and in 1914 at the Colonial Institute in Hamburg with Otto Franke.<br />
<br />
19世纪60年代初以来，费迪南·冯·李希霍芬的地质地理研究之旅是对中国的开创性研究。1887年，柏林东方语言研究会开设了第一批汉语班和汉学班。1889年，德国第一个汉学讲座在莱比锡大学成立，第一个全职教授是汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德·加贝伦茨。1912年，第二任主席由格鲁特在柏林设立，1914年由奥托·福兰阁在汉堡殖民地研究所设立。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
19世纪60年代初以来，费迪南·冯·李希霍芬的地质地理研究之旅是对中国的开创性研究。1887年，柏林东方语言研究会开设了第一批汉语班和汉学班。1889年，德国第一个汉学委员会在莱比锡大学成立，第一个全职教授是汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德·加贝伦茨。1912年，第二个委员会由格鲁特在柏林设立，1914年由奥托·福兰阁在汉堡殖民地研究所设立了另一委员会。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 12:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
During colonial times, in which the German Empire held the Chinese colony “Kiautschou”, the interest in Chinese culture grew. The exile of many Chinese scientists in the period of National Socialism harmed the German Sinology sustainably. Since the opening up of the People's Republic of China in the 1980s, Sinology in Germany is no longer among the orchid subjects and new students of Sinology have good job prospects.<br />
<br />
在殖民时期，德意志占领了中国山东青岛的胶州市，人们对中国文化的兴趣与日俱增。纳粹时期许多中国科学家背井离乡，对德国汉学造成了持续的伤害。自20世纪80年代改革开放以来，德国汉学不再被束之高阁，汉学新生就业前景良好。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:48, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
The change of attitude among early China experts with the example of the early reception of the Red Chamber Dreams<br />
<br />
The Red Chamber Dreams shortly after publication in 1791 spread fast among the foreigners’ community including Robert Morrison (who incorporated parts of it into his language teaching material and dictionary already by 1813-1815).<br />
<br />
早期中国专家态度的转变-以早期接受《红楼梦》为例<br />
《红楼梦》在1791年出版后不久，就在国外迅速传播包括罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）。罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）早在1813年至1815年就将其部分内容纳入了他的语言教材和词典中。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 08:59, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
早期中国作家的态度转变，以《红楼梦》的早期收录为例<br />
<br />
1791年，《红楼梦》出版后不久，便在包括罗伯特·莫里森(Robert Morrison)在内的国外社会迅速流传。（莫里森早在1813年-1815年就将《红楼梦》的部分内容引入其语言教材和词典中）--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
早期中国专家态度的转变-以早期接受《红楼梦》为例<br />
《红楼梦》在1791年出版后不久，就在国外迅速传播包括罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）。罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）早在1813年至1815年就将其部分内容纳入了他的语言教材和词典中。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:18, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The novel also was made known in partial translation both in English and French (by John Francis Davis) in Europe in 1819. However, for a few decades, the Western reviews of the book were mostly negative, revealing an ethnocentric approach, valuing Chinese literature below Western literature.<br />
<br />
1819年，《红楼梦》的英语和法语（John Francis Davis译）的部分翻译使这部小说知名于欧洲。然而，几十年之后，西方对于该书的评论大多是消极的，他们认为该书呈现出种族中心主义的观点，并且认为西方文学高于中国文学。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:27, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1819年,该小说还被译成英语和法语（约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯译（John Francis Davis）），因而在欧洲为人所知。然而，几十年来，西方对该书的评论大多是负面的，这揭示了西方的一种民族中心主义，即认为西方文学高于中国文学。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:43, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1819年，这部小说在欧洲被部分翻译成英语和法语（作者:约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯）。然而，几十年来，西方对该书的评论大多是负面的，即揭示了一种民族中心主义的态度，对中国文学的评价低于西方文学。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 01:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
It took almost a century to get to know each other better, to change attitudes from ethnocentric to dialectical, to stop exploiting the novel and to come to the insight that Chinese literature with Dream as one of its masterpieces was not only comparable to other world literatures but also could bring value to Western readers (Mayers 1867).<br />
<br />
经过几乎一个世纪，双方增进了解，并从“民族中心主义”的优越感向辩证思想转变，停止利用小说互相攻击，开始深入了解中国文学，不仅将《红楼梦》这类杰作与其他世界文学相比较，而且，更重要的是将价值观带给西方读者。（梅辉立(Mayers) 1867年）。<br />
<br />
几乎一个世纪,增进了彼此的了解。双方从“民族中心主义”转向辩证思想，停止利用小说互相攻击，并开始深入了解中国文学。不仅将《红楼梦》这类杰作与其他世界文学相比较，更是将价值观带给西方读者。（梅辉立(Mayers) 1867年）。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:17, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
近一个世纪，彼此之间增进了了解，从”民族中心主义“的优越感转向辩证思想，停止利用小说互相攻击，并开始深入了解以《红楼梦》为代表的中国文学，它不仅可以与世界其他文学相媲美，而且还可以为西方读者传递价值观。（梅辉立（Mayers） 1867年）。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 13:30, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
经过近一个世纪的发展之后，中西双方彼此之间有了更好的了解。在态度上，由“民族中心主义”转变为辩证思想，并停止了对对方小说的抨击。在此基础上，他们意识到：以《红楼梦》为代表的中国文学不仅可以与世界其他文学媲美，同时也可以为西方读者带来价值（梅辉立（Mayers ）1867）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 06:51, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Main Controversies<br />
<br />
a) The Great Divergence<br />
<br />
One of the main controversies in Chinese Studies is that for a long time China appeared economically backward (compared to Western European nations). Sociologists (Marx), philosophers (Hegel), economists (Kenneth Pomeranz: The Great Divergence) and sinologists tried to explain this with the static nature of Chinese economy due to Confucianism.<br />
<br />
主要的争议<br />
<br />
a)大分流<br />
<br />
汉学研究的主要争议之一是，长期以来，中国出现了经济落后的情况(与西欧国家相比)。许多社会学家(如马克思)，哲学家(如黑格尔)，经济学家(如肯尼斯·彭慕兰：《大分流》)和汉学家试图用儒家思想所导致的中国经济的静态性来解释这一现象。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:06, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Scholars have questioned this: Angus Maddison suggested that China was leading (rotating ranks with India) by GDP from 0 to 1550 so that the current development was a return to old status. Philipp C.C. Huang concentrated on rural developments and argued that only the concentration of production capibilities during the socialist reforms laid the foundation for today’s Chinese economical miracle. Today, sinologists argue that Confucianism is one of the main reasons for the economical miracle.<br />
<br />
学者们对此提出了质疑:安格斯•麦迪森认为，中国从0年到1550年在GDP上处于领先地位(与印度轮流排名)，所以目前的发展是一种对旧地位的回归。菲利普•黄关注农村的发展，认为只有在社会主义改革中集中生产能力，才能为今天中国经济奇迹奠定基础。今天，汉学家认为儒家思想是经济奇迹的主要原因之一。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 11:11, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
学者们提出质疑，奥格斯·麦迪逊认为中国从开始到1550年GDP一直处于领先地位（与印度不分伯仲），所以中国当今的发展只是回到了旧时的社会地位。菲利普 C.C.黄专注于乡村发展，并且认为社会主义改革时期将重心放在生产力上为如今中国经济奇奠定了基础。如今，汉学家认为儒家思想是中国经济奇迹的主要原因之一。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:06, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
“The Chinese have as a general characteristic, a remarkable skill in imitation, which is exercised not merely in daily life, but also in art. They have not yet succeeded in representing the beautiful, as beautiful; for in their painting, perspective and shadow are wanting.<br />
“中国人有种普遍特征，即拥有卓越的模仿能力，这种能力不仅体现在日常生活中，也体现在艺术中。但由于其绘画领域中缺乏透视法和阴影画法，他们无法充分展现事物的美。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:25, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
“总之，这个民族有种罕见的模仿能力，这不仅体现在他们的日常生活中，也用运到了艺术创作当中。美作为美的事物去展示对于这个民族来说并不成功，因为在绘画中缺少了透视和阴影。<br />
<br />
中国人有一个总体特征，那就是其超凡脱俗的模仿能力。这不仅体现在他们的日常生活中，也运用到了艺术创作当中。由于其绘画中缺乏透视法和阴影，他们无法淋漓尽致地表现出事物的美。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:28, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
“中国人有种普遍特征：一种卓越的模仿能力，这种能力不仅运用于日常生活中，也运用在艺术领域。但由于画中缺乏透视和阴影，中国人没能成功展现出美感”--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 01:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
And although a Chinese painter copies European pictures (as the Chinese do everything else) correctly; although he observes accurately how many scales a carp has; how many indentations there are in the leaves of a tree; what is the form of various trees, and how the branches bend; - the Exalted, the Ideal and Beautiful is not the domain of his art and skill. The Chinese are, on the other hand, too proud to learn anything from Europeans, although they must often recognize their superiority.” <br />
Hegel, The Philosophy of History (transl. J. Sibree, p. 155)<br />
<br />
即使中国画家原封不动地模仿欧洲的绘画，如若他知道鲤鱼有多少鳞片……，崇高的、理想的、美的事物也不是他的艺术土壤和擅长之处。” 黑格爾，《历史哲学讲演录》<br />
<br />
尽管一个中国画家原封不动地地复制了欧洲的图画（就像中国人所做的所有事那样）；尽管他能准确地观察到鲤鱼有多少鳞片；一棵树的叶子上有多少凹痕；各种树木的形状是什么，树枝是如何弯曲的；崇高、理想和美丽不是他的艺术领域和技巧。另一方面，中国人过于骄傲，不愿向欧洲人学习任何东西，虽然他们必须经常认识到自己的优越性。J、 西布里，第155页）--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 01:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
b) Chinese and Western scholarship<br />
<br />
Traditional Chinese education (focusing on self development and social harmony) differed much from Western scholarship (search for truth and universal human values). Chinese scholars of guoxue often do not recognize Western scholars of Hanxue as their colleagues. Today there are trends to return to Confucian education, teaching and scholarship in China, taking the Hanlin academy as example (see: Hong Kong College).<br />
<br />
b）中西学问<br />
<br />
中西方在传统教育方面又很大不同，前者侧重于追求自我发展和社会和谐，后者寻求真理和普世价值观。中国国学学者通常不把西方汉学学者当作同行。如今，儒家教育以及儒学研究在中国如火如荼，以翰林书院为例（见：香港大学）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:19, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
b）中西学术<br />
中国传统教育（注重自我发展和社会和谐）与西方学术（追求真理和普遍的人类价值）有很大不同。中国国学学者往往不承认西方汉学学者是他们的同僚。今天，中国教育有向儒学教育回归的趋势，以翰林院为例（参见：香港大学）。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:17, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Also Traditional Chinese Medicine has continued to be an alternative to Western medicine, although the general grouping into Yin and Yang has been proven to be arbitrary since objects/organs etc. historically were assigned to Yang for a time and to Yin at other times. However, acupuncture has been recognized by Western medicine to be effective. Western reproach towards Chinese scholarship is that it is not conducted in a free environment.<br />
<br />
此外，传统中医仍然是西方医学的替代品。尽管因为物体/有机体等在历史上一段时间被指定为阳，一段时间被指定为阴，一般的阴阳分类已经被证明是随意的。然而，针灸仍被西医认为是有效的。西方对中国学术的指责是，它不是在一个自由的环境中进行的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 16:51, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
此外，传统中医仍然是西方医学的替代品。尽管因为物体、器官等在历史上一段时间被指定为阳，一段时间被指定为阴，但是一般的阴阳分类已经被证明是任意的。然而，针灸已为西医所认可，但西方学者指责中国学术不是在自由的环境中进行的。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:16, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
From Ethnocentrism and Exoticism to Universalism and Dialogue: <br />
the General Trend of Chinese Studies in the West - <br />
A Case Study of the Early Western Reception of Red Chamber Dreams<br />
<br />
从种族中心主义和异国主义到普遍主义和对话：<br />
西方中国学之总趋势——以《红楼梦》早期西方接受为例<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler <br />
(Witten/Herdecke University, Peking Normal University, Nanking Normal University)<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
“Chinese Studies” (Sinology, Chinakunde, Études Chinoises etc.) in general from its origins until today sees a main trend from ethnocentrism and exoticism to universalism and dialogue. Undergoing historical periods of Chinoisérie and then China-bashing during imperialist and colonialist times, Chinese Studies at universities and in associations like the German China Association has established a more objective view on China. <br />
摘要<br />
“汉学” （又名“国学”、“中国学” 等等）自起源至今，大体上经过这样一条发展主线：从种族中心主义和追求异域风情发展至普世主义和对话机制。在经过中国风(Chinoisérie)时代，到批判和抨击中国（China-bashing）的帝国主义和殖民主义时代之后，汉学在大学和学术协会（如德中协会）里建立了一个对中国更为客观的看法。<br />
摘要<br />
“汉学” （又名“国学”、“中国学” 等等）自起源至今，大体上经过这样一条发展主线：从种族中心主义和追求异域风情发展至普世主义和对话机制。在经过中国风(Chinoisérie)时代，到批判和抨击中国（China-bashing）的帝国主义和殖民主义时代之后，大学和学术协会（如德中协会）的汉学建立了一个对中国更为客观的看法。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 00:40, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ethnocentrism is still existing among Western sinologists today and has to be fought. Still, the contemporary trends globalization, digitalization and travel freedom offer the current generation of sinologists so far unseen possibilities of international cooperation, promising extremely fruitful especially between distant cultures like China and the West. <br />
但是，在当代西方汉学家中间仍然还存在民族中心主义，我们需要为此而抗争。随着全球化、数字化和“出境自由行”这三种当代趋向的出现，新一代汉学家获得了前所未见的国际合作可能，特别像是中西间如此大跨度的文化差异，其国际合作的前景和潜力更是无可估量。<br />
今天，很多西方汉学家依然带着民族优越论的思想，我们需要为此抗争。伴随着全球化、数字化和旅行自由的潮流，当代汉学家在国际合作上有了前所未有的可能；尤其是像中西这样如此大跨度的两个文化间，其合作的前景更是无可估量。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:57, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Key words<br />
Ethnocentrism, Exoticism, Universalism, Chinese Studies, German China Association, universal values, Gregor Paul, cooperation, China and the West<br />
<br />
關鍵詞<br />
宗族中心主義、異國主義、普遍主義、漢學/中國學、德中協會、普遍價值觀、Gregor Paul、合作、中國與西方<br />
<br />
When we define an academic category like “Chinese Studies”, we pay respect to the fact that the world historically has developed differently in different regions.<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
宗族中心主义、异国主义、普世主义、汉学/中国学、德中协会、普世价值观、格力高•保罗、合作、中国与西方<br />
<br />
当我们定义一个类似于“汉学”的学术大类时，我们考虑的是这样一个事实，即从历史的维度上说，这个世界在不同地区的发展是不同的。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 07:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Of course the world was far less connected than today, with slow carriers like horses and ships and often bad or risky infrastructure like roads. Therefore it appears on first sight that these regions have developed their culture, their civilization and even first written languages on their own, independently.<br />
<br />
当然，世界之间的联系远不如今天，诸如马和轮船之类的速度较慢的运输工具，以及诸如道路之类的基础设施往往损坏或危险丛丛。 因此，乍看之下，这些地区已经独立地发展了自己的文化、文明甚至第一语言。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 08:29, 21 November 20<br />
当然，世界各地区间的联系远不如今天；当时使用的都是马和船只这样的慢速运输工具，道路之类的基础设施也往往很原始，危险重重。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 06:02, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The oldest evidence of written civilizations, dating back around 3500 years BC, we find in the fertile crescent Mesopotamia with the clay tablets of the Sumerer. A little bit later there is evidence in Ancient Egypt, then in Proto-India and finally also in China.<br />
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最古老的文字文明的证据，可以追溯到公元前3500年，我们在美索不达米亚平原这片新月状的沃土中找到了苏美尔人的粘土板。随后在古埃及，然后是印度，最后在中国也相继找到了证据。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:03, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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书面文明最古老的证据可以追溯到约公元前3500年，我们在美索不达米亚平原这片新月状的沃土中找到了当时苏美尔人的粘土板。紧接着，在古埃及、原始印度最后在中国也出现了书面文明的证据。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 07:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
But the more we explore history, the more fascinating evidence comes to light that these seemingly independently developing regions have had more trade relations and exchange of ideas than seems likely bearing in mind mobility: The Silk Road is not only rediscovered and reevaluated historically, but also rebuilt as a political agenda today. We today find early evidence of European civilizations in America and Asia as well as the Chinese civilization also in America and Europe.<br />
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但是我们对历史探索得越多,就有更多有趣的证据证明，比起看似可能存在的思维迁移，这些看似独立的发展中地区存在更多的贸易关系和思想交流，从历史角度来看，我们并不只是重新发现和重新评估丝绸之路,也是作为一个政治议程来重建它。我们今天在美洲和亚洲发现了欧洲文明的早期证据，在美洲和欧洲也发现了中国文明的早期证据。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 09:23, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
但我们越是探索历史，就会发现更有吸引力的证据：这些看似独立发展的地区之间的贸易关系和思想交流比思维流动性更频繁：丝绸之路不仅在历史上被重新发现和重新评价，而且在今天也被重建为政治议程。如今，我们在美洲和亚洲发现了欧洲文明的早期证据而在美洲和欧洲也同样发现了中国文明。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
Cultural Science is more influenced by its subject than other sciences, since we are part of it and cannot leave it to examine it. The history of cultural science has developed from the first times of intercultural encounters to today’s life, in which cultures are mixed and people understand each other as being part of different cultures simultaneously.<br />
文化科学比其他科学更受其研究对象的影响，因为我们是它的一部分，不能离开它去研究它。文化科学的历史从最初的跨文化冲突发展到今天的生活，文化相互交融，人们作为不同文化的一部分互相理解。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与其他科学相比，文化科学受其研究对象影响更大，因为我们是文化科学的一部分，不能独立于它去研究它。文化科学的历史已经从最初的跨文化交流发展到今天，文化相互交融，同时人们作为不同文化的一部分相互理解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 17:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
However, there will always be differentiation between cultures, simply because the trends of integration and separation occur at the same time.<br />
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When there is different cultures, there is an interest in comparing these. This medal has two sides. As soon as you start to compare, you may value. Cultural encounters happened before there were experts or a whole discipline.<br />
然而，文化之间的差异总是存在的，那是因为整合和分离的趋势是同时发生的。<br />
当不同文化存在时，对它们的比较便存在意义。文化有两个方面。一旦开始比较，便会发现其价值。在没有专家或该学科之前就已经发生了文化交流。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 03:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，文化之间的差异总是存在的，简而言之是因为整合和分离的趋势是同时发生的。<br />
只要有不同的文化，人们就会非常有兴趣把它们进行比较。文化有两个方面。一旦开始比较，便会发现其价值。在没有专家或该学科之前就已经发生了文化交流。--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 03:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
So the first comparisons between cultures were ethnocentric: You compared whatever you encountered as “other”, “foreign” or “alien”, to your own culture. This was often accompanied with feelings. There was both, the feeling of fear of the unknown and curiosness in the exotic.<br />
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因此，文化间的第一次比较是具有种族中心主义的：你拿你遇到的任何事物与你自己的文化相比较，认为它们是“其他的”、“外国的”、“外来的”。这时常伴随着情绪：既有对未知的恐惧，也有对异国的好奇。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 15:33, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
因此，文化之间的第一次比较是具有民族中心主义的：拿你所接触的任何事物与自己的文化相比较，发现他们是“其他的”、“外国的、“异样的” 这常常混杂着个人情感的：既有对未知的恐惧，也有对异国的好奇。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 03:27, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
You may categorize civilizations into so-called “high civilizations” and “low civilizations”, into “developed” and “underdeveloped” cultures. This was an ethnocentric approach in the age of cultural relativism. Today in the age of post-growth economy and after tragic experiences of colonialization and missionization, we know that each culture is equal and cannot be ranked to be higher or lower, of more or less value than the other.<br />
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你可以将文明分为所谓的“高级文明”和“低级文明”，“发达”和“欠发达”文化。 在文化相对主义时代，这是一种以民族为中心的方法。 但在后增长经济时代的今天，在经历了殖民化和传教化的不幸经历之后，我们知道，每种文化都是平等的，不能认为哪种文化的价值更高或更低。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 14:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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== Headline text ==<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
While very early there were historians collecting knowledge from travel reports or official delegations visiting foreign cultures, in the middle ages handbooks collected the knowledge to describe different cultures. Even the Romans had words for the Chinese (Seres in the North and Sinae in the South) and attributed to Asian-looking people certain characteristics of behaviour, attitudes, value systems, beliefs, morals and character.<br />
早期一些历史学家从游记和文化交流使者当中了解异国文化，中期他们用手册描述不同文化。罗马人就用两个不同的单词来表示中国人，北方人是用赛里斯(Seres)，南方人是用塞琳娜(Sinae)，罗马人还根据行为、态度、价值体系、信念、道德和性格划分亚洲人的特性。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 13:03, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The first in-depth analysis of the Chinese culture through Western people came not with the merchants, but with the Jesuits. How few was known about China can be seen from the fact, that only the Jesuits managed to clarify, that the myth of the two empires, Tartary and Kitai/Cathay, in fact both were the same (China).<br />
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第一次通过西方人对中国文化进行深入的分析，不是来自商人，而是来自耶稣会士。对中国的了解是多么的少，这可以从以下事实中看出，只有耶稣会士设法澄清了鞑靼和基泰/卡泰两个帝国的神话，事实上，这两个帝国都是同一个（中国）。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 02:36, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第一次对中国文学进行深入分析的西方人不是商人，而是耶稣会士。西方人对中国知之甚少可以从以下事实看出：只有耶稣会士成功地澄清了鞑靼和契丹这两个帝国的神话事实上是相同的（都属于中国）。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西方第一次对中国文学进行深入分析的是耶稣会士，而不是商人。从只有耶稣会士才设法阐明鞑靼和契丹这两个帝国的神话实质上是相同的（讲的都是中国）这一事实来看，西方对中方的了解少之甚少。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 09:04, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
However, the Jesuit’s approach was still ethnocentric and cultural relativist, because by portraying (like Du Halde) China as a seemingly ideal state suitable for mission work, they contributed to subjective views on China. <br />
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Around 1720 presumably the French Jesuit Jean-François Noëlas even translated the Dao de jing into Latin.[ Collani, Claudia von, Harald Holz, Konrad Wegmann eds. Uroffenbarung und Daoismus: jesuitische Missionshermeneutik des Daoismus. Europ. University Press, 2008. [Partial retranslation Chinese-Latin-German.]] <br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The translation turns out to deviate from the original in the way that we suddenly find the Christian trinity god in it.<br />
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This is the starting point of an ethnocentric tradition to read the self and the own into the other and the alien, instead of respecting the other as a value by itself and allowing it to even challenge the own beliefs.<br />
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翻译偏离了原文，我们才猛然发现其中基督教三位一体的上帝。<br />
这是一种种族中心主义传统的出发点，它把原文本身解读成他者并异化，而不是把他者当作一种价值观来尊重，甚至允许它挑战自己的信仰。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 12:42, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Even the German Christian missionary and sinologist Richard Wilhelm used a Christian language (belief, heavens’ doors, life after death etc.) in his influential 1919 Taoteking translation and in 1925 he translated “god” into the Analects of Confucius.<br />
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The missionaries baptized the seemingly “backward” aborigines in several continents, sometimes supported by the sword.<br />
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连德国基督教传教士兼汉学家理查德·威廉在其影响深远的1919年道教翻译中也使用了基督教语言(信仰、天堂之门、来生等)，并在1925年在《论语》中使用上帝这一翻译。<br />
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传教士们在几个大陆上给看似“落后”的土著人施洗，有时还用武力威胁。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:23, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A lot of cultures, considered less “developed”, were heavily influenced or even destroyed and extinguished. Earlier, the “Warriors of the Cross” even fought wars and devastated complete regions.<br />
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The other aspect, the exotization of the other was expressed by the way the first Chinese people who came to Europe were received: They were passed on at tea meetings and gazed at like animals.<br />
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许多被认为不太“发达”的文化受到了严重影响，甚至遭到破坏并且已经消亡。早些时候，“十字军”甚至发起战争，摧毁了整个地区。<br />
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另一方面， 异域化表现在第一批来到欧洲的中国人所能接受的方式：这些文化在茶话会上被传下来，受到瞩目。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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许多在人们看来不是太“发达”的文化遭受了重创，甚至已经毁灭或消亡。早些时候，“十字军”发起战争，摧毁了整个地区。<br />
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另一方面，对其他文化的异域化影响则表现在第一批来欧洲的中国人被欧洲人接纳：他们在参加各种茶话会，被人们奇怪地看待。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Soon Chinese goods became the symbol of the exotic. Chinese porcellain and nick-nacks, even Chinese-style buildings were recreated in Europe. The fever-like admiration of a China image, which certainly was not the true China, is called Chinoiserie. The Chinoiserie even involved European philosophers like Voltaire and Leibniz, who compared China to an ideal country without religion and still moral values, represented by a wise emperor.<br />
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很快中国货就成了异国情调的象征。中国的瓷器和小装饰品，甚至中国风格的建筑都在欧洲得以重现。狂热崇拜中国形象，被称为中国热，当然不是对真正中国形象的狂热。这股中国热甚至影响到伏尔泰和莱布尼茨这样的欧洲哲学家，他们把中国比作一个理想国家，这个国家没有宗教信仰和道德价值观，由一位睿智的皇帝所代表。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
In Europe, the first experts on Chinese culture were entrusted with the task to explain the Chinese culture no longer from the ethnocentric viewpoint, but from a scientific one: Professorships at universities were established. Their early translations show traces of admiration of the exotic. Chinoiserie was also countered by Européerie in China.<br />
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在欧洲，第一批中国文化的专家的任务是不再从民族中心主义的角度而是从科学的角度来解释中国文化，许多大学给予很多人教授头衔，他们早期的翻译显示出外来的附加痕迹，“中国风”也被中国的“山寨风”所抵制。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
However, this phase did only last as long as it fit to European politics. As soon as the import of colonial goods (and resources) became an economic factor, the (wrong) image of the ideal China changed into a negative one (similarly wrong). Not only mission and belief were motifs to look down on the Chinese culture, but also the comparison of economic development and living standards. <br />
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==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Hegel continued the ethnocentric view on China with his ranking of cultures. Although Confucius already had developed a “Golden Rule” principle comparable to Kant’s “Categorical Imperative”, Hegel declared Chinese philosophy as inferior to European philosophy, and even saw a geographical step by step development from Confucius over Buddha, Zarathustra, the ancient Greek and the Roman philosophy, leading to the European philosophy.黑格尔以他的文化排名延续了对中国的种族中心主义观点。尽管孔子已经发展出一套可与康德的“绝对命令”相媲美的“黄金法则”原则，但黑格尔却宣称中国哲学不如欧洲哲学，甚至认为看到了从孔子到佛陀、查拉图斯特拉、古希腊和罗马哲学的一步一步的地理发展，引领了欧洲哲学。--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 04:44, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 04:44, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
A ladder only second by the Arab philosophy. At the turn from the 19th to the 20th century, China was suddenly considered as static, as “the sick man of Asia”. Actually semi-colonialism in China helped to hinder development there. <br />
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Rereading the reviews of Chinese literature in contemporary Western journals, it is astonishing, how disrespectful even men of letters treated Chinese literature, even during a time, when it was not yet available in translation, so that it is save to say that ethnocentric attitude prevailed over knowledge.<br />
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这是仅次于阿拉伯哲学的阶梯。在19世纪和20世纪的交替之时，中国突然被认为是停滞不前的，是“东亚病夫”。事实上，是中国的半殖民主义阻碍了中国的发展。<br />
重读当代西方期刊上关于中国文学的评论，令人惊讶的是，即使在中国文学还没有翻译的时候，文人也如此不尊重中国文学，所以只能说，民族中心主义的态度压倒了知识。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 13:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
This can be proven by the many mistakes you can find in the reviews (Morrison: the book was of low literary quality, but written in Peking dialect and therefore useful as language learning material; Gützlaff: the protagonist Baoyu is a petulant woman; Giles: the words “Red Chamber Dreams do not appear in the book” etc.).<br />
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错误百出的评论可以证明这一点（马礼逊：这本书没什么文采，但由于它是用北京方言所写，因而可以作为语言学习材料；居茨拉夫：主角宝玉真是一个爱耍小性子的女人；贾尔斯：“红楼梦没有在书中出现过”等等。）。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:17, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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书评中许多人对其的误解能证明这一点（马礼逊：这本书文笔拙劣，但由于是用北京话写的，因此可以用作语言学习材料;居茨拉夫：主角宝玉是一个被宠坏的女子; 贾尔斯：“红楼梦”一词没有在书中出现等）。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Also, the tradition of the title translation as “Dream of the Red Chamber” can be traced back to the origins of the better translation as “Red Chamber Dreams”, sacrificed by Francis Davis finally in favor of the powerful tool of Morrison’s dictionary calling it “Dream of the Red Chamber”.<br />
另外，标题翻译的传统是“Dream of the Red Chamber”，它的起源可以追溯到更好的一个翻译，即“Red Chamber Dreams”，这是弗朗西斯·戴维斯（Francis Davis）最终因为莫里森词典的强大而放弃的 一个标题翻译。--[[User:Mo Nan|Mo Nan]] ([[User talk:Mo Nan|talk]]) 14:17, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Nan<br />
另外，“Dream of the Red Chamber”这一标题翻译传统来源于另一个更好的译本，即“Red Chamber Dreams”，但是弗朗西斯·戴维斯（Francis Davis）参考强大的莫里森词典后，他最终放弃了这个译本。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 13:13, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Here, the exotic was used to make fun of China. Barrow introduces an excerpt, describing the outward appearance of Baoyu and Xifeng, translated by Francis Davis into English, explicitely for the reason to “amuse the beaux and belles”. Francis Davis himself picks two poems from the novel for translation, but not for its own sake, but to use them as a proof for his own (minority) opinion that the Chinese poetry knew a certain, “descriptive” function of poems in novels.<br />
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在这里，外来翻译只是用于取笑中国。巴罗介绍了一段《红楼梦》节选，描述的是宝玉和熙凤的外貌，弗兰西斯•戴维斯将其翻译成英文，但显然是为了“嘲笑花花公子和美丽佳人”。弗兰西斯•戴维斯从这本小说中挑选了两首诗歌翻译，但其目的不是为了诗歌本身，而是为了证明他自己的观点（这也是少数人的观点）—中国诗人明白，小说中的诗歌是具有一定“描写”功能的。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 06:47, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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此处，外来翻译只是用于取笑中国。巴罗挑选了《红楼梦》一节来描述宝玉和熙凤的外貌。弗兰西斯•戴维斯将其译成英文，但显然是为了“嘲笑花花公子和美丽佳人”。弗兰西斯•戴维斯从这本小说中挑选了两首诗歌翻译，但其目的不是为了诗歌本身，而是为了证明他自己的观点（这也是少数人的观点）—中国诗人明白，小说中的诗歌是具有一定“描写”功能的。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 11:24, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “[dreams of the red chamber.” He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.] He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation.<br />
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1815年，澳门牧师罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison，1782-1834年）在其《汉语词典》中将小说的标题称为“红楼梦”，从而创造了该小说的标题的西译本。[他解释道小说红楼梦中一个叫妙玉的女子就像是一块令人钦佩的宝石，参见罗伯特·莫里森：《汉语词典》三部分，澳门：东印度公司出版社1815年，第一卷p930，此处p614，左栏。印刷版出版24年后，这是第一次提及该小说，并将其标题翻译成迄今已知的西方语言。如果没有更早的发现，则意味着莫里森所创作的译本一直持续到今天几乎不变。]他选择了复数形式，这是相当合理的，因为小说中有许多梦想。似乎在27年后，复数的“梦”变成了单数的“梦”，听起来更笼统，因此也是一种合理的翻译。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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1815年，澳门牧师罗伯特·莫里森(1782-1834)在他的《汉语词典》中将《红楼梦》称作“dreams of the red chamber”，从而创造了小说的英文译名。他把《红楼梦》这本小说中一个女性人物的名字“妙玉”中的“妙”字解释为“令人艳羡的宝石”，（参见罗伯特·莫里森《汉语词典》，澳门：东印度公司出版社，1815年，第一卷第936页，此处第614页左栏)。在印刷版出版24年后，这是第一次提到并将标题翻译成西方语言。如果找不到比这还早的标题翻译，便意味着莫里森创造的翻译一直持续到今天都几乎发生没有改变。“梦”这个词的译文他选择了复数“dreams”，这是相当合理的，因为在小说中有许多梦。27年后，复数的“梦”（dreams)变成了单数的“梦”(dream)，这听起来有点笼统，但也是一个合理的翻译。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
''Red Chamber Dreams'' is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
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In 1817 Rev. Robert Morrison published a book for studying Chinese,[ Robert Morrison, A view of China for philological purposes: containing a sketch of Chinese Chronology, Geography, Government, Religion & Customs, designed for the use of persons who study the Chinese language, Macao: East Asia Company Press, 1817, 141 S., hier S. 120-121.] in which he recommended “''Dreams of the Red Chamber''” as beginner readings, together with the novel Hao qiu zhuan, which was available mostly in English and partly in Portuguese by 1719, and fully in English by 1761. Both were written in colloquial style.<br />
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在所有的翻译中，“ Red Chamber Dreams”是到目前为止英语以及所有西方语言中最常见的翻译。<br />
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1817年，罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本研究汉语的书，[罗伯特·莫里森，出于语言学目的对中国的看法：包含对中国年历，地理，政府，宗教和习俗的描写，旨在供学习汉语的人使用。 澳门语言：东亚公司出版社，1817年，141 S.，hier S. 120-121。]，其中他推荐“红楼梦”和小说《好秋传》作为初学者的读物。 到1719年，红楼梦的翻译大部分是英语，部分是葡萄牙语。在1761年以后全部用英语翻译。两种都是口语化的。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 03:14, 23 November 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
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在所有的翻译中，“ Red Chamber Dreams”是到目前为止英语以及所有西方语言中最常见的翻译。<br />
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1817年，罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本研究汉语的书，[罗伯特·莫里森，出于语言学目的对中国的看法：包含对中国年历，地理，政府，宗教和习俗的描写，旨在供学习汉语的人使用。 澳门语言：东亚公司出版社，1817年，141 S.，hier S. 120-121。]，其中他推荐“红楼梦”和小说《好秋传》作为初级读物。 到1719年，《好秋传》的翻译大部分是英语，部分是葡萄牙语。在1761年以后全部用英语翻译。两种都是口语化的。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 06:19, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Morrison claims that ''Dream'' was written in Peking dialect. This does not hold true, since the author’s family Cao came from the South and many people in the novel have Nanking dialect sprinkles. In fact, the highly artful and intentional switch of dialects and sociolects contributed to the later fame of the novel. Morrison’s mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the ''Dreams'' is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.]<br />
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马礼逊称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但他的说法并不属实，因为书的作者曹雪芹其实是南方人，书中很多角色有时候还会说南京方言。实际上，书中地方方言和社会方言的切换十分巧妙，也是作者有意而为之，这也是此作品之后享有盛名的原因之一。马礼逊的这一错误还持续了很长一段时间。[ 甚至到了1995年仍有人说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成。]--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 11:07, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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马礼逊认为，《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但他的说法并不属实，《红楼梦》的作者曹雪芹其实是南方人，书中很多角色在某些场合甚至还会说南京方言。实际上，书中地方方言和社会方言的切换十分巧妙，这是作者有意而为之，也是《红楼梦》在后来享有盛名的原因之一。马礼逊的这一错误还持续了很长一段时间。[ 甚至到了1995年时，仍有人认为《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成。]--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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马礼逊声称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成的。这一说法是不正确的，因为作者曹雪芹来自南方，小说中很多人说话都有南京方言的色彩。事实上，方言和社会用语的巧妙和有意的转换为这部小说后来的名声做出了贡献。马礼逊的错误持续了很长一段时间。[即使是在1995年，还有人说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成的。]--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 09:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Barrow mentioned the title “[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams” on June 4, 1819, in the Quarterly Review. He inserted this （导言）reference into a review[ My own findings, so far not discussed in 20th century hongxue, and published first in October 2010. John Barrow, “Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”, in: William Gifford ed., Quarterly Review 21:41 (January 1819) S. 67-91, hier S. 79-80. This edition appeared (only by) June 4, 1819 with 13,000 copies. The author follows here the argumentation of the assignment to the author Barrow due to the following indications: “Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p.76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his Q[uarterly] R[eview] articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works, see “Quarterly Review Archive” http:// www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html, last visited Dec 5, 2010.] of Clarke Abel’s report of a journey through China.[ Clarke Abel, Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited, F.L.S. London 1818.] He interrupted his review with an excursus on the uniform appearance and static nature of the Chinese, in line with the contemporary China-bashing of Herder and Hegel.<br />
巴罗在1819年6月4日的季刊上提到了书名“[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams”。他在一篇评论中这样写道：这是我自己的发现。迄今还未被20世纪的红学讨论过，第一次发表是在2010年10月。1816年和1817年在中国内陆的旅行，以及往返于那个国家的航行;书中记载了阿默斯特公爵驻北京法院的大使馆最有趣的事情，以及对它访问过的国家的观察(克拉克阿裨尔，伦敦，1818，于威廉吉福德，季刊21:41,1819年1月，67-91页，79-80页）这个版本仅仅在1819年6月4日发行了13000本。作者在此遵循了对作者巴罗任务的论证，原因如下:“绅士杂志(1844年3月)，246-47。这篇文章的作者提到了#415和#438(包括一个特定的引用)，它们都是关于同一个主题的，都是巴罗写的。还有关于杀婴的讨论(第76页)和巴罗在第422页审查过的莱佛士对爪哇的描述。在他的Q[uarterly] R[eview]文章中，巴罗的标志性做法是引用他自己的作品，参见“季刊评论档案”，http:// www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html，上一次访问是在2010年12月5日。克拉克·阿贝尔(Clarke Abel)关于中国之旅的报道。[克拉克·阿贝尔，1816年和1817年在中国内陆的旅行，以及往返于那个国家的航行;书中记载了阿默斯特公爵驻北京法院的大使馆最有趣的事情，以及对它访问过的国家的观察，1818年伦敦F.L.S.。他以一段关于中国人千篇一律的外表和一成不变的本质的论述打断了他的评论，这与当时赫尔德和黑格尔对中国的抨击一致。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 06:12, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
For contemporary Europeans, the Chinese appeared abnormally uniform and simple in their clothes and appearance. They would not be subordinated to the tyranny of fashion; their culture was static. In order to entertain the “belles and beaux of Great Britain,” Barrow provides a foil to this general impression by quoting the descriptions of the garments and anatomy of two characters, Wang Xifeng and Jia Baoyu, from chapter 3 of J. Davis’ translation of Dream.<br />
对于当代欧洲人来说，中国人看起来异常的统一，衣着和外表都相当简单。他们不会屈从于暴政时尚;他们的文化是静止的。为了娱乐“大不列颠的美女和美人”，巴罗（Barrow）引用了杰·戴维斯《翻译的梦》第三章，对服装的描述和对两个人物的剖析，来衬托这个总体印象。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 06:26, 22 November 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
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对于当代欧洲人，中国人的穿着和外表显得异常统一和朴素。 他们不会服从时尚的暴政。 他们的文化是静态的。 为了娱乐“大不列颠的风向标”，巴罗引用了戴维斯红楼梦翻译第3章中对两个人物王熙凤和贾宝玉的服装和人物性格剖析的描述。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 03:25, 23 November 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
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对当代欧洲人，中国人的穿着外表显得异常统一和朴素。 他们不会顺从时尚的绝对掌控。 他们的文化是静态的。 为了娱乐“大不列颠的风向标”，巴罗引用了戴维斯红楼梦翻译第3章中对王熙凤和贾宝玉的服装和人物性格剖析的描述。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 13:43, 23 November 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In fact the graphic comparisons given in these descriptions were simply strange to Europeans of that time, since they apparently did not correspond to the European’s own ideal of beauty.<br />
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Even in 1842 Gützlaff criticized: “the author [makes] many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] the style is without any art […] whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage”[ “Amongst the novels of the Chinese, this work holds a decidedly high rank. The author, after making many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] Having brought this tedious story to a conclusion, in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces. Some words that are used in a sense different from that in ordinary writings, and others are formed for the occasion, to express provincial sounds. But after reading one volume the sense is easily understood, and whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage.” ibid., p. 273.]<br />
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实际上，这些描述中给出的图形比较对于当时的欧洲人来说简直是陌生的，因为它们显然不符合欧洲人自己的美感。<br />
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甚至在1842年，居茨拉夫（Gützlaff）都批评说：“作者[对]他无法对这个主题伸张正义，提出了许多抗议，这确实是书中唯一的道理。以说北方法院方言的方式，可以有利地细读这部作品” [“在中国小说中，这部作品绝对享有很高的地位。在多次抗议他无法公正对待这个主题之后，这确实是本书中唯一的真相[...]总结了这个乏味的故事，在表达我们对表演文学价值的看法后，我们可以说这种风格没有任何艺术意义，实际上是北部省份上层阶级的口头语言。有些词的用法与普通著作有所不同，而另一些词的用法则是为了表达省级声音。但是，读完一卷书后，这种感觉很容易理解，并且无论谁希望熟悉北部法院方言的表达方式，都可以从中受益。同上，p。273.]<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:49, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
In 1867, 78 years after the first Chinese printed edition, we find a first real in-depth review of two pages by William Frederick Mayers:[ William Frederick Mayers, in: Notes and Queries (Dec 31, 1867) pp. 167-168, here p. 167. Mayers was Chinese secretary of the British Legation at Peking. He gives also short extracts in translation: <br />
“Vast as is Heaven above or Earth below – <br />
Sighs may such limits fill for passion vainly past <br />
Grieve for the senseless youth, the hapless maiden’s woe ! <br />
Not oft is love’s light pledge redeem’ed at last ! ” (p. 167) […] <br />
Vain to be soft in temper, mild in ways, <br />
Fair as the fairest … (p. 168) <br />
[…] <br />
Not often shines <br />
thy longings too are vain ! ” (p. 168)].]<br />
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“If it be lawful to avow a feeling approaching to enthusiasm for any Chinese production, The Hung Low Mêng 紅樓夢 or ‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’ is beyond possibility of cavil the work for which genuine admiration may be expressed.<br />
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1867年，即第一本中文印刷版出版78年之后，我们对梅辉立的两页进行了首次真正的深入回顾：[梅辉立，在：中日释疑（1867年12月31日）,第167-168页，此处第167页。梅辉立曾担任英国使馆驻北京的中国秘书。他还给出了一些翻译中的简要摘录：<br />
“天堂之上或地狱之下都很广阔–<br />
叹息可能会限制过去的激情<br />
为无知的青年，不幸的少女而悲伤！<br />
最后，爱的誓言不是经常被兑现的！ ”（第167页）[…]<br />
不会脾气柔和，方式温和，<br />
公平为最公平…（第168页）<br />
[…]<br />
不常发光<br />
你的渴望也是徒劳的！ ” (第168页)].]<br />
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“如果公然宣称对任一中国作品充满热情的感觉是合法的，那么要对红楼梦或‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’的无端指摘表示真正的钦佩是不可能的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 13:37, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
What, in English literature, the writings of Thackeray and Bulwer are in comparison with the wearisome and unskilful productions of previous generations, such is the Hung Low Mêng when compared with the works of fiction that have emanated from other Chinese authors.<br />
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在英国文学中，萨克雷和布尔沃的作品经常被与前几代令人厌倦和不熟练的作品相比较，就如同红楼梦被与其他中国作家的小说作品作比较一样。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 14:22, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在英国文学中，萨克雷和布尔沃的作品经常被拿来和早期一些令人厌倦和不熟练的作品作比较，同样地，人们也经常把《红楼梦》与其他中国作家的小说作比较。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 06:12, 23 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Human character in its complex variety of shades, the intricacies of family relations, the force of passion and the torture of disappointed yearnings after love are pourtrayed with a degree of skill and knowledge such as in truth suggests a resemblance with the two great master-spirits of English romance;<br />
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复杂多变的人物性格，错综复杂的家庭关系，猛烈的激情，追求爱情而不得的折磨，凡此种种，作者都以具有技巧和才识的笔触描绘出来，这事实上展现了他与两位英国浪漫小说大师的相似之处。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作者那具有技巧和才识的笔触下的这些，性格复杂多变的人物，错综复杂的家庭关系，猛烈的激情，追求爱情而不得的折磨，事实上展现了他与两位英国浪漫小说大师的相似之处。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 14:32, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
whilst, as in Nature's own drama of existence, the reflections of storm and sunshine are closely interlaced, and the lighter thread of comedy runs side by side with the dark main-strand of a story which opens with the omens of sorrow and is conducted to a tearful end.<br />
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同时，就像在自然界的生存戏剧中一样，风暴和阳光的反射紧密地交织在一起，喜剧的轻快线与故事的黑暗主线并排而行，故事的黑暗主线以悲伤的预兆开始，以泪洗面而终。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 12:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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同时，正如自然存在本身就具有戏剧性，风暴与阳光之间的映射紧密纠缠，明亮的喜剧线与黑暗的故事主线并肩而行，展开故事，它以悲伤的预兆开头，并最终导向令人垂泪的结局。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
If, at the same time, a faint – a very faint – tinge of the supernatural is allowed to show itself in the conception of the tale, this is not only in full accord with the inclinations of the people for whom the work is written, but is also far less obtrusive than the similar element which pervades more than one of our own most celebrated fictions. […]”<br />
同时,如果一点微弱的-一点非常微弱的超自然色彩展现在故事中,这就不仅是完全符合目标读者的口味,而且还远远不如目前最受欢迎的小说中的相似素材那么突兀。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 08:19, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Reading through almost 80 years of reviews, during which more and more chapters of the novel became available, the ethnocentric attitude gradually changes to the scientific one and finally, with Mayr’s review of 1867 to a dialectic one, not only admitting that the Chinese novel was a piece of world literature, but even leaving open the possibility that it surpassed literary achievements of the own culture.<br />
<br />
梅尔读了近80十年的书评，在阅读过程中，他能读懂越来越多的章节，所以他民族中心主义的观点逐渐变化，最后变成了科学的观点。他1867年的书评呈现了辩证的态度，他不仅承认中国小说是世界小说的一部分，甚至对中国小说有没有可能超越其本国文化取得的成就持开放态度。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 11:48, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
This process certainly has been brought to a good end with the establishment of further diversified Chinese Studies in Europe and the USA, with the role of overseas Chinese at American universities, with further translations especially through Franz Kuhn in the 1930s and with the establishment of the German China Association in the 1950s.<br />
随着在欧洲和美国建立更多多元化的中文研究，在美国大学中扮演海外华人的角色，尤其是在1930年代通过Franz Kuhn进行的进一步翻译以及 1950年代的德国中国协会.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 03:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
随着在欧洲和美国建立更多样化中国研究中心，随着海外华人在美国大学中角色的改变，随着二十世纪三十年代翻译进一步发展，这其中弗兰克·库恩（Frank kuhn)是典型代表，随着二十世纪五十年代德国中国协会的建立，这个过程完满结束了。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 11:29, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
During its 60 years of history, the German China Association (next to the developing chairs of Chinese Studies at universities and next to other organizations dealing with China like friendship associations and Confucius Institutes) has helped to overcome prejudices, cultural relativism with diversity and tolerance. This is especially challenging, because the cultures and languages are quite distant and German media and internet community tends to bash China.<br />
<br />
During the last 20 years, the German China Association was shaped through its prolific president, Gregor Paul, who has shaped the prestige of the Association with his sharp and precise analysis of a common logic in China and the West as well as universal values, including human rights, worth to strive for both in the West and in China.<br />
<br />
<br />
在其60年的历史中，德国中国协会(旁边是正在发展的大学中国研究中心，旁边是其他与中国打交道的组织，如友好协会和孔子学院)以多样性和宽容帮助克服偏见和文化相对主义。这尤其具有挑战性，因为两国文化和语言相当遥远，而德国媒体和互联网社区往往会抨击中国。<br />
在过去的20年里,德国的中国协会在优秀的主席格雷戈尔保罗领导下建立,通过敏锐和精确的分析中国和西方的一个共同的逻辑，还有普世价值,包括值得一起追求的人权，他建立起了这个协会的声誉。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 04:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
His entertaining and informative lectures used a rhethoric often referring to persuasive conventional wisdom, e.g. that differences often come from different opinions instead of a difference of the nature of the things, as can be seen from a quarrel with his wife about what both remembered had happened the day before. Paul is a consequent logician and a real universalist and he has added to Germany’s international reputation as “the land of poets and thinkers”.<br />
<br />
The process of doing more justice to China today culminates in the cooperation between Chinese and Western scholars at international conferences, in research projects or international book projects like “A Harvard Literary History of Modern China”.<br />
<br />
他的演讲娱乐性强，内容翔实，善用修辞，引经据典。例如：分歧往往源于意见不和，而非事情性质不一致，这从他和妻子的争吵中可以看出，他们都记得前一天发生的事情。保罗是一名逻辑学家和普遍主义者，他提升了德国的国际声誉，德国被誉为“诗人和思想家的国度”。<br />
<br />
如今，中国与西方学者在国际会议、研究项目或诸如“现代中国的哈佛文学史”之类的国际图书项目上的合作，是对中国更加公正的体现，也是合作达到高潮的体现。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:18, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Europeans (and later US-Americans) have made a contribution to Chinese Studies in general. They were influenced heavily by the idealizers (Jesuits, European philosophers of the enlightenment) and by China-bashers (Hegel, the German emperor...). It took 100 years for a Chinese piece of world literature to be recognized as such in Europe. But today, Chinese literature and culture is recognized with the Nobel Prize and Confucius Institutes do successful work in the whole work promoting and exporting Chinese culture abroad.<br />
<br />
However, we should not overestimate the European contribution. There are still examples of ethnocentrism, even of religiously motivated reading of things into Chinese literature. One of these examples is the 10 volume ''History of Chinese Literature'' published in Bonn.<br />
<br />
总体上来说，欧洲人（以及后期的美国人）对中国的研究做出了贡献。研究很大程度上受到了理想主义者（耶稣会士和德国启蒙哲学家）以及抨击中国者（黑格尔和德国教皇）的影响。中国的文学作品花费了100年的时间才能得到像欧洲文学那样的认可。但是如今，中国文学和文化已经受到诺贝尔奖的认可，孔子学院也成功地在国外传播弘扬中国文化。<br />
<br />
然而，我们不能高估欧洲对中国文学的贡献。仍有很多民族中心主义的例子，甚至有宗教鼓励性的读物混入中国文学当中。其中一个例子便是在波恩出版的《十卷中国文学史》。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 03:12, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
In two volumes, the one about the origins of Chinese literature and the one on Chinese poetry, a German sinologist, who formerly was a priest, defines, that the origin of Chinese literature lies in the dialogue of the author with god. This reminds us again of the Jesuit reading of things into Chinese texts, it reminds us of the attempts, to impose your own culture on other seemingly backward cultures, in this case even the try to impose the Western god on the Chinese culture of a time, when China had a totally different understanding of the world and of heaven than that of a Christian god. The emergence of Chinese literature comes from songs, speeches and paintings, from the wish to document events, family etc., but not from an encounter with god.<br />
<br />
其中的两卷，一卷关于中国文学的起源，另一卷关于中国的诗歌。有位曾担任过牧师的德国汉学家认为，中国文学源于作家与上帝的对话。这让我们再次想起耶稣会教士对中文文本的解读，他们试图将其自身文化强加到其他看似落后的文化上。在这本书中，这位汉学家甚至试图把西方的上帝强加到某一时期的中国文化上，尽管中国对世界和天堂的理解与西方完全不同。其实，中国文学兴于诗歌、演讲和绘画，把美好愿景和文献记载世代相传，而非源自与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 13:20, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其中的两卷，一卷关于中国文学的起源，另一卷关于中国的诗歌。有位曾担任过牧师的德国汉学家认为，中国文学源于作家与上帝的对话。这让人联想到耶稣会教士对中文文本的解读，他们试图将其自身文化强加到其他看似落后的文化上。在这本书中，这位汉学家甚至试图把西方的上帝强加到某一时期的中国文化上，而这个时候中国对世界和天堂的理解与西方完全不同。其实，中国文学兴于诗歌、言论和绘画，从美好愿景到记载事件、家族等，而非源自与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 04:25, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
The same German sinologist retranslated the Analects, attributed to Confucius, and translated some of the more than 50 occurrences of “heaven” or “demon/ghost” with the term “god”. <br />
<br />
Experts on Confucius also quote the few passages, where Confucius addresses the question of the supranatural like ghosts etc. and analyze that Confucius may have been at best not interested or even negative about the belief in ghosts, while he was positive about the social stability and peace rituals brought for the people.<br />
<br />
This reminds us of the fact, that it is to us to make sure that ethnocentrism is still existing today and that science is a field that needs to be aware of and cautious about it. And it needs courage to speak out against it.<br />
这位德国汉学家重新翻译了源于孔子的《论语》，并用“神”一词翻译了50多个“天堂”或“恶魔/鬼魂”的事件。研究孔子的专家也引用了一些孔子说的鬼神等超自然的问题。而且他还分析到孔子充其量对鬼神的信仰可能不太感兴趣，甚至持有消极的态度，但他对其为人民带来的社会稳定与和平持积极态度。这提醒了我们一个事实，那就是我们要确保民族中心主义在今天仍然存在，并且科学是一个需要警惕和谨慎的领域。公开反对它需要勇气。<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
“We were wrong” – Coming to terms <br />
with failed master narratives of Chinese Studies<br />
“我们错了”——汉学应对主流叙事传统<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler 吴漠汀<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
We, the international scholars of Chinese Studies, apologize for two main misinterpretations of China. 1. The master narrative of Jesuits and others who tried to proof the Western Christian god in ancient Chinese texts. As a tool, they used a distortion of the Chinese texts by manipulated translation. <br />
<br />
我们是中国研究的国际学者，对中国的两个主要误解道歉。 1.耶稣会士和其他人在古代中国文本中试图证明西方基督教之神的主要叙事。作为一种工具，他们通过操纵翻译来歪曲中文文本。<br />
<br />
“我们错了”--关于汉学错误的主流叙述<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
我们作为研究汉学的国际学者，为我们对于中国的两个主要误解道歉。 1.耶稣会士和其他人的主流叙事中试图证明在古代中国作品中存在西方基督教之神。他们通过操纵翻译这一工具来歪曲中国作品。<br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 01:07, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“我们错了”---学会接受错误的汉学主流叙述<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
我们作为汉学的海外学者，要向中国道歉，因为我们在两个方面误读了中国。1. 耶稣会教士和其他人的主流叙事试图证明古代中国作品存在西方的基督教上帝。他们通过操纵翻译来歪解中国作品。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:36, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
2. The master narrative of the stagnation of China, sometimes claimed to be inherent and systemic, often reasoned with Confucianism. This narrative was a dogma for 150 years between 1830 and 1980. The disruptive economic development since 1978 has proven this narrative wrong, Confucianism is seen as one reason for the economic miracle. <br />
<br />
2.关于中国停滞的主要叙述，有时被称为固有的和系统性的，常常用儒家思想来推理。这种叙述是1830年至1980年间150年的教条。自1978年以来的破坏性经济发展证明了这种叙事错误，儒家思想被视为经济奇迹的一个原因。<br />
<br />
常以儒家思想为依据的中国停滞论有时被认为是固有的和系统性的。在1830-1980年这150年间，这种说法如同教条主义一般。直到1978年中国经济飞速发展才证明这种说话是错误的，儒家思想也被视为中国经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 04:49, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.中国停滞的主要叙述有时是内在的、系统的，通常由儒家思想所论证。这种叙述是1830年至1980年间150年的教条。自1978年以来的破坏性经济发展证明了这种叙述是错误的，而儒家思想被视为经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 01:31, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关于中国发展停滞不前的大体说法有时被认为是固定的、系统的，且往往以儒家思想为依据。在1830-1980年这150年里，这种说法像教条一样根植人心。直到1978年以后，中国经济的腾飞推翻了这一说法，儒家思想也被视为是中国经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 03:20, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
3. The master narrative of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution as a successful Communist reform. During the 1970s, Western sinologists abandoned basic principles of neutrality, distance and fact-seeking and, based on propaganda, enthusiastically celebrated the Cultural Revolution and became dedicated followers of Mao Zedong, holding up the Little Red Book.<br />
<br />
无产阶级文化大革命的主要叙事是成功的共产主义改革。在20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立，距离和事实寻求的基本原则，并在宣传的基础上，热烈地庆祝文化大革命，成为毛泽东的忠实粉丝，举起小红皮书。相信中国宣传的意愿部分是出于将中国理想化为一种模式的愿望，这种模式可以为西方社会的改革指明方向。<br />
<br />
主述将无产阶级文化大革命（文革）描述为共产党的一场成功改革。20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立、保持距离、实事求是的基本原则，并在宣传的基础上，热衷于庆祝文化大革命，高举小红书，成为毛泽东的忠实追随者。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:40, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在主流叙事中，无产阶级文化大革命是一场成功的共产主义改革。20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立、保持距离、实事求是的基本原则，并在宣传层面上热烈庆祝文化大革命，高举小红书，成为毛泽东的忠实追随者。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 01:16, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
The readiness to believe in the Chinese propaganda was partly motivated by the wish to idealize China into a model which could show the way for a reform of Western societies.<br />
<br />
相信中国宣传的意愿部分是出于将中国理想化为一种模式的愿望，这种模式可以为西方社会的改革指明方向。<br />
<br />
人们愿意信任中国的宣传，部分原因是希望将中国理想化为一种典范，而这种典范可以为西方社会改革指明道路。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 04:49, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们愿意相信中国的宣传，部分原因是希望将中国理想化为一种典范，可以为西方社会改革指明道路。 --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:07, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
Key words<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
Apology, errors, mistakes, manipulation, ethnocentrism, eurocentrism, master narratives, Chinese Studies, sinology, coming to terms with the past<br />
<br />
道歉，错误，错误，操纵，种族中心主义，欧洲中心主义，大师叙事，中国研究，汉学，与过去达成协议<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
道歉，错误，失误，操纵，种族中心主义，欧洲中心主义，大师叙事，中国研究，汉学，与过去达成协议<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 11:55, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
1. God in China上帝在中国<br />
<br />
Human beings develop ancestor worship, complemented by natural religions. The natural religions established a layer of shamans who interpreted the will of the natural gods. <br />
<br />
人类发展祖先崇拜，辅以自然宗教。自然宗教建立了一套解释自然神灵意志的法则。<br />
<br />
人类开创了祖先崇拜的先例，并辅以自然宗教。自然宗教组建了一支能解释自然神灵意志的萨满法师队伍。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:38, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
In India, the layer of priests of the Vedan religion alienated from the people, because the religious texts of Vedan religion brought a conservating effect to language, texts were canonized and finally not understood by ordinary people any more. <br />
<br />
在印度，Vedan宗教的神职人员与人民疏远，因为Vedan宗教的宗教文本对语言产生了保护作用，文本被册封，最后不再为普通人所理解。<br />
在印度，吠檀教的祭司层与人们疏远，因为吠檀教的宗教文本给语言带来了保守的效果，文本被封为圣徒，最终不再为普通人所理解。--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 06:52, 23 November 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
Finally, only the Vedan priests could understand the Vedan texts any more. This was the start of the so-called “anti-religious” start of Buddishm.<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。这是Buddishm所谓的“反宗教”起源的开始。<br />
<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。这是佛教所谓的“反宗教”起源的开始。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:50, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。佛教所谓的“反宗教”起源由此开始。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Due to the alienation of people and the religious texts and its priests, Buddha was able to establish Buddhism. He claimed that every individual was able to find his or her own way to self-perception and spiritual liberation (nirvana). <br />
<br />
由于人与宗教文本及其祭司的异化，佛陀能够建立佛教。他声称每个人都能找到自己的自我认知和精神解放的方式（涅槃）。<br />
<br />
由于人与宗教文本和祭司关系并不紧密，佛陀才能建立佛教。他声称每个人都能找到自己的自我认知和精神解放的方式--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 13:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
<br />
由于人们和宗教文本及其祭司的异化，佛陀得以建立佛教。他宣称，每个人都能找到自己的方式来实现自我认知和精神解脱（涅槃）。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 02:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们和宗教由于文本及其祭司发生了异化，佛陀得以建立佛教。佛陀宣称，每个人都能找到自己的方式来实现自我认知和精神解脱（涅槃）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:59, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
Although Buddha did not abandon priests, he established the new tradition that masters would have their disciples and these could overcome their masters. Also, Buddha destroyed the perfectionism of the almighty god by claiming that the life of imperfect men simply was much more interesting. <br />
<br />
虽然佛陀没有放弃传教者，但他建立了新的传统，即主人会有他们的门徒，这些人可以推翻他们的主人。此外，佛陀通过声称不完美男人的生活更加有趣，摧毁了全能神的完美主义。<br />
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尽管佛陀没有放弃祭司，但他创建了新传统，即大师们会收弟子，弟子们也能青出于蓝而胜于蓝。并且，佛陀摧毁了全能神的完美主义，他认为不完美的人的人生会更精彩。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:53, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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佛陀尽管没有放弃祭司，但是他创立了新传统，即大师们会收弟子，弟子们可以青出于蓝而胜于蓝。此外，佛陀认为不完美之人的人生更加精彩，从而摧毁了全能神的完美主义。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 10:26, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
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In China, ancestor worship has kept its dominant role until today. Although there was the age of shamans, since several millenia every family clan had its own tradition of ancestor worship. It was believed that the ancestors in heaven watched over and influenced the lives of their descendants on earth. <br />
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在中国，从古至今祖先崇拜一直保持其主导地位。虽然有巫师的时代，但自几千年以来，每个家族宗族都有自己的祖先崇拜传统。人们相信，天上的祖先会注视着并影响他们的后代在地球上的生活。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 01:19, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在中国，从古至今祖先崇拜一直占据其主导地位。尽管有过巫师的时代，但是几千年来，每个家族都有其自己的祖先崇拜传统。人们相信，天上的祖先会注视并影响着其后代在地球上的生活。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 04:58, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
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So the most important unit were family clans. Even rulers used fire cracks and characters inscribed in turtle shells or cattle bones to communicate with the ancestors and to predict the future. <br />
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所以最重要的单位是家族。甚至统治者也使用火龟纹和龟壳或牛骨上的字符来与祖先交流并预测未来。<br />
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因此最核心的单位是家族。统治者甚至通过把火裂纹和符号刻在龟壳和牛骨上的方式和祖先进行交流和预测未来。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:24, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，最重要的单位是宗族。甚至统治者也会将火裂纹和字符刻在龟壳或牛骨上，用来与祖先交流并预测未来。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 01:25, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
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However, when the dynasty changed and a new ethnic group took over, they could not claim the ancestors to be their relatives any more, so the shangdi concept was replaced by heaven (tian) and related understandings like “son of heaven”, “mandate of heaven” etc., supllying them with legitimization of power. <br />
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然而，当王朝改变并且一个新的族群接管时，他们不能再宣称祖先是他们的亲戚，所以上帝的概念被天堂（天）和相关的理解所取代，如“天堂之子”，“任务”天国等等，用权力合法化来贬低他们。<br />
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然而，当王朝更迭并且被一个新的族群所接替时，他们不能再宣称祖先是他们的亲戚。所以上帝的概念被天堂（天）和其相关的理解所取代，如“天之子”“天之使命”等等，用权力合法化来作为补充。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:46, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
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Although there were mythical divine creatures, the understanding of gods was not developed as distinct and authoritative as in Europe and Egypt. Egypt and Europe both further developed from multi theism to mono theism.<br />
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虽然有神话般的神圣生物，但对神的理解并没有像欧洲和埃及那样发展出独特和权威。埃及和欧洲都从多神论到单一神论进一步发展。<br />
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虽然有神话中的神创物，但对神的理解并没有像在欧洲和埃及那样发展得独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都从多神论进一步发展到一神论。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 02:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管存在神话中的神圣生物，但对神灵的了解却没有欧洲和埃及那样独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都是从多神论进一步发展到一神论的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:46, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然有神话中的神圣生物，但对神灵的了解却没有欧洲和埃及那样独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都是从多神论进一步发展到一神论的。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:48, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
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Theism established a layer of priests, occupying the role of mediators between god and men. Since every uncontrolled authority abuses its power, these mediators gained earthly wealth and took advantage of their control over people by abuse of their work force and even sexual abuse. <br />
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有神论建立了一套祭祀法则，成为了神与人之间调解者的角色。由于每个不受控制的权威都滥用权力，这些调解人获得了人间的财富，并利用他们对工作人员的滥用甚至性虐待来控制他们。<br />
有神论确立了一些神职人员来充当上帝和人民之间的调停者。无限制的权力会导致权力的滥用，因此这些调停者不仅获得了大量的财富，还利用自己对人民的控制来压榨他们的劳动力甚至是通过性虐待来达到此目的。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 14:08, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
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In Europe, the power was divided among the rulers and the church, represented by the pope, the cardinals, the bishops and the priests. <br />
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在欧洲，权力在统治者和教会之间分配，由教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父代表。<br />
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在欧洲，权力被统治者和以教皇、红衣主教、主教和神父为代表的教会所控制，并且被分享、分配。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在欧洲，由统治者和以教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父为代表的教会掌控分配权力。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 03:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在欧洲，统治者和以教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父为代表的教会分配权力。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 04:02, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
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Since religion in general claims to be valid for all of menkind, when new territories were discovered in East Asia and Africa, the missionaries tried to enlarge the territorium under their control by forcing locals to accept European religions and societal development models like modernization and economical development. <br />
因为宗教通常声称对所有人都有效，所以当在东亚和非洲发现新的领土时，传教士试图通过迫使当地人接受欧洲宗教和社会发展模式，如现代化和经济发展，来扩大他们控制下的领土。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:34, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于宗教一般主张对所有人都有效，所以当在东亚和非洲发现新的领土时，传教士会试图通过强迫当地人接受欧洲的宗教和社会发展模式，如现代化和经济发展，来扩大自己控制的领土。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 04:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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After the first missionaries arrived in China and saw that the exchange was positive for both sides, they also developed a motivation to keep the missionaries alive, which was a second motivation for them. <br />
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在第一批传教士抵达中国，并看到双方的交流是积极的之后，他们也发展了一种让传教士活动的动力，这是他们的第二个动机。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在第一批传教士抵达中国后，并看到这种交流对双方来说都是积极的，他们也就产生了另一个动力，让传教士们积极活动。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:11, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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第一批传教士抵达中国并看到双方的交流是积极的以后,他们又发展了一种保持传教士活力的动力，这是他们发展的第二个。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 13:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
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Since the Christian religion is a religion revealed in divine texts, the missionaries had a strong motivation to find evidence in the classical Chinese texts that the Christian god also existed there. So among the first texts, they selected, translated and sorted were the canonized texts. A good example is the Daodejing which they translated in a distorted way, allowing them to proof the existence of the Christian god in China.<br />
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由于基督教是一种神圣文本中所揭示的宗教，传教士有强烈的动机在中国古典文本中找到证据，证明基督教的神也存在于那里。 因此，在第一批文本中，他们选择、翻译和排序的是册封文本。一个很好的例子就是《道德经》，他们以扭曲的方式翻译，使他们能够证明中国基督教神的存在。<br />
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由于基督教起源于神圣文本，所以传教士很想在中国古典作品中找到基督教的神亦存在的证据。因此，他们最初选择、翻译、排序的文章都是经典作品。这些传教士歪曲事实，翻译《道德经》是一个很好的证明。其目的是证明中国存在基督教的神。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:35, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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This was the first major mistake, the attitude of Europeans to find evidence of their European god in Chinese roots. This attidtude lead to translation practises abandoning the basic rules of the profession: <br />
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这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人在中国人根源中找到欧洲神的证据的态度。这种原因导致翻译实践放弃了专业的基本规则：<br />
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这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人想寻找证据，证明自己的欧洲神明存在于中国人根源之中的这种态度。这种态度导致其在翻译实践中放弃专业的基本规则：--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:14, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人试图在中国根源中找到欧洲神的证据的态度。这种态度导致翻译实践放弃了专业的基本规则：--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 02:24, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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Terms, concepts and ideas sounding familiar were forcibly changed into the original European meaning. However, the published translations did only show a slight influence of this practise, the main translations, e.g. of the Daodejing first were not published, but discussed internally. <br />
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熟悉的术语、概念和想法被强制改变，具有原欧洲意义。但是，已发表的翻译并没有受太大影响，主要翻译，例如最初没有发表的《道德经》，在内部进行了讨论。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 03:25, 19 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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为人熟知的术语、概念和想法被强制改变为原欧洲意义。然而，已发表的翻译作品仅受到了轻微影响。但主要的翻译作品，例如最初没有发表的《道德经》，在内部进行了讨论。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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为人所熟知的术语、概念和思想，被迫改为原来的欧洲含义。然而，已发表的翻译只是受到了这种做法的轻微影响，但主要的翻译作品，如《道德经》最初没有出版，而是进行内部讨论。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:07, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
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The outcome of the discussion was that the deviations in the translations would have to go too far and ultimately that there was no proof of the Christian god in ancient Chinese texts. <br />
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讨论的结果是，翻译中的偏差必须走得太远，最终在中国古代文本中没有基督教之神的证据。<br />
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讨论的结果是，译本的偏差会太大，最终导致在古代中国文本中没有基督教上帝存在的证据。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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讨论的结果是译本可能会偏差过大，最终导致在中国古籍中没有基督教存在的依据了。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 07:50, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
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Nonetheless, since then several missionaries, priests (Richard Wilhelm) and sinologists (Wolfgang Kubin) still tend to translate the Chinese concept of “heaven” into concepts familiar to Europeans like “god”. <br />
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尽管如此，从那时起，几位传教士，牧师（理查德威廉）和汉学家（顾彬）仍然倾向于将中国的“天堂”概念翻译成欧洲人熟悉的概念，如“上帝”。<br />
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尽管如此，从那时起，一些传教士、牧师（如理查德·威廉）和汉学家（如沃尔夫冈·库宾）还是倾向于把中国的“天”译作欧洲人所熟悉的概念，如“上帝”--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 07:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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尽管如此，从那时起，一些传教士、牧师(理查德·威廉)和汉学家(沃尔夫冈·库宾)仍然倾向于把中国的“天堂”概念翻译成欧洲人熟悉的概念，比如“上帝”。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:26, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
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This is wrong and we as sinologists, apologize to the Chinese citizens for this eurocentric approach. We hope to overcome this historical mistake by cooperation with our Chinese colleagues.<br />
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这是错误的，我们作为汉学家，为这种以欧洲为中心的方法向中国公民道歉。我们希望通过与中国同事的合作修正这一历史错误。<br />
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这是错误的，并且作为汉学家，我们为这种以欧洲为中心的做法向中国公民道歉。我们希望通过与中国同事的合作来纠正这一历史错误。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 06:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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这种以欧洲为中心的做法是不对的。作为汉学家，我们为此向中国公民道歉，希望能够和中国汉学家合作来纠正这个历史错误。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
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All institutionalization develops inertia, the Chinese society was very instituionalized, therefore the Christianization in general failed. However, he secondary aims of the missions, to bring the European understanding of societal development (development of economy, health, education bringing about progress and modernization) were a success.<br />
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所有制度化都发展了惯性，中国社会非常机构化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。 然而，他的使命的次要目标，使欧洲对社会发展的理解（经济、健康、教育带来进步和现代化）的成功是成功的。<br />
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一切制度化都滋长了惰性，中国社会非常制度化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。然而，他的任务的第二个目标是，使欧洲人了解社会发展（经济、卫生、教育的发展带来进步和现代化），这个目标成功了。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 10:42, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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一切制度化滋长了惰性，中国社会非常制度化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。然而，他的任务的第二个目标：使欧洲人了解社会发展（经济、卫生、教育的发展带来进步和现代化），成功了。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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The missionaries translated European books of knowledge into Chinese and therefore practically performed a knowledge transfer. Also the learning of foreign languages enhanced.<br />
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传教士将欧洲知识书籍翻译成中文，实际上不仅传递了知识，也提高了他们外语学习的能力。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:27, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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传教士将欧洲的知识书籍译成了中文，从而将知识的传递落到了实处。人们的外语学习能力也得到了提高。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:53, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
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During history, the authoritarian rule was replaced by democracies. In China, this was the case with the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912. During history, the power of the church was also restrained with protestant reformism.<br />
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在历史上，专制统治被民主取代。 在中国，1912年中华民国成立就是这种情况。在历史上，教会的权力也受到新教改良主义的制约。<br />
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在历史上，专制统治被民主制所取代。 在中国，1912年中华民国成立就是这种情况。在历史上，新教改革派也限制了教会的权力。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 04:23, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在历史上，独裁统治被民主政体所取代。而在中国，中华民国于1912年成立就是这样的事件。历史上，教会的权力也受到新教改革主义的制约。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:27, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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Religions are more or less tolerant regarding people believing in different religions or regarding atheists. Islam in average is less tolerant the Christianity. <br />
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宗教对于相信不同宗教或无神论者的人或多或少都是宽容的。平均而言，伊斯兰教对基督教的宽容度较低。<br />
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各大宗教对于有别的宗教信仰的人或无神论者或多或少持宽松态度。一般而言，伊斯兰教对基督教徒的宽松度较低。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 05:32, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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任何宗教对于信仰不同宗教的人或无神论者都有着或多或少的宽容。一般来说，伊斯兰教对基督教的宽容度较低。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 06:07, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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宗教对于有着不同信仰的信徒或者无神论者有着或多或少的包容。但是，总体而言，伊斯兰教对于基督教信徒的包容度较低。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 07:52, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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Since two millenia, Europe has been dominated by Christianity and China mostly by ancestor worship, with a huge tolerance towards Buddhism, Daoism and other forms of religious practises. <br />
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自两千年以来，欧洲一直由基督教和中国主导，主要是祖先崇拜，对佛教、道教和其他形式的宗教活动有着巨大的容忍。<br />
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自从两千年以来，欧洲一直以基督教为主，中国大多以崇拜祖先为主，对佛教，道教和其他形式的宗教活动具有极大的容忍度。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 06:02, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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自两千年以来，欧洲一直为基督教所主导，而中国主要为祖先崇拜所主导，对佛教、道教和其他形式的宗教信仰有着极大的宽容。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 10:46, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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2. Stagnant China停滞的中国<br />
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Times when international China watchers (scholars, philosophers) and China experts (merchants, missionaries, members of delegations, scholars) idealized China (Chinoiserie) and when they demonized her (stagnation, Yellow peril) followed each other. <br />
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国际中国观察家（学者、哲学家）和中国专家（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）理想化中国（中国风）以及妖魔化她（停滞、黄祸）的时代相互依存。<br />
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国际上中国的关注者（学者、哲学家）和对中国颇为了解的人（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）先是把中国理想化（Chinoiserie），接着又把中国妖魔化（停滞、黄祸）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:00, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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国际上中国的观察者们（学者、哲学家）和中国通（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）把中国理想化(中国风）、妖魔化（停滞、黄祸）的时期是互相交汇的。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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Western Sinology has long declared the "stagnation" in China as being “without an alternative” and as “being caused by Confucianism”. However, China showed a disruptive economical development since 1978, which proves this narrative wrong. Now also the Chinese "economic miracle" is explained by the Western sinologists with Confucianism. <br />
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西方汉学早就宣称中国的“停滞”是“没有其他选择”和“由儒学引起的”。 然而，自1978年以来，中国显示出飞速的经济发展，证明这种说法是错误的。 现在中国的“经济奇迹”也被西方汉学家用儒学解释了。<br />
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西方汉学早就宣称中国的“停滞”是“无法避免的”，“由儒学造成的”。然而，从1978年来，中国的经济出现了颠覆性的发展，证明这种说法是错误的。现在，西方汉学家又用儒学去解释中国的“经济奇迹”。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:00, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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Now is the time for Western Sinology to admit its historical mistake and to overcome the eurocentric and racist dogma of “stagnation” by diversification. The exchange with Chinese colleagues like here at the congress offers a good opportunity to do so.<br />
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现在是西方汉学承认其历史错误、克服多元化“停滞”的欧洲中心和种族主义教条的时候了。在这里与大会上的中国同事交流提供了一个很好的机会。<br />
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现在，西方汉学应当承认自己的历史错误，并通过多样化来克服“停滞”的欧洲中心主义和种族主义教条。本次大会上与中国同事的交流为此提供了一个很好的机会。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 04:53, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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现在是西方汉学承认历史错误，通过多元化克服“停滞”的欧洲中心主义和种族主义教条的时候了。本次大会上与中国同事的交流提供了一个很好的机会。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 10:45, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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With the overall turn from admiring China to demonizing China, also Hegel started to judge on China as a “stagnant” empire. <br />
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随着从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国的整体转变，黑格尔也开始判断中国是一个“停滞不前”的帝国。<br />
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从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国，黑格尔也开始认为中国是一个“停滞不前”的帝国。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:22, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
随着黑格尔从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国的全面转变，他也开始认为中国是一个“停滞”的帝国。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 04:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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Although he found evidence that Confucius had invented the Golden Rule, he described China as the lowest stage of a stairways to the world Geist# with Berlin at the top. His condemnation of China was taken over by Marx who condemned China too. <br />
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尽管他发现了孔子发明黄金法则的证据，但他将中国描述为通往世界精神阶梯的最低阶段，而柏林位居榜首。他对中国的谴责也被谴责中国的马克思所接管。<br />
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尽管他发现了黄金法则由孔子发明，但他仍将中国描述为通往世界精神阶梯的最低阶段，而柏林位居阶梯之首。他对中国的谴责也由谴责中国的马克思所接替。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 06:23, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管他发现了黄金法则是由孔子发明的证据，他仍将中国描述为通往世界精神阶梯的最低阶段，而柏林位居该阶梯之首。他对中国的谴责为同样谴责中国的马克思所接管。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 07:46, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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There were several narratives establishing a Great Divergence or arguing for little divergences during the early stage of globalization. However, new rediscoveries of ancient Chinese translations of Western books of knowledge and new statistics of sugar consumption (which was for the most time higher in China than in Europe) question these narratives today.<br />
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在全球化的早期阶段，有几种叙述形成了一种大分歧或争论很少的分歧。 然而，中国古代西方知识翻译的新发现以及食糖消费的新统计数据（这在中国的时间比欧洲最高）在今天质疑这些叙述。<br />
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有几种说法造成了巨大的分歧，或主张在全球化的早期阶段几乎没有分歧。然而，对西方知识书籍和糖消费新统计数据 (中国的糖消费量比欧洲高得多) 的中国古代翻译的新发现质疑了今天的这些说法。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在全球化的早期阶段，有几种叙述形成了极大的分歧，或争论较小的分歧。 然而，如今，有关西方叙事的古汉语翻译的新发现和食糖消费的新统计数据（在中国多数时候高于欧洲）都质疑这些叙述。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:44, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在全球化的早期阶段，有几种说法造成了巨大的分歧，或争论较小的分歧。 然而，一些关于西方书籍的古汉语翻译和新的糖消费统计数据 (中国的糖消费量通常比欧洲高得多) 的新发现质疑了今天的这些说法。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 13:08, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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'''3. Western Sinologists as Red Guard作为红卫兵的西方汉学家'''<br />
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Whenever science and scholarship serves an ideology or a religion, it gives up its objectivity and it betrays the fundamental principles of science and scholarship, e.g. the principle that you conduct research independantly without any predestined results and that you accept the results whatever they are.<br />
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每当科学和学术服务于意识形态或宗教时，它就会放弃其客观性，并背叛科学和学术的基本原则，例如： 你独立进行研究而没有任何预定结果的原则，你接受的结果无论它们是什么。<br />
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每当科学和学术服务于一种意识形态或宗教时，它就会失去其客观性，并会违背科学和学术的基本原则，例如这一项原则：当你独立地进行一项没有任何注定结果的研究时，你就得接受任何研究结果。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 06:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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每当科学和学术服务于意识形态或宗教时，它就会放弃其客观性，并背叛科学和学术的基本原则，例如： 在你独立进行研究时，你可能会想要一个预定好的结果。你可能不太愿意接受不想要的答案。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:22, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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Sinologists and scholars of Chinese Studies are scholars who deal with the subject of China. To keep the distance, it is good that they are able to freely travel to and out of China in order to be able to change perspectives and to keep the distance.<br />
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中国研究的汉学家和学者是处理中国主题的学者。为了保持距离，他们能够自由地进出中国以便能够改变视角并保持距离。<br />
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汉学家和中国研究学者都是研究中国主题的学者。为了区分不同，他们能够自由进出中国，以便能够改变视角去研究不同方面，这是非常好的方法。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉学家和中国研究学者是研究中国问题的学者。为了保持距离，他们能够自由地往返于中国，以便能够改变视角，保持距离，这是很好的。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:40, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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There was a time at the end of the 1960s, when the Western capitalism and establishment was challenged, initi-ated by images from the Vietnam war, dismantling the cruelty of war, where American soldiers used unfair tech-niques like chemical weapons against civilians in Vietnam. The photo of the naked children, scared to death from the napalm air strikes and running away in panic, changed the attitude of the people in the USA and in Europe against the institutionalized form of capitalism. Suddenly, the people, who were assured to be the “good ones” asked instead if they were the “bad ones” and had to change their systems towards peaceful coexistence. <br />
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20世纪60年代末，西方资本主义的形成和建立受到挑战，受到越南战争的影响。资本主义使战争看上去不那么残酷，美国士兵在越南对平民使用化学武器等不公平技术。看到裸体儿童的照片，看到他们在凝固汽油弹袭击中惊恐万分的模样，惊慌而逃的身影，改变了美国和欧洲人民对制度化资本主义的态度。 突然之间，那些发誓要成为“好人”的人们反而会质疑自己是否是“坏蛋”，并且不得不改变他们自己的方式以实现和平共处。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:13, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪60年代末，西方资本主义和建立受到越南战争的影响，摧毁了战争的残酷，美国士兵在越南对平民使用化学武器等不公平技术。 裸体儿童的照片，在凝固汽油弹袭击中惊恐万分，在恐慌中逃跑，改变了美国和欧洲人民对制度化资本主义形式的态度。 突然之间，那些被保证成为“好人”的人们反而要求他们是“坏人”，并且不得不改变他们的制度以实现和平共处。<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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Western sinologist in the whole world were too ready to believe the propaganda of a successful “Great Proletari-an Cultural Revolution”. In 1961 Defense Minister Lin Biao instructed the army journal ''People’s Liberation Army Daily'' to print one saying of Mao each day. Sorted thematically, the first collection of these sayings was published in 1964. The little red book with sayings by Mao Zedong was printed more than 740 million times in China to supply every citizen with a copy. During its peak of popularity 1966-1971, it was the most printed book, it was printed in more than 30 languages more than a billion times. <br />
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全世界的西方汉学家都准备好相信成功的“无产阶级文化大革命”的宣传。 1961年，国防部长林彪指示军民报“人民解放军报”每天打印一篇毛泽东的语录。 按主题排序，这些说法的第一个集合于1964年出版。毛泽东的红宝书在中国印刷了7.4亿多次，为每个公民提供了一份副本。 在1966年至1971年的人气高峰期间，它是印刷最多的书，以超过30种语言印刷超过十亿次。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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全世界的西方汉学家都不敢相信“伟大的无产阶级文化大革命”的宣传竟如此成功。1961年，国防部长林彪指示军队日报《人民解放军日报》每天刊登一篇毛泽东语录。按主题分类，这些语录的第一本合集于1964年出版。《毛泽东语录红皮书》在中国印刷了7.4亿多册，几乎人手一本。在1966至1971年间，该书的印刷量达到顶峰，被翻译成30多种语言，印刷超过10亿次。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 06:46, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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整个世界的西方汉学家都太相信“伟大的无产阶级-文化革命”的宣传了。1961 年，国防部长林彪指示“人民解放军日报”每天刊登一篇关于毛泽东的文章。按主题分类，这些谚语的第一次收集是在 1964 年出版的。毛泽东写的红色小本子在中国印刷了 7.4亿 多次，为每个公民提供了一本。在 1966-1971 年的鼎盛时期，它是最受欢迎的印刷书籍，以 30 多种语言印刷了超过 10亿 次--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:58, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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Jean-Luc Godard released his film “La Chinoise” in August 1967, displaying a youthful Parisian Maoist sect. This lead to a popularity of this ideology among Western experts of Chinese Studies.<br />
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Jean-Luc Godard于1967年8月发行了他的电影《中国姑娘》，展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。这导致了这种意识形态在西方中国研究专家中的流行。<br />
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让-吕克·戈达尔（Jean-Luc Godard）于1967年8月发行了电影《中国姑娘》，展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。随后，此意识形态在西方中国研究专家中流行。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 06:31, 20 November 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
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1967年8月，让-吕克·戈达尔（Jean-Luc Godard）发布了其电影《中国姑娘》，电影中展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。随后，此意识形态在那些做中国研究的西方专家中流行开来。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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Recently, Cambridge University Press published a collection of memories of how Western sinologists and young intellectuals have received and embraced Maoism in the 1960s and 1970s. <br />
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最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列关于西方汉学家和年轻知识分子如何在20世纪60年代和70年代接受和信奉毛泽东思想的回忆。<br />
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最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列回忆录，里面记录了西方汉学家和年轻知识分子如何在20世纪60年代和70年代就已接收并信奉毛泽东思想。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:19, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列回忆录，里面记录了西方汉学家和年轻知识分子在20世纪60年代和70年代对毛泽东思想的接受和信奉情况。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:28, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列回忆录，里面记录了20世纪60年代和70年代西方汉学家和年轻知识分子对毛泽东思想的接纳过程。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:15, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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John Gray in a book review has summarized main points of the book. I mostly follow his summary here. He de-scribes how French thinkers received this film:<br />
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约翰格雷在书评中总结了本书的要点。 我在此将列出他主要的总结。他描述了法国思想家如何评价这部电影：<br />
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约翰格雷在书评中总结了这本书的要点。 我将在此列出他主要的总结。他描述了法国思想家如何评价这部电影：--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 03:21, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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约翰·格雷在书评中总结了他这本书的主要观点。在这里，我主要是跟随着他的总结。他描述了法国的思想者是如何接受这部电影的：--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:25, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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约翰格雷在书评中总结了本书的要点。 我在此将列出他主要的总结。他讲述了法国思想家对这部电影的评价：--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 04:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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[Julian] Bourg: “Mao’s language of violence had a certain rhetorical appeal.” In fact, it was his combination of rhetorical violence with sub-Hegelian dialectical logic that proved so irresistible to sections of the French intelligentsia. Eulogising Mao’s distinction between principal and secondary contradictions, Louis Althusser deployed Maoist categories as part of an extremely abstract and, indeed, largely meaningless defence of “the relative autonomy of theory”. <br />
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[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，路易斯·阿尔都塞将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上在很大程度上毫无意义地保护“理论的相对自治”的一部分。<br />
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[Julian] Bourg:“毛泽东暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是他的修辞暴力与亚黑格尔的辩证逻辑相结合，对法国知识分子的各个部分来说是如此难以抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分,路易·阿尔都塞将毛泽东主义者分类作为极其抽象的,实际上是对“理论相对自治”的毫无意义的辩护的一部分。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:46, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是因为他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，才证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 路易斯·阿尔都塞颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，并将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上是对“理论的相对自治”的毫无意义的辩护的一部分。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”实际上，正是他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，才证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，路易斯·阿尔都塞将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上在很大程度上毫无意义地保护“理论的相对自治”的一部分。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 10:43, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Althusser’s student Alain Badiou (for many years professor of philosophy at the École Normale Supérieure) continued to defend Maoism long after the scale of its casualties had become undeniable. As recently as 2008, while commending himself for being “now one of Maoism’s few noteworthy representatives”, Badiou praised Mao’s thought as “a new politics of the negation of the negation”. From one point of view, this stance is merely contemptible – a professorial pirouette around a vast pile of corpses. But one must bear in mind the fathomless frivolity of some on the French left. Already in 1980, two former Maoist mili-tants had announced their rejection of the creed in the language of fashion: “China was in . . . Now it is out . . . we are no longer Maoists.” Against this background, Badiou’s persistence is almost heroically ab-surd. <br />
<br />
阿尔都塞的学生Alain Badiou（多年来在巴黎高等师范学院的哲学教授）在其伤亡人数不可否认之后很久就继续捍卫毛派。 就在2008年，尽管称赞自己是“现在是毛派少数几个值得注意的代表之一”，但巴迪欧称赞毛泽东的思想是“否定否定的新政治”。 从一个角度来看，这种立场仅仅是可鄙的 - 围绕着一大堆尸体的教授旋转。 但是人们必须牢记法国左翼一些人的无聊轻浮。 早在1980年，两位前毛泽东武装分子就已经宣布以时尚语言拒绝信条：“中国是在中国。。。 现在它出来了。。。 我们不再是毛泽东思想者。”在这种背景下，巴迪欧的坚持几乎是荒谬的荒谬。<br />
<br />
阿尔都塞的学生阿兰·巴迪欧（多年来一直是巴黎高等师范学院的哲学教授）在伤亡人数不可否认之后很久仍继续捍卫毛派。就在2008年，巴迪欧称自己“现在是毛泽东主义为数不多的重要代表之一”，并称赞毛泽东的思想是“否定否定的新政治”。某种程度上来说，这种姿态简直是可鄙的——围绕着一大堆尸体旋转的教授。但是，我们必须记住一些法国左翼人士不可理喻的轻浮。早在1980年，两位前毛泽东武装分子已经用时尚的语言宣布拒绝这一信条：“中国在。现在它出来了。在这样的背景下，巴迪欧的坚持几乎是英勇无畏的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:14, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
Dominique Kirchner Reill has documented, that Maoist influence in Italy and Yugoslavia was even wider: <br />
<br />
Dominique Kirchner Reill证明，毛派在意大利和南斯拉夫的影响甚至更为广泛：<br />
<br />
“In Italy Mao-mania was not purely a left-wing phenomenon. Some ultra-right groups quoted their Little Red Books to justify their arguments.” In 1968-73 the neo-fascist party Lotto di Popolo (“the people’s fight”) lauded Mao as an exemplary nationalist and resolute opponent of US global hegemony. <br />
<br />
“在意大利，毛派狂热不仅仅是一种左翼现象。 一些极权团体引用他们的红皮书为他们的论点辩护。“1968年-1973年，新法西斯政党Lotto di Popolo（”人民的斗争“）称赞毛泽东是模范民族主义者和美国全球霸权的坚决反对者。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:13, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In a footnote he observes <br />
在他的脚注中，他注意到：<br />
<br />
“Nazi-Maoist movement in Italy included many other figures and groups” besides the Lotto di Popolo. <br />
<br />
除了Lotto di Popolo之外，“意大利的纳粹毛派运动包括许多其他人物和团体”。<br />
<br />
Gray beklagt#: “It is a pity this aspect of Mao’s influence is not explored in greater detail.” One of the reasons may be that the generation of Maoist sinologists later were the ones to document their own history, the history of sinologists, but they never came to terms with it, very much like the 1960s activists with sympathy for the German “Red Army Fraction”, who later became part of the establishment, even ministers in the government, and did not want to be reminded of their past.<br />
<br />
灰色beklagt＃：“遗憾的是，毛泽东影响力的这一方面没有得到更详细的探讨。”其中一个原因可能是后来毛派汉族的一代人要记录他们自己的历史，也就是汉学家的历史，但是 他们从来没有接受过它，非常像20世纪60年代积极分子同情德国“红军分数”，后来成为该组织的一部分，甚至是政府的部长，并且不想被提醒他们的过去。<br />
<br />
在他的脚注中，他表示，参与者除了Lotto di Popolo外，“意大利纳粹毛派运动还包括许多其他人物和团体”。<br />
Gray beklagt#表示：“遗憾的是，在这个层面，毛泽东的影响未得到更细致的探讨。”其中一个原因可能是，后来的毛泽东思想汉学家只记载他们自己的历史，即汉学家的历史。他们从不接受毛泽东思想，这就很像二十世纪六十年代的积极分子同情德国“红军纵队”。该纵队的人后来成为该组织的一部分，有的甚至还成了政府机关部长。这些汉学家不想回忆起自己的历史。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:18, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Gray writes in his book review: 格雷在他的书评中写道：<br />
<br />
“In a programmatic introductory essay Alexander C Cook compares the Chinese leader’s book to a “spir-itual atom bomb” and considers its global fallout. Showing how it reflects the influence of the choral sing-ing introduced into China by 19th-century Christian missionaries, Andrew F Jones provides an illuminating account of the rise of the Maoist pop song. Taking as her starting point the global distribution of the Little Red Book to over a hundred countries in the eight months between October 1966 and May 1967, Xu Lanjun examines the process of translation in the context of Maoist ideas of global revolution. Quinn Slo-bodian discusses the impact the book had in eastern and western Germany. In the concluding essay, Ban Wang considers the Little Red Book and “religion as politics” in China. Elsewhere, its influence in Tanzania, India, Peru, Albania and the former Soviet Union is discussed.”<br />
<br />
“在一篇程序化的介绍性文章中，亚历山大·库克将中国领导人的书与“精神原子弹”进行了比较，并考虑了它的全球影响。 安德鲁·F·琼斯（Andrew F Jones）展示了它如何反映19世纪基督教传教士引入中国的合唱歌曲的影响，为毛泽东主义流行歌曲的兴起提供了一个有启发性的说明。 在1966年10月至1967年5月的八个月中，徐兰军以红宝书的全球分布为一百多个国家，在毛泽东的全球革命思想背景下考察了翻译的过程。 Quinn Slobodian讨论了该书在德国东部和西部的影响。 在最后的文章中，王班并认为红宝书和中国的“宗教为政治”。在其他地方，讨论了它在坦桑尼亚、印度、秘鲁、阿尔巴尼亚和前苏联的影响。”<br />
<br />
“在一篇纲领性的导言文章中，亚历山大·C·库克（Alexander C Cook）把这位中国领导人的书比作是一颗“精神原子弹”，并认为这对全世界都产生了辐射效应。安德鲁·F·琼斯（Andrew F Jones）展示了19世纪基督教传教士将合唱引入中国后所造成的影响，并生动地讲述了毛泽东主义流行歌曲是如何兴起的。在1966年10月至1967年5月的八个月中，徐兰军以红宝书销往的全球一百多个国家为着手点，考察了在毛泽东的全球革命思想背景下的翻译过程。奎因·斯洛博迪安（Quinn Slo-bodian）探讨了该书对德国东部和西部的影响。在这篇文章的最后，王斑研究了红宝书并将其视为中国的“宗教政治”。除了探讨对中国的影响，还讨论了在坦桑尼亚、印度、秘鲁、阿尔巴尼亚和前苏联的影响。"--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
“In West Germany in the late 1960s, the Little Red Book “resembled simultaneously an accessory of the classical workers’ movement and a modish commodity of the educated elite”. In theatres, across from the refreshments, there were glass cases “full of pretty red Mao bibles (two Deutsche Marks each)”. As an anti-consumerist commodity, the book became “a marker of social distinction within a commercial market”.”<br />
<br />
“在20世纪60年代后期的西德，红宝书”同时也是古典工人运动的一部分，也是受过教育的精英的一种时尚商品”。 在茶馆对面的剧院里，有一些玻璃盒子“里面装满了漂亮的红宝书（每个都有两个德国马克）”。 作为一种反消费主义商品，这本书成为“商业市场中社会区别的标志”。”<br />
<br />
“在20世纪60年代后期的西德，（毛泽东的）红宝书“是古典工人运动的读物，同时也是教育良好的精英阶层中的畅销书。”在茶馆对面的剧院里，有一些玻璃盒子“里面装满了漂亮的红宝书（每个都有两个德国马克）”。作为一种反消费主义的商品，这本书成为了“商业市场中社会差异的标志”。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Condemned as distorting Mao’s ideas and exerting a “widespread and pernicious influence”, the book was withdrawn from circulation in February 1979 and a hundred million copies pulped.”<br />
“这部书被谴责为歪曲毛泽东的思想并发挥“广泛而有害的影响”，于1979年2月撤销流通，并且有数亿份纸张被废弃。”<br />
<br />
“这本书受到了人们的谴责，认为书中歪曲了毛泽东的思想，并带来“广泛而有害的影响”，因此，该书于1979年2月停止发行，数亿份书籍被废弃。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
The popularity of the Chinese system in the West was at the peak when it had the most victims.<br />
<br />
中国体制在西方的受欢迎程度因其最多的受害者而达到了峰值。<br />
<br />
当受害者人数最多时中国制度在西方的受欢迎程度达到顶峰。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Today, even in China, the Cultural Revolution is evaluated as “10 Years of Chaos”. Mao Zedong’s approach to mobilize the masses in endless revolutions turned out to be a historical failure. <br />
<br />
今天，即使在中国，文化大革命也被评为“十年动乱”。 毛泽东在无休止的革命中动员群众的方法被证明是历史性的失败。<br />
<br />
今天，即使在中国，文化大革命也称为“十年动乱”。毛泽东发动群众进行无休止革命的做法被证明是历史性的失败。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
However, domestic Science and Scholarship today once more receives incentives to pretend an ideological use-fulness of their research results when applying for funds to conduct research projects. However, an independant science and scholarship serves any government best, because a government needs real and true research results, not sugar coated ones.<br />
<br />
然而，今天的国内科学和奖学金再次获得激励，在申请资金进行研究项目时，假装其研究成果具有意识形态的有用性。 然而，独立的科学和奖学金最适合任何政府，因为政府需要真实和真实的研究结果，而不是糖衣。<br />
<br />
然而，如今国内学科及奖学金再次受到鼓励，要求在申请项目研究资金时伪称其研究结果具有意识形态有用性。但由于政府需要真实准确的研究结果，而非华而不实的研究结果，一项独立的学科及奖学金对任何政府都是绝佳选择。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:59, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，如今国内的科学学术研究就再次要求在申请研究项目资金时，其研究结果须表现为有助于意识形态建设。然而，独立的科学与学术研究能够最大程度地服务政府，因为政府需要的是真实的研究成果，而不是让其巧加粉饰。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:32, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，今天国内的科学和学术再次获得激励，在申请资金进行研究项目时，可以假装其研究成果具有意识形态的有用性。 然而，真正独立的科学和学术才能够最好地服务于政府，因为政府需要真正的和真实的研究结果，而不是徒有其表的。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 01:54, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Freedom is always the freedom within the limits not to restrict the freedom of others. But this historical event posed a new question: When is it time to kill a massmurderer? If communism threatens to enslave a whole population with millions of death victims – how far is it justified to intervene or not to intervene? But when it is not just a mass murderer, but a whole group of people mislead by a leader, a whole administration of a country, how can you clearly differentiate between good and evil? Reality often consists out of different levels of grey.<br />
<br />
自由永远是限制的自由，而不是限制他人的自由。但这一历史事件提出了一个新问题：什么时候杀死一名群众？ 如果共产主义威胁到全世界数百万死亡受害者的奴役 - 干预或不干预到底有多大理由？ 但是，当它不仅仅是一个大规模杀人犯，而且还是一群人误导领导者，一个国家的整个政府时，你怎么能清楚地区分善恶呢？ 现实通常由不同级别的灰色组成。<br />
<br />
自由永远是在不限制他人自由的范围内的自由。但是这一历史性事件向我们提出了一个新的问题：什么时候应该杀死一个杀人凶手？如果共产主义威胁要奴役数以百万计的死亡受害者，那么进行干预或不进行干预的合理性有多大差别？但是，当它不仅是一个大规模杀人犯，而且是一群人被一个领导人，一个国家的整个政府误导时，该如何清楚地区分善与恶？现实通常是由不同层次的灰色组成的。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:28, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
湖南师范大学洪堡跨学科研究中心<br />
<br />
Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies at Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
揭牌仪式<br />
<br />
Launch Ceremony<br />
<br />
2020年9月14日<br />
<br />
September 14, 2020<br />
<br />
I congratulate the Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies 洪堡跨学科研究中心 for its opening at Hunan Normal University and especially my German colleague and Humboldt expert Professor Ottmar Ette奥特玛·埃特教授 for his dedication to realize the Center. Ette is one of the leading experts about Humboldt, in 2014-2017 he was responsible for the part “Genealogy, Chronology, Epistemology” of the BMBF research project about Humboldt in the United States.<br />
<br />
祝贺湖南师范大学洪堡跨学科研究中心成立，尤其感谢我的德国同事、洪堡专家奥特玛·埃特教授为中心的建成所做的贡献。埃特教授是研究洪堡的主要专家之一，2014-2017年，他负责美国BMBF关于洪堡研究项目中“系谱、年代学、认识论”的部分。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 03:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
The Center has the best starting conditions: It is backed by the University Potsdam and the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities 柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院, which spon-sors a 18 year long research project until 2033 “Science on the Move” about Humboldt, lead by Prof. Ette.<br />
<br />
该中心拥有最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院共同支持的，该基金会资助了一项由埃特（Ette）教授领导，历时18年，一直进行到2033年，即关于洪堡“移动中的科学”的研究。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 13:54, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该中心具有最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院提供支持，该基金会赞助了直到2033年一项长达18年的研究项目，即“洪堡运动科学”，由埃特教授领导。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该中心具备最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院共同支持。直到2033年，该基金会一直赞助这一历时18年的研究项目，即埃特教授领导的“洪堡运动科学”研究。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
The Center could not have found a better Chinese partner: This new Center is opened at a Hum-boldian University, with a long tradition in transdisciplinary research and teaching, with chancel-lor Professor Jiang Hongxin 湖南师范大学党委书记蒋洪新教授, who is not only an internation-ally renowned scholar in English literature, but also the driving factor behind the internationaliza-tion and opening up of Hunan Normal University.<br />
<br />
洪堡跨学科交流中心找到了最佳的中国合作伙伴——湖南师范大学。该中心设立在洪堡大学，洪堡大学在跨学科研究和教学领域有着悠久的历史。湖南师范大学党委书记蒋洪新教授不仅是国际知名的英语文学学者，也是湖南师范大学国际化、对外开放的带头人。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 06:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
The success of Hunan Normal University is displayed in the rising position in the university rank-ings, in the number of study programs ranking top nationwide, in the growing community of in-ternational experts working at Hunan Normal University, in international cooperations, joint school projects etc. Also the staff working at the Center are ideally chosen, Ren Haiyan 中心副主任任海燕博士, who is familiar with English literature of the 18th century, Fan Ni, who is currently building up the German Department as well as Li Yaqin.<br />
湖南师范大学的成功体现在:在高校排名中不断上升，学习交流项目数量居全国前列，国际专家队伍不断壮大，国际合作日益广泛，在合作办学卓有成效。<br />
同时，师大的领导班子也是经过精心挑选，如师大中心副主任任海燕博士，熟知18世纪英国文学。范尼和李艳青教授最近联合开办了德语系。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Changsha is both the place of one of the earliest universities in China, founded in 976 CE, the Yuelu Academy 岳麓书院, and together with its attached High School, Hunan Normal University and its Foreign Studies College founded by Qian Zhongshu is famous for its history of educating leaders with a thinking outside of the box. Similarly, Humboldt has said: “How a person masters his fate is more important than what his fate is.” This is just what Humboldt fought for. Humboldt is famous not just in Germany and Europe, but also in the United States, Russia, Asia and world-wide. He shaped our understanding of universities, research, teaching and education. Today, it is safe to say that the German universities are Humboldian universities, also European ones, Ameri-can ones and certainly also Hunan Normal University.<br />
<br />
长沙是中国最早成立大学的地方之一，岳麓书院还有其附属的高中成立于公元976年，湖南师范大学和钱钟书创办的外国书院以其悠久的历史而著称。 用思维开阔的思维来教育领导者。 同样，洪堡曾说：“一个人如何掌握自己的命运比其命运更重要。” 这就是洪堡争取的目标。 洪堡不仅在德国和欧洲闻名，而且在美国，俄罗斯，亚洲和全世界都享有盛名。 他塑造了我们对大学，研究，教学和教育的理解。 今天，可以肯定地说，德国的大学是洪博迪大学，也是欧洲的大学，美国的大学，当然还有湖南师范大学。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 08:17, 24 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
When Humboldt traveled Central Asia and wrote about China, he certainly never would have dreamed of the realization of such a Center to his honor in Changsha. However, he would have been overwhelmed and would see his dreams realized here. With this Research Center it is now possible to explore the relation of Humboldt and China in great detail. Moreover, the relation between China and Europe can be explored here from a transdisciplinary perspective. Coopera-tion is key. With Humboldt’s words: “Collaboration operates through a process in which the suc-cessful intellectual achievements of one person arouse the intellectual passions and enthusiasms of others.”<br />
<br />
当洪堡游历中亚，写到中国时，肯定做梦也想不到长沙会是实现他梦想中荣耀的地方。但那样的话，他虽会看到自己实现梦想，也会不堪重负。现在有了这一研究中心，我们可以更详细地探讨洪堡与中国的关系。而且，可以从跨学科的角度来探讨中欧的关系。其关键是合作。正如洪堡所说:“合作是是通过一个人的智慧成就激发其他人的智力激情和热情来实现的”<br />
<br />
当洪堡游历中亚，描绘中国的时候，他肯定做梦也没想到会在长沙设立这样一个以他为荣的中心。然而，如果他知道了，他会迫不及待想看到自己的梦想在这里实现。有了这个研究中心，现在可以更细致地探讨洪堡与中国之间的关系，并且也可以从跨学科的角度来探讨中欧关系。其关键是合作。正如洪堡所说：“合作是一个以个人成功且智慧的建树激发他人充满智慧的激情和热情的过程。”--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 03:29, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
As Jean Monnet Chair of Hunan Normal University 欧盟“让•莫内讲席教授” and as the direc-tor of the International Chinese Studies Center at Foreign Studies Center I reach out with both hands to the new Center and offer to bring in European and Chinese networks, to start immediate and concrete joint research. <br />
<br />
I close with a final quote from Humboldt: “The most dangerous worldview is the worldview of those who have not viewed the world.” Therefore, the Center now allows scholars from other places in the world to see China and offers Chinese colleagues a bridge to Europe and interna-tional scholarship.<br />
<br />
And I wish the Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies great success!<br />
<br />
作为湖南师范大学欧盟“让•莫内讲席教授”以及外国研究中心国际汉语研究中心主任的让·莫内主席，我两手准备着新的中心，并提议向欧洲和中国引进网络，以开始目前的具体的联合研究。<br />
<br />
最后，我引述洪堡的最后一句话：“最危险的世界观是那些没有看过世界的人的世界观。” 因此，该中心欢迎来自世界各地的学者参观中国，并为中国同事搭建通往欧洲和国际奖金的桥梁。<br />
<br />
祝洪堡跨学科研究中心取得圆满成功！--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
MARTIN WOESLER<br />
<br />
'''THE CHINESE PRODUCTION CULTURE<br />
<br />
Genuity, changes and compatibility with modern international production culture'''<br />
中国制造哲学<br />
<br />
原始传统、变化和对现代国际制造文化的兼容<br />
<br />
吴漠汀著<br />
<br />
<br />
European University Press 2011<br />
<br />
Content<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese Production Culture<br />
<br />
Does this global factory provide a model for an international production culture?<br />
<br />
Cultural approach<br />
<br />
National Cultures<br />
<br />
Approaches/Perspectives <br />
<br />
The Japanese Production Culture<br />
<br />
欧洲大学出版社2011<br />
<br />
内容<br />
<br />
中国现代生产文化<br />
<br />
这家全球工厂是否提供国际生产文化的典范？<br />
<br />
文化方法<br />
<br />
民族文化<br />
<br />
方法/观点<br />
<br />
日本生产文化--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 07:25, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
China - Factory of the world<br />
<br />
中国——世界工厂<br />
<br />
Genuity of Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
Made in China<br />
<br />
中国制造<br />
<br />
Characteristics of Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的特征<br />
<br />
Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes<br />
<br />
现代商品文化的形成及其原因<br />
<br />
Necessity is the mother of invention<br />
<br />
创造始于需要<br />
<br />
Changes in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的发展<br />
<br />
Roles in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的作用<br />
<br />
The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979<br />
<br />
1949-1979年社会主义的插曲<br />
<br />
Gaming in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的博弈<br />
<br />
Effects on the company<br />
<br />
对公司产生的影响<br />
<br />
Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?<br />
<br />
中国现代经营理念和商品文化是全球的标杆，这一点体现在哪里？<br />
<br />
Logistics<br />
<br />
物流<br />
<br />
Appendix: References <br />
<br />
附录：参考文献<br />
<br />
Appendix: Historical Timeline China<br />
<br />
附录：中国历史时间轴<br />
<br />
Index<br />
<br />
索引<br />
<br />
'''Modern Chinese Production Culture<br />
<br />
中国现代商品文化<br />
<br />
Does this global factory provide a model for an international production culture?<br />
<br />
中国作为全球工厂是否为国际商品文化树立标杆？--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
In the aftermath of the Second World War, the Japanese economy lacked the finances for new machinery and, in consequence, decision-makers concentrated on optimizing existing resources and processes. Soon lean production, just in time production and quality circles became export hits, even though Japanese production culture in many ways remained typically Japanese - for instance on issues such as hierarchy and loyalty on the part of employees. Today, the modernity of a factory is measured by the extent to which these characteristics of Japanese production culture are put into practice. After the Second World War, this approach developed into a model for an international production culture.<br />
By the beginning of the 21st century, the Chinese economy had surpassed that of Japan;<br />
<br />
二战后，日本财政无力支撑新型制造业的发展，决策者只能大力利用已有的资源和工艺技术。尽管日本的制造文化在许多方面仍然具有典型的日本特征，比如等级制度以及雇员的忠诚度等问题，但很快，精益生产以及品质圈成为出口热门。而今，日本制造文化应用于实践的程度是衡量工厂现代化程度的重要标准。二战后，这种方法成为一种典型的国际制造文化。<br />
到了21世纪初，中国经济超越了日本。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
today, China is a global factory. This subproject analyzes and defines the "Chinese production culture“ and focuses on the question of whether any of its modern characteristics can serve as a model for international production culture. Based on surveys by Hofstede (2009), case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku (2006) and on fundamental thinking of Philip Huang, the project takes as its premise that the development of Chinese production culture falls into different historical periods: from the genuinely Chinese production culture of silk, china and tea production over the slumbering industrial revolution, the import of Western manufacturing culture, the building of larger production units in the socialist a tradition, to today’s mixed production culture with Japanese and Western elements.<br />
<br />
如今，中国是一个“世界工厂”，本子项目对“中国生产文化”进行了分析和界定，并着重探讨了中国生产文化的现代特征是否可以作为国际生产文化的典范这一问题。该项目基于霍夫斯特德（2009年）、洪/佩赫宁/凯莱海库（2006年）的案例研究和黄菲浦的基本思想，以中国生产文化发展为前提，从不同的历史时期进行探讨：从沉睡的工业革命时期真正的中国丝绸、瓷器、茶叶生产文化，西方制造文化的进口，社会主义传统中大型生产单位的建设，到当今中日两国混合生产文化与日西元素的混合。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:02, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
But still today's production culture comes with some genuinely Chinese characteristics: the Confucian understanding of the relation boss - team leader – employee, hierarchy, the concept of face (and critique), the informal network management in the decision finding process, the esteem for the concept of age, nepotism, the play instinct (including imitation), flexibility and speed. This subproject explores which of these elements are exportable in principle and which ones can be profitably implemented within international production cultures.<br />
<br />
但今天的生产文化仍然具有一些真正的中国特色：儒家对老板-团队领导-员工关系的理解、等级、脸观（和批评）、决策查找过程中非正式的网络管理、对年龄概念的尊重、裙带关系、游戏本能（包括模仿）、灵活性和速度。此子项目探讨哪些元素原则上是可输出的，哪些元素可以在国际生产文化中有利可图地实现的。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
但如今的文化生产仍然具有一些真正的中国特色：儒家对“老板-团队领导-员工”关系的理解、等级、脸面观（和批评）、决议过程中非正式的网络管理、对年龄概念的尊重、裙带关系、好玩的天性（包括模仿）、灵活度和速度。此子项目探讨哪些元素原则上是可以输出的，哪些元素可以在国际文化生产中有利可图。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:22, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Cultural approach'''<br />
文化方法<br />
<br />
As a cultural scientist, the author of this script applies the approach of Cultural Science to describe economical cultures or subcultures. One of the subcultures of economical culture is the way or culture of management and production.<br />
<br />
作为文化科学家，该脚本的作者运用文化科学的方法来描述经济文化或亚文化。 经济文化的亚文化之一是管理和生产的方式或文化。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
作为一名文化科学家，本文作者运用文化科学的方法来描述经济文化或亚文化。经济文化的亚文化之一是管理和生产的方式或文化。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After a phase of several decades in which mathematics has found its way into economics, cultural studies has also been rediscovered by economics in recent years.Cultural studies can be a helpful supplement, for example, when predictions for economic behavior need to be made, for example in models. The economic sciences initially contribute Homo oeconomicus, the self-interest maximizer. In recent years, especially since 2000, many experiments have shown that humans often behave diametrically opposed to self-interest:<br />
<br />
经过几十年的数学进入经济学的阶段之后，近年来文化也被经济学重新发现了，例如当需要对经济行为进行预测时， 比如在一些模型中，文化研究可以作为有益的补充。经济科学起初是对自利最大化者经济人的贡献。 近年来，尤其是自2000年以来，许多实验表明，人类的行为常常与自我利益截然相反：--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
经过几十年的数学进入经济学的阶段后，近年来经济学也重新发现了文化研究。例如，当需要对经济行为进行预测时，比如在模型中，文化研究可以是一种有益的补充。经济科学最初贡献了“经济人”，即利己最大化者。近年来，特别是自2000年以来，许多实验表明，人类的行为往往与自身利益截然相反:--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
'''Case 1) The bag of oranges'''<br />
<br />
Initial situation: An orange seller sells bags of oranges to tourists. He has a few rotten oranges that he could put in the bags at the bottom. The tourists would not notice it when buying and would not go to this place again because of a few rotten oranges. <br />
<br />
Behavior: He does not do it, however, but throws the rotten oranges away.<br />
<br />
Cultural-scientific explanation: In the present case, the merchant is thus ethically-morally socially responsible out of a sense of justice.<br />
案例1)橘子袋<br />
最初的情况:一个卖橘子的人把成袋的橘子卖给游客。他有几个烂橘子，他可以把它们放进底部的袋子里。游客在购买时不会注意到它，也不会再去这个地方，因为有几个烂橘子。<br />
行为:但是他没有这样做，而是把烂橘子扔了。<br />
文化-科学的解释:在当时的情况下，商人出于正义感而负有伦理道德上的社会责任。<br />
<br />
案例一1）橘子袋<br />
最初情况：一个卖橘子的人把成袋的橘子卖给游客。他有几个烂橘子，他可以把它们放进底部的袋子里。游客在购买时不会注意到它，也不会因为有几个烂橘子再回到这个地方。<br />
行为:但是他没有这样做，而是把烂橘子扔了。<br />
文化-科学的解释:在当时的情况下，商人出于正义感而负有伦理道德上的社会责任。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:25, 24 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
One can try to construct a self-interest with the help of neurobiology: Biology leaves him no choice - if he behaves justly, although he might behave unjustly, he is rewarded with dopamine and other happiness hormones. If he were to behave unfairly at all times, he would have a guilty conscience, coupled with the fear of being caught, and sooner or later he might get stomach ulcers. In the long run, acting justly secures his life statistically better, also with regard to the economic value of his own life.<br />
<br />
一个人可以尝试在神经生物学的帮助下构建自身利益:生物学让他别无选择——如果他行为公正，尽管他可能会做出不公正的行为，他会得到多巴胺和其他快乐荷尔蒙的奖励。如果他总是表现得不公平，他就会感到内疚，再加上害怕被抓住，迟早他会得胃溃疡。从长远来看，公正的行为能确保他的生活更美好，就他自己生活的经济价值而言也是如此。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:12, 24 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
However, if you ask the orange seller, he will at best say that it would be unfair to cheat his customers. Of course, there will always be a small number of fraudulent orange sellers in such experiments who value short-term profit more highly than long-term physical damage, if they expect it at all. And they will perhaps adopt a world view to avoid a guilty conscience, such as that rich tourists should give some of their wealth to poor orange sellers. And there will be people who cannot distinguish right from wrong due to a corresponding anatomically detectable defect in the reward system.<br />
然而，如果你问卖橘子的商家，他充其量会告诉你欺骗他的顾客不公平。当然，总会有一小部分虚假的商贩，他们考虑更多的是短期内的获利而不是长期上身体方面的伤害。而且，在他们的世界观里面，会存在去避免良知羞愧的想法，比如认为：富有的游客理应给贫穷的卖橘子的商贩一些金钱。并且由于在奖惩体系里面有一种自动化的追踪手段，有些人就不会在对和错之间进行区分。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:58, 23 November 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The following experiments are some of the classic and most frequently conducted and tested experiments to complement the maximization of self-interest:<br />
<br />
'''Case 2) Ultimatum game: share 10 Euros'''<br />
<br />
Initial situation: A student in Bonn is offered 10 €. The only condition: He has to give any partial amount to his fellow student. His fellow student has the right either to accept the amount allocated to him or to refuse to accept the whole 10 € for him and his fellow student.<br />
<br />
以下实验是一些经典且最常进行和测试的实验，以补充自我利益的最大化：<br />
案例2）最后通牒博弈：分享10欧元<br />
初始情况：向波恩的一名学生提供10欧元。 唯一的条件：他必须给他的同学任何部分款项。 他的同学有权接受分配给他的款项，或者拒绝接受他和他的同学的10欧元。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
以下实验是一些经典且最常进行和测试的实验，用来补充自我利益的最大化：<br />
案例2）最后通牒博弈：分享10欧元<br />
初始情况：向波恩的一名学生提供10欧元。 唯一的条件：他必须给他的同学任何部分款项。 他的同学有权接受分配给他的款项，或者拒绝接受他和他的同学的10欧元。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:22, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
Prediction according to the self-interest maximization: The first student will keep 9,99 € and give 0,01 € to the fellow student. The fellow student would have to accept the 0.01 €, as this is more than 0.00 €.<br />
<br />
Conduct: In fact, about 90% of the students in similarly conducted experiments worldwide give 5 € to their fellow student. In the few cases in which the students want to give 2 € to their fellow student and keep 8 €, the fellow student refuses the 10 € completely, and so both go away empty-handed.<br />
根据自身利益最大化的预测:第一个学生将保留9,99欧元，并给予同伴0,01欧元。这个同学将不得不接受这0.01欧元，因为这超过了0.00欧元。<br />
行为:事实上，在全球范围内进行的类似实验中，大约90%的学生会给他们的同学5欧元。在少数情况下，学生想给他们的同学2欧元，留下8欧元，那个同学完全拒绝了这10欧元，所以两人都空手而去。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:35, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 04:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The maximization of self-interest cannot explain the behavior in both situations. Here, cultural studies provide an explanation that is supported by neurobiologists. <br />
<br />
Cultural studies explanation: <br />
<br />
For the fellow student, relative justice is more important than his own absolute gain. If the student takes more for no reason, there are various reasons not to allow this, e.g. educational. Furthermore, this is a decision under observation and the reward system rewards behavior in the sense of justice all the more, if justice has to be bought even with one's own loss.<br />
<br />
个人利益最大化无法解释这两种情况下的行为。在这里，文化研究提供了一个解释，这个解释为神经生物学家所认可。<br />
<br />
这个解释如下:<br />
<br />
对于获得奖学金的研究生来说，相对的公正比自己的绝对利益更重要。有很多理由反对学生无故得到超过自己应得的利益，比如教育方面的原因。此外，这种决定处于监察之下。如果个人利益的损失能换来公正，奖励系统更会奖励正义感的行为。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 03:30, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
个人利益最大化无法解释这两种行为。在这里，文化研究提供了一个神经生物学家所认可的解释。<br />
这个解释如下：<br />
对于获得奖学金的研究生来说，相对的公正比自己的绝对利益更重要。如果某同学无缘无故地得到更多，那么他就有更多样的理由不去遵守规则，比如在教育方面。此外，这种决定处于监察之下。如果个人利益的损失能换来公正，奖励系统更会鼓励正义行为。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 12:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
个人利益最大化无法解释这两种行为。在这里，文化研究提供了一个神经生物学家所认可的解释。<br />
这个解释如下：<br />
对于获得奖学金的研究生来说，应当将评选中的公平原则置于自己的绝对利益至上。如果某同学无缘无故地得到更多，那么他就有更多样的理由不去遵守规则，比如在教育方面。此外，这种决定处于监察之下。如果个人利益的损失能换来公正，奖励系统更会鼓励正义行为。<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Neurobiologists also explain that men consider a constellation such as this experiment like a zero-sum game and feel a sense of competition, i.e. they see the greater gain of the other as a loss for themselves.<br />
<br />
By the way, the environment also influences the degree of self-maximization against a sense of justice:<br />
<br />
神经生物学家也解释道，人们将这个实验视为一种零和博弈，并且感到一种竞争感。也就是说，人们将他人的更大收获视作自己所遭受的损失。并且，环境也会影响到自我利益最大化和公正感之间的对比。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 14:30, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 05:42, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Case 3) Bank bill in letter'''<br />
<br />
If one lets a 5 Euro bill shine through the window of an envelope that is half hanging out of the mailbox, 4 out of 10 unobserved passers-by will grab it. If you paint a graffiti on the wall next to the mailbox and put some garbage next to the mailbox, 8 out of 10 unobserved passers-by will access it.<br />
如果把一封装有5欧元的钞票的半透明信封从窗户扔下去，那么十个路人中会有四个会捡起它。如果在邮箱旁边的墙上画上涂鸦，并在邮箱旁边放了一些垃圾，则每10个路人中就有8个人会走过去，对其视而不见。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 05:42, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Case 4) Primates<br />
<br />
Behavioral researchers have successfully demonstrated homo economicus in primates: There chimpanzees help each other to get shared food. If the first chimpanzee has the opportunity to give both of them the same amount or more food, it will give as much food as possible.<br />
<br />
案例4）灵长类动物<br />
<br />
行为研究人员已经成功地证明了灵长类动物在经济观：黑猩猩之间互相帮助，获取共同的食物。 如果第一个黑猩猩有机会给他们两个人相同或更多的食物，它将给予尽可能多的食物。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
案例4)灵长类动物<br />
<br />
行为研究人员已经成功地证明了灵长类动物中的“经济人”:黑猩猩会帮助彼此以获得共同的食物。如果第一只黑猩猩有机会给它们两只本身相同数量或更多的食物，它就会尽可能给予更多的食物。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 11:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
Of course, the assumption of self-interest is a reasonable approach to explain phenomena in economic life, since companies are primates in many things, but in marketing they want to appear inwardly and outwardly as human, with social responsibility and a sense of justice. The Chinese Management and Production Culture (CMPC) has a clear distribution of power in the hierarchy, which corresponds to the maximization of self-interest, but the boss has a stronger responsibility towards his employees, which also includes private areas, so that there is an above-average social component.<br />
<br />
当然，个人利益的假设是解释经济生活现象的一种合理方法。因为在很多事上公司是灵长类动物，但公司在市场上向内向外都想像人一样呈现出一种社会责任感和正义感。中国管理和生产文化部门有着权力分布明确的等级制度，这符合个人利益最大化，但老板对其职员的责任更重，员工也包括私人领域，以至于社会因素平均高于其他因素。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 05:02, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当然，假设个人利益是解释经济生活现象的一种合理方法，因为企业在许多方面都是灵长类动物，但在市场营销中，他们希望在内在和外在上显得像人类一样，具有社会责任感和正义感。中国管理与生产文化具有明确的层级权力分配，这对应个人利益最大化，但老板对员工的责任更大，也包括私人领域，因此存在一个高于平均水平的社会成分。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:52, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
Häring, Norbert: „''Der Homo oeconomicus ist tot''“, in: Financial Times Deutschland (14.3.2001) http://ockenfels.uni-koeln.de/download/press/ftd-14032001. pdf<br />
<br />
Schlicht, Ekkehart: „''Der homo oeconomicus unter experimentellem Beschuß''“, in: Martin Held, Gisela Kubon-Gilke & Richard Sturn (Hrsg.): ''Experimente in der Ökonomik. Jahrbuch normative und institutionelle Grund-fra¬gen der Ökonomik 2.'' Metropolis-Verlag, Marburg 2003, ISBN 3-89518-414-4, http://www.semverteilung.vwl.uni-muenchen.de/mitarbeiter/es/paper/schlicht-homo-oeconomicus.pdf<br />
<br />
参考文献<br />
<br />
诺伯特·海灵（Häring），“经济人已死”，载于：《德国金融时报》（14.3.2001）http://ockenfels.uni-koeln.de/download/press/ftd-14032001. pdf<br />
Schlicht，Ekkehart：“实验经济下的同等经济”，载于：Martin Held，Gisela Kubon-Gilke和Richard Sturn（编）：经济学实验。 《经济学年鉴规范和制度基本问题》，第二届大都会出版社，马尔堡，2003年，ISBN 3-89518-414-4，http://www.semverteilung.vwl.uni-muenchen.de/mitarbeiter/es/paper/schlicht-homo-oeconomicus.pdf--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:44, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
'''National Cultures''' <br />
<br />
Cultural differences decrease as the world becomes globalized. National characteristics become blurred, companies have to operate in different locations worldwide and sell their products in different markets.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, there are historically grown traditions that come from a time when there was often already intensive global trade, but less intensive cooperation and less exchange of information.<br />
<br />
'''民族文化'''<br />
<br />
随着世界全球化，文化差异减少。民族特征变得模糊起来，企业不得不在全球各地运营和在不同市场上销售产品。尽管如此，仍有传统沿着历史发展至今，那时全球贸易虽然已经十分密集，但密切合作更少，信息交流也更少。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 08:51, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
随着世界日益全球化，文化差异减少。民族特征也变得模糊起来，企业需在全球各地运营并将其产品销往各国市场。尽管如此，仍有传统沿着历史发展保留至今，那时全球贸易虽已十分频繁，但密切的合作以及信息的交流远不如今。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
全球化程度愈深，文化差异愈少。民族特色模糊起来，企业需要在世界范围内运营，其生产的产品也将销往世界各地。但是，仍有传统沿袭历史发展至今，那时国际贸易已十分频繁，但合作及信息交流远不及今。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:13, 20 November 2020 (UTC)</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201116_trans&diff=11623620201116 trans2020-12-20T05:20:10Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''WOESLER, Martin'''<br />
<br />
'''Prof. Dr. Martin Woesler (University Rome III/Witten University)'''<br />
<br />
'''The Waves of the Stone –''' <br />
<br />
'''Early Reception Between Instrumentalization and Exoticization'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The fame of the ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' spread quickly not across Asia, but also to Europe and the USA. This paper introduces the roles and motifs of different actors in the early distribution, like merchants, Western embassies, Chinese teachers of Western missionaries, missionaries themselves, translators, early Sinologists as well as literary critics. I introduce judgements on the novel before it was available in translation.<br />
<br />
马丁·沃斯勒<br />
<br />
'''教授 Martin Woesler博士（罗马第三大学/维滕大学）'''<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
一“石”激起千层浪—西方早期以工具化和边缘化为核心的中国文学接受<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”不仅风靡亚洲，而且还名扬欧美。 本文介绍了早期版本中不同人物的角色和主题，例如商人，西方使馆，西方传教士的中文老师，传教士本身，译者，早期汉学家和文学评论家。 在介绍这本小说的翻译版本之前，我先介绍一下它的判断。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:05, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
<br />
As motifs I identify exoticization (joy of otherness of fashion and dressing, customs), universalization (world literature), the instrumentalization of the novel as evidence for own hypotheses on literature (Davis’ poetry), the instrumentalization for language learning etc. I show a change of motifs over time from exoticization and instrumentalization for proving inferiority to Western novels to accepting the novel as part of world literature and a masterpiece of Chinese culture with a special value in documenting Chinese society. Of special interest are misunderstandings (Gützlaff) and deviations from the original (Kuhn, Minford).<br />
<br />
对于主题，我确定了异国情调（时尚和穿着习惯别样风情的乐趣）、普遍化（世界文学）、小说的工具化（作为文学假设的证据）（戴维斯的诗歌）、语言学习的工具化等。我呈现了主题随时间而产生的变化，从使用异国情调和工具化证明了西方小说的劣势，到接纳小说为世界文学和中国文化的杰作，对记录中国社会具有特殊价值。特别令人感兴趣的是误解（古茨拉夫）和与原著的偏离（库恩，明福德）。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 10:12, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
对于主题，我确定了异国情调（享受时尚，穿着以及风俗的别样风情），普遍化（世界文学），证明文学假说的小说工具化（戴维斯的诗歌），语言学习的工具化等。从异国情调和工具化证明了西方小说的劣势，到接纳小说作为世界文学的一部分以及中国文化的一大杰作，对记录中国社会具有特殊价值，展示了主题随时间而产生的变化。尤其对于误解（古茨拉夫）和原著的替代（库恩，明福德）特别感兴趣。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 01:05, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber, Western translation, Western dissemination, Western reception, instrumentalization, exotization, deviation<br />
<br />
'''First (unproven) experiences of young Cao Xueqin with foreign literature'''<br />
<br />
In 1947 the graduate student Huang Long from then Jinling University quoted the following passage from the book Dragon's Imperial Kingdom, which he claimed to have borrowed from the Central Library (today’s Nanking Library), in which William Winston ‘remembers’ an encounter of his grandfather Philip Winston with Cao Xueqin:<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》；西方翻译；西方传播；西方接受；工具化；异国化；偏差<br />
<br />
'''青年曹雪芹外国文学初探（未证实）'''<br />
<br />
1947年，金陵大学的研究生黄龙在国立中央图书馆（今南京图书馆）借阅了《龙之帝国》一书，并引用了该书中的一段资料，此书写道威廉·温斯顿“记得”祖父菲利普·温斯顿曾与曹雪芹会面：--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:22, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
<br />
"The imperial kingdom was symbolized by a five-clawed golden dragon, a legendary reptile nonexistent since Creation. Of her indigenous produces shantung commanded the broadest popularity. This rendered her to merit the credit ‚Land of Silk’ in the Orient. There has been cherished as our precious heirloom a piece of home-spun fabric with an ornamental pattern of "dragon and phoenix" manufactured at Kiangning Textile Mill. It survived fires and swords. During my grandfather Philip's sojourn in China for trade in textiles, he contracted an acquaintance with Mr. Tsao Fu, the then Superintendent of Kiangning Textile Mill, and at the latter's request served as an initiator of textile technology.<br />
帝国王国的象征是一只五爪金龙，这是一种自创世以来就不存在的传奇爬行动物。在她的土产中山东是最受欢迎的。这使她有了“东方丝绸之乡”的美誉。江宁纺织厂生产的一件带有“龙凤”图案的家纺织物，作为我们珍贵的传家宝。它经受住了战火和刀剑的洗礼。祖父菲利普旅居中国从事纺织品贸易期间，结识了当时江宁纺织厂的厂长曹富先生，应曹富先生的邀请，成为纺织技术的创始人。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 08:21, 16 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
<br />
The host was hospitality incarnate and oftentimes indited extempore verses in token of rapport. As a reply, my grandfather delivered Biblical sermons and gave a graphic narration of Shakespeare's dramas. For audience he had merely those other than the juvenile and feminine. On the score of eavesdropping, Tsao’s pampered son suffered a lashing and castigation".[ Philip Winston: Dragon's Imperial Kingdom, Douglas 1874, p. 53. Quoted from: 吴新雷, 黄进德《曹雪芹江南家世考》，福建人民出版社, 1983, 304 pp., here pp. 103-104. See also:馬幼垣（Yau-Woon Ma）《實事與構想: 中國小說史論釋》，聯經出版事業股份有限公司, 2007年，384页。See also: 周汝昌《曹雪芹新传》外文出版社(1992)²1997, 353pp., here p. 101.]<br />
主人是热情好客的化身，并且经常当场创作诗歌以示融洽。作为回应，我的祖父也会分享圣经讲道，并对莎士比亚戏剧作了图形叙述。他的观众往往只有青少年和女性。曹雪芹那骄纵的儿子由于偷听，遭到了曹先生的鞭打和斥责。[菲利普·温斯顿：《龙的帝国》，道格拉斯 1874,53页。引自Wu Xinlei, HuangJinde "Cao Xueqin Jiangnan Family History", Fujian People's publishing House,1983,304页,103-104页。 还引自：Yau-Woon Ma ""Facts and Ideas: Historical Commentary on Chinese Fiction", Lianjing Publishing Co.,LTD,2007, P384. 还引自：Zhou Ruchang "A New Biography of Cao Xueqin" Foreign language Press(1992)²1997, 353页。101页。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
If this encounter has been made up, it shows how much effort Redology invested to come to new findings, if not, it may explain some of the special characteristics of the novel never seen in Chinese literature before.<br />
<br />
'''Status of the book before its publication'''<br />
<br />
Between 1754 and 1771 we have one new manuscript version per year in average and almost each manuscript carries new comments mostly from 脂砚斋 or from 笏叟. The author died on Feb 1, 1764, which did not end the commenting on the manuscripts.<br />
如果此会面是真的，那么它表明红学的研究成果有了新的发现，如果不是，它或许可以解释这本小说中的一些此前从未在中国文学中出现的特征。<br />
未正式出版前此书的地位<br />
在1754年和1771年间，平均每年都有一个新的手搞，每个手稿都有来自脂砚斋或畸笏叟的评论。作者与1764年二月一号去世，但世人对这本书的评论并没有就此停止。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:27, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The book was not officially published, but that did not prevented it from dissemination, as manuscript fragments were handed around since the 1750s and the novel was known to many scholars before its publication in 1791.<br />
<br />
The preface to the 2nd edition in 1792 also points to the fact, that there had been a “long” tradition of scholarly research of the book and comments. These comments had not been taken over for the 1st and 2nd edition.<br />
<br />
这本书并没有正式出版，但这却并未影响其传播，因为自18世纪50年代以来部分手稿已经流传开来，且这本小说在1791年出版前就已经为许多学者所熟知。<br />
1792年第二版的序言中也指出，该书和评论的学术研究历史悠久。这些评论还未被第一版和第二版所采用。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 06:34, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
该书没有被正式出版，但这并不影响它广泛流传开来，因为自1750年起该书的部分手稿就已经为人们津津乐道，并且小说在1791年出版之前就已经为众多学者熟知。<br />
1792年第二版的前言部分也指出了这一事实，学者对于该书的研究和评价早已经历了很长一段时间。这些评价还未被第一版以及第二版所采用。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:22, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这本书没有正式出版，但这并不影响其传播，因为部分手稿自18世纪50年代就已经流传开来，并且这部小说早在1791年出版之前就已经为许多学者所熟知。<br />
1792年第二版的序也指出，对该书及其评论的学术研究有着悠久的传统。这些评论在第一版和第二版中还未被采纳。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 10:13, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
'''From inofficial manuscript versions to the printed book'''<br />
<br />
One of the reasons why the book was not printed was that it was (wrongly) considered either sexually explicite literature (淫书) or against Confucianism, which could only passed on in manuscript versions. <br />
<br />
Gao E claims in his preface of 1791, that he had heared before 1771 from this novel and that he checked whether it was against Confucianism, but could not find anything like this in it, so that it could be published.<br />
<br />
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“从非官方手抄本到印刷版”<br />
这本书未被印刷出版，原因之一是人们要么误认为它是淫书要么误认为它反对儒家思想,所以它只能以手抄本的形式通行。<br />
高鹗在其1791年所做的序中说，他在1771年之前就已经听说过这部小说了，并且对这部小说是否反对儒家思想进行了审查，但没有发现诸如此类的东西，所以《红楼梦》就出版了。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 10:16, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从非官方手抄本到印刷版<br />
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本书未能出版的原因之一是当时的人将其误认为是淫书或反孔书籍，因此只能以手抄本的形式流传。高鹗1791年在书的序言部分写道自己1771年前就对这部小说略有耳闻，还检查了书中是否有反孔言论，结果却没发现此类言论。因此，本书得以出版。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 10:51, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
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“One of the best works of fiction in Chinese literature was supposed to have been written by a member of this sect, and was suppressed by the Emperor because of offensive references to the reigning family contained in it. It was called the ‘Hung Lou Meng,’ or ‘Dream of the Red Chamber,’ and it resembles a large number of fairy tales threaded together rather than a modern novel. By an ingenious substitution of false characters, words, occasionally throughout certain portions of the work—something like incorrect spelling —the imperial interdict was evaded, and it has continued in print and popularity down to the present day. Foreign students of Chinese commonly read a portion of it, the smooth and excellent style making it an invaluable text-book.”[ See: He Tianyue 何天爵: ''The real Chinese question'' (真正的中国问题), New York: Dodd，Mead & Co. 1900, 386 pp., here p. 109.]<br />
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“中国文学界有这样一部优秀小说，这部小说应出自此派作家之手，却因书中一些针对统治者的冒犯言辞遭到了皇帝的反对和打压。这部书就是《红楼梦》（Hung Lou Meng/Dream of the Red Chamber)此书更像是由大量神话故事拼凑而成，而非一部现代小说。通过巧妙替换书中的虚拟人物、错别字以及有时通篇出现的拼写错误，此书躲过了皇家控诉，得以继续出版，其知名度绵延至今。学习汉语的外国学生常阅读书中的一小段，其流畅的行文和绝佳的风格使其成为了一部颇具价值的教科书。”[见：何天爵：真正的中国问题,纽约:Dodd,Mead & Co.1900, 386pp.,here p. 109]--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 09:35, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
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'''Preparations of the 1st book edition'''<br />
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Gao E worked with Cheng Weiyuan, who ran the publishing house Suzhou Cuiwen Press (苏州萃文书屋). <br />
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According to the preface to the 1791 edition by Cheng Weiyuan, different 80 chapter manuscript versions were already circulating, some were sold for a high price at the Temple Market, others were copied by readers. Since the 80 chapter manuscript versions already contained content lists with 120 chapter headlines, he searched for and found (as he pretended) the 120 chapters.<br />
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程甲本的准备工作<br />
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高鹗与苏州萃文书屋的程伟元合作<br />
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根据程伟元1791年版的序言所知，早有80多种不同版本的手稿流传在世，有些在庙会高价出售，有些则被读者抄袭相传。 由于80章回手稿版本包含有120章回标题的内容，因此他搜寻到了（假称）120个章回的版本。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:30, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
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In the preface to the first printed edition he already refers to an existing number of readers, who share the love of the book with him. Also his description that some readers took over the effort to copy the book by handwriting shows that an early fan culture existed even before the printed version appeared.<br />
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Also, Cheng Weiyuan keeps the question of the authorship open, but points directly to Cao Xueqin, who claimed to have worked 10 years on the novel and rewritten it five times. The rewriting may refer to the production of new manuscript versions reflecting the ideas of the commentators.<br />
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<br />
在首印本的序言中，程伟元已经提到了现存的读者群，他们与之分享了对此书的喜爱之情。 此外，程伟元还描述到读者竭尽所能手抄《红楼梦》的现象，这表明在印刷本发行之前就有了粉丝文化的存在。<br />
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另外，程伟元公开表明了对此书作者身份的质疑，不过，他也直接指明了曹雪芹，其称在这本小说上耗费十载光阴，反复写作五次。复写本可能指的是新版手抄本的发行，书中反映了评论者的观点。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 15:57, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
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'''1st Book edition 1791:''' 程甲本 Cheng A edition<br />
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According to the preface to the 2nd edition 1792, these early fans were called collectors and the 1st edition was produced with movable characters, which was faster than the woodblock print. The book contained 99 illustrations and more than 100 copies were printed. The first edition might have been printed in Peking at the end of 1791, the 2nd in early 1792 in Suzhou, leaving 72 days between the two editions, which may show that the Peking edition was sold out immediately. The 1791 edition was also soon translated into Mongolian: 蒙古王府本 Menggu ben.<br />
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'''1791年第一版:''' 程甲本 <br />
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根据1792年第二版的序言，这些早期的粉丝被称为收藏家。第一版采用可移动的字符制作，这比木刻版画要快。 该书包含99幅插图，被印刷了一百多本。 第一版可能于1791年底在北京印刷，第二版于1792年初在苏州印刷。两版之间相隔72天，这或许表明北京印刷版立即被抢购一空。 1791年版也很快被译成蒙古文：蒙古王府本。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:18, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''1791年第一版:''' 程甲本 <br />
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根据1792年第二版的序言，这些早期的粉丝被称为收藏家。第一版采用活字印刷制作，这比木刻印刷要快。 该书包含99幅插图，印刷了一百多本。 第一版可能于1791年底在北京印刷，第二版于1792年初在苏州印刷。两版之间相隔72天，这或许表明北京的这一版一经印刷立即被抢购一空。 1791年版也很快被译成蒙古文：蒙古王府本。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:32, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
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'''2nd Book edition in 1792:''' 程乙本 Cheng B edition<br />
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A second edition, with ‘corrections’ some consider mistakes today, was published in 1792 in Suzhou and sold well too. The 2nd edition claims to have removed many mistakes of the 1st edition.[ For an overview of the comparison of the two editions please refer to: 《《红楼梦》程乙本版本研究综述》，王丽敏，河南教育学院学报 (哲学社会科学版) Vol．33.] One of the differences is that the 程乙本 Cheng B edition changed expressions in ancient wenyan to more contemporary ones, like “索” was turned into “要”, “趁” into “赶”, “题” into “写”, “端” into “头”, “闻得” into “听见”, “记挂” into “惦记”, “殊不知” into “那里知道” etc., but not in every case. Altogether they changed roughly 20,000 characters.<br />
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1792年第二版：程乙本<br />
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第二版于1792年在苏州出版，也取得了很好的销量。在第二版当中，做出了一些修正，尽管这些修正在如今被认为是错误的。第二版声称修正了第一版中的诸多错误。[关于两个版本比较的概述，请参阅：《《红楼梦》程乙本版本研究综述》，王丽敏，河南教育学院学报 (哲学社会科学版) Vol．33.]不同点之一是程乙本将一些古文言文表达转化为了更为现代的表达，比如将“索”改成了“要”，“趁”改成了“赶”，“题”改成了“写”，“端”改成了“头”，“闻得”改成了“听见”，“记挂”改成了“惦记”，“殊不知”改成了“那里知道”等,但它并没有对所有的表达进行修改。修改字数总计约达20000。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1792年第二版：程乙本<br />
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第二版于1792年在苏州出版，也取得了很好的销量。在第二版中，做了一些修正，尽管这些修正在今天看来有些错误。第二版修正了第一版中的诸多错误。[关于两个版本比较的概述，请参阅：《《红楼梦》程乙版研究综述》，王丽敏，河南教育学院学报 (哲学社会科学版) Vol．33].其中一点不同是程乙本将一些文言文表达转换成了更加现代的形式，如将“索”改成了“要”，“趁”改成了“赶”，“题”改成了“写”，“端”改成了“头”，“闻得”改成了“听见”，“记挂”改成了“惦记”，“殊不知”改成了“那里知道”等。但并不是所有的文言文均被修改，修改字数共计20000字左右。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 15:19, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
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There is also a change of the list of confiscated goods. What might have been the reason in this particular case to change the list of confiscated goods for the Cheng B edition? The list in the Jiaben is a documentation of richness and therefore lets the confiscation seem to be justified because of unjustified enrichment. In the Yiben, the list starts with mostly religious items like, Buddha statues, this lets the confiscation appear unjustified and shifts the sympathies of the reader towards the family. In the late 18th century, there was a turn towards Buddhism.<br />
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没收货物的清单也有所变化。 在这种特殊情况下，在程乙本版本中改变没收货物清单的原因可能是什么呢？ 甲本中的清单是丰富性的文件，因此让没收由于不合理的丰富性看起来是合理的。 在乙本中，清单的开头主要是像佛像这样的宗教物品，这使没收显得不合理，并使读者的同情心转向了家庭。 在18世纪末，人们转向了佛教。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:30, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
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Many umlegitimized copies appeared. The book was delivered to Korea and shipped to Japan, where it was read in its original language.<br />
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The novel created a wave of interest in China comparable to the one of ''The Sorrows of the Young Werther'' in Europe since 1774. The first edition, printed in 1791 in Peking in a small number of copies (estimates range between 4 and 400) was soon sold out.<br />
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很多非法盗版书出现，盗版书籍运到韩国后，又转海运到日本，在那里，人们阅读的却又是原文。<br />
小说在中国引起了一波兴趣浪潮，堪比欧洲1774年以来的《少年维特的烦恼》浪潮。1791年，北京 印刷了第一版，数量很少（大约4-400本），很快就一售而空。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:25, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
市面上出现了很多非法的盗版的书籍。这些书被运到韩国并被海运到日本，在这两个国家人们阅读的是它的原文。在中国，这本书引发了一波兴趣的浪潮，堪比欧洲1774年以来的《少年维特的烦恼》浪潮。1791年，北京印刷了第一版，数量很少（大约4-400本），很快就一售而空。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 02:22, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
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Some scholars assume a suicide wave among readers who identified with Lin Daiyu. Many readers discussed whether they identified more with Lin Daiyu or with Xue Baochai, a discussion that lasts until today.<br />
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一些学者认为，在那些认同林黛玉的读者中可能会引发自杀风波。很多读者都在更加认同林黛玉还是薛宝钗这一问题上进行过讨论，且这个讨论一直持续到了今天。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:52, 14 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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一些学者则认为，这可能会在那些认同林黛玉的读者中引发一场自杀浪潮。许多读者曾探讨过“更认同林黛玉还是薛宝钗的身份”这一问题，直至今天关于这个问题的讨论仍未停止。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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一些学者猜想，与林黛玉有感同身受的读者中可能会有自杀风波。也有许多学者会讨论此种现象是存在于林黛云更多还是薛宝钗更多，且该讨论一直持续到了现在。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 10:14, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
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'''Spreading to Japan and Korea'''<br />
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Captain王开泰 Wang Kaitai delivered 18 copies of a 9-volume edition of the Dream on December 9, 1793 to Japan, as we can prove in a store list of a Nanking ship arriving in长崎港Nagasaki (which started on November 3 in 乍浦 Zhapu): „红楼梦 九部十八套“.[ From 发货账本, quoted from: 《红楼梦 》在日本.] We know of an early mentioning of the Dream by the Korean author ''Lee'', ''Kyu-Kyung''李圭景 ( 1788- ? 李圭景(이규경)) in the 1830s.[ From 《五洲衍文长笺散稿》卷七《小说 辩证说》, quoted from: 《红楼梦》在韩国的流传和翻译.]<br />
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There were early (partial) translations of the novel into Manchurian.<br />
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传播到日本和韩国<br />
1793年12月9日，王开泰船长向日本交付了18册9卷本的《红楼梦》，我们可以在一艘抵达长崎港（11月3日从乍浦出发）的南京船只上的一份发行账本中证明这一点：“红楼梦九部十八套”。[摘自发行账本，引自《红楼梦》在日本。] 我们了解到，19世纪30年代，韩国作家李圭景（Lee Kyu-Kyung，1788-？）最早提起过《红楼梦》。 [摘自《五洲衍文长笺散稿》卷七《小说辩证说》，引自：《红楼梦》在韩国的流传和翻译。] 这本书有部分翻译成了满语。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:03, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
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'''Early Western notions of the book'''<br />
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The novel also caught the attention of Europeans living in China, like the missionaries, who started to translate parts of it into Western languages, as well as the British embassies to China, who collected also Chinese literature, brought it back to Europe or engaged in translation or dissemination.<br />
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这部小说也引起了生活在中国的欧洲人的注意，比如传教士，他们开始将小说的部分内容翻译成西文，还有英国驻华使馆，他们也收集了中国的文学作品，带回欧洲或从事翻译、传播。<br />
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西方早期对这本书的看法:<br />
这部小说也引起了生活在中国的欧洲人的注意，比如传教士开始把它的一部分翻译成西方语言，还有英国驻华大使馆，他们也收集中国文学，把它带回欧洲或从事翻译或传播。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 04:31, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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早期西方对这本书的看法<br />
这部小说也引起了生活在中国的欧洲人的注意，比如传教士，他们开始把这本小说的一部分翻译成西方语言，还有同样收集中国文学的英国大使，他们把这本小说带回欧洲，或从事它的翻译和传播。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:39, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
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The book seems to have run out of stock often and needed to be purchased from other cities, whereever it was available, like in about 1812 in Canton: Robert Morrison, a missionary who worked in Macao, may have been pointed by his Chinese tutor to the novel. In 1816 he published a dialogue between a student (maybe himself) and his Chinese tutor pointing to the time before December 1812, when he translated parts of the novel and therefore had a copy:<br />
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这本书似乎经常缺货，需要从其他城市购买。一旦什么地方有货，比如在1812年左右的广州，在澳门工作的传教士罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）就受他导师指示去购买这本小说。1816年，他公布了一位学生（也许就是他本人）与中国家庭教师之间的对话，指出他在1812年之前对该小说部分情节进行了翻译，因此有了以下内容：--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 13:56, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这本书似乎经常缺货，需要从其他有货的城市购买。比如在1812年左右的广州，在澳门工作的传教士罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）受他的中国导师指示，购买了这本小说。1816年，罗伯特公布了一位学生（也许就是他本人）与其中国导师之间的对话，对话发生在1812年12月之前，当时他正翻译这本小说的部分内容，因此有小说副本：--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:31, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
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Student: “What is the best book for students to read?” – [...suggestion of ''Daxue''.] Tutor: [...] to read the Hung-low-mung will do very well. – Student: I have not seen the Hung-low-mung, have you seen it? – Tutor: I have not brought it with me, but if you wish to see it, I will write to Canton, and present it to you. Student: “Very good. I will trouble you to write for it.” – Tutor: “I will do so.” – Student: “How many volumes are there in the Hung-low-mung?” – Tutor: “Twenty volumes in all. In this book, the phraseology is entirely that of Peking.”[ From: “Dialogue V”, in: 《中文对话与单句》''Dialogues and Detached Sentences in the Chinese Language, with a free and verbal translation in English, collected from various sources'', Macao: East India Company Press 1816. [Chinese parts left out in this quotation.]]<br />
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学生：“最适合学生读的书是什么？” – [...《大学》的建议。]老师：[...]读红楼梦（Lung-low-mung）很好。 –学生：我没看过红楼梦，你看过吗？ –老师：我没现在没带，但是如果你想看，我会写信到广州，托人带过来给你。 学生：“太好了。 那就麻烦你写信了。” –老师：“我会的。” –学生：“ 红楼梦中有多少册？” –导师：“总共二十卷。 这本书里的遣词造句都十分北京。” [摘自：《对话V》，出自：《中文对话与单句》》中文对话和独立句，并附带了从各类资源收集到的免费的口头英语翻译”，澳门：东印度公司出版社，1816年。[本段中省略了中文部分。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 05:04, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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Between December 1812 and February 1813, Robert Morrison translated parts of chapter 4 and send it to Great Britain. He published entries about the Dream in his dictionary, of which the first volume appeared in 1815[ 《华英字典》''A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts'', Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I 930 pp., the novel title is mentioned in volume I:614.] and more translation excerpts, e.g. from chapters 4 and 39, in his 1816 textbook edition.[ 《中文对话与单句》''Dialogues and Detached Sentences in the Chinese Language, with a free and verbal translation in English, collected from various sources'', Macao: East India Company Press 1816, e.g. pp. 194-200.]<br />
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1812年12月至1813年2月期间，罗伯特·莫里森翻译了部分书中第四章的内容，并将其寄往英国。他将这《梦想》这篇小说编进了字典当中，其中第一卷出现在1815年(《华英字典》，第三版汉语字典,澳门：东印度公司，1815年版，第一卷，930页。这篇小说出现在第一卷614页）同时，1816年的版本当中的第4章和39章还对后续的翻译进行了记录。（《中文对话与单句》，实现对汉语中的对话及独立句子的英文口头翻译，从各处收集而来。澳门：东印度公司，1816年版，194 - 200页。)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:02, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
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Only 23 years of its publication, the novel already was part of the canonized Chinese literature of fiction and Robert Morrison used excerpts of it for his text books to teach Westerners Chinese, as well as expressions from it for his dictionary and sent letters with excerpt translations to Europe, for an intended 2nd vol. of his ''Horæ Sinicæ'' which never was realized.<br />
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The first British Embassies to China (among them especially Charles Bowra, John Francis Davies) also collected literature and among it the ''Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
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就在它出版的23年之后，这部小说就被列为中国文学小说行列之中。罗伯特·马礼逊用了其中一些摘选作为教材去教西方人中文；一些表达应用在他的字典里。他把一些摘要翻译版本以信的形式寄去欧洲，打算将其作为第二版本。但他的《中国时光》出版之梦却永远没有实现。<br />
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首次英国到中国的使节（其中有包腊，约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯）也收集了文学材料，其中包括有《红楼梦》。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 10:07, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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仅在它出版23年后，这部小说就被归为中国文学小说之列。罗伯特·马礼逊摘选了其中部分内容用作教授西方人中文的教材；他还摘选了一些表达应用在他的字典里。他把一些摘要的翻译版本以信的形式寄去欧洲，打算将其作为他的《中国时光》的第二卷，但并没有实现。<br />
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首批英国到中国的使节（其中有包腊，约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯）也收集了文学材料，其中包括有《红楼梦》。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:10, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
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'''Early translation history in the West'''<br />
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In 1819, the first excerpt translations were published in Europe, in English (by John Francis Davis) and in French (by Davis, further translated by Bruguière). Significantly, they were published hidden in other larger works, in the English case, it was a Travel Report by Clarke Abel,[ 约翰．巴罗（John Barrow）：“Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Peking, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”，见：William Gifford（主编）, Quarterly Review 21:41 (1819年1月) 见第67-91页，特见第79-80页。这份期刊于1819年6月4号发行，总发行量13000份。笔者在这里参照了以下的索引并最终确定作者: „Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p. 76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his QR articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works.“, 参考„Quarterly Review Archive“ http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html。] and in the French case, it was a Chinese drama, La-song-euil.[ “Rêves de la Chambre rouge”, 见：»Avant-propos du traducteur francais«, 见: 安托萬．安德烈．包儒略(Antoine-André Bruguière), ''Lao-seng-eul'' [老生兒], ''Comédie Chinoise, suivie de San-iu-leou, ou Les trois étages consacrés, conte moral ; Traduits du chinois en anglais, par J. F. Davis de la factorerie de Canlon ; et de l'anglais en français, par A. Bruguière de Sorsum; avec additions du traducteur'', 巴黎: Rey et Gravier / 伦敦 A. B. Dulau & Co. 1819 年, 227 页, 第141-164页, 见第150-151页。]<br />
西方早期的翻译史<br />
在1819年，欧洲发布了第一个摘要翻译版本，该版本被约翰 弗兰斯 大卫斯翻译为英语版本，后来又被布吉拉进一步翻译为法语。重要的是，它们被隐藏在其他较大的作品中出版，在英语案例中，这是克拉克·亚伯（John Clarke Abel）的《旅行报告》。1816年和1817年的中国内陆之旅和往返该国的旅程的叙述；内容包括对阿默斯特勋爵大使馆向北京法院进行的最有趣的交易以及对所访问国家的观察。克拉克·阿贝尔F.L.S.伦敦1818”，见：威廉·吉福德（主编），季评21:41（1819年1月）见第67-91页，特见第79-80页。这份期刊于1819年6月4号发行，总发行量13000份。笔者在这里参照了以下的索引并最终确定作者：“绅士杂志”（1844年3月），第246-47页。本文的作者引用了＃415和＃438（包括一个特定的参考文献），这两个主题都在同一主题上，由Barrow撰写。 cf.还有关于杀婴的讨论（第76页）和巴罗在＃422中对莱佛士关于Java的描述。在他的QR文章中，引用他自己的作品是Barrow的签名做法。”，请参阅“ Quarterly Review Archive”（季度审查档案）http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html。在法国案中，这是一部中国戏曲，即La-song-euil。[“Rêvesde la Chambre rouge”，见：»Avant-propos du traducteur francais«，见：安托万。安德烈。包儒略（安托万·安德烈·布鲁吉埃（Antoine-AndréBruguière），“老生儿”（Lao-seng-eul），《喜剧》（ComédieChinoise），圣尤尼·路易（suivie de San-iu-leou）或《反叛的道德》； Traduits du chinois en englais，par J. F. Davis de la factorerie de Canlon； et de l'anglais enfrançais，par A.Bruguièrede Sorsum； ”，巴黎：Rey et Gravier /伦敦A. B. Dulau＆Co. 1819年，227页，第141-164页，见第150-151页。]--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 14:44, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
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These excerpt translations were done by John Francis Davis, he translated excerpts from chapter 3 and they were published by John Barrow in Great Britain and by Bruguière in France, both in 1819. Further translations were in 1846 by Robert Thom, excerpts of chapter 6, in 1868-69 Edward Charles Bowra chapters 1-8, in 1892-93 Henry Bencraft Joly chapters 1-56, in 1927 Liang-Chih Wang chapters 1-95, in 1929/1958 Wang Chi-chen an abridged full version, in 1958 Florence McHugh & Isabel McHugh a further translation from the abridged German version of 1938 by Franz Kuhn.<br />
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这些节选翻译是由约翰-弗朗西斯-戴维斯完成的，他翻译了第3章的节选，并由英国的约翰-巴罗和法国的布吕吉耶尔出版，都是在1819年完成的。进一步的翻译是在1846年由罗伯特-托姆翻译的第6章节选，在1868-69年爱德华-查尔斯-鲍拉翻译的第1-8章，在1892-93年亨利-本卡斯特-乔利翻译的第1-56章，在1927年王良志翻译的第1-95章，在1929/1958年王志臣翻译的节选完整版，在1958年弗洛伦斯-麦克休与伊莎贝尔-麦克休又翻译了1938年弗兰茨-库恩的节选德文版。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 05:51, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
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Regarding these translations, both the translation quality as well as the quality of the English used did not reach the status of world literature. Regarding full translations, we have in the 1960s Bramwell Seaton Bonsall, in 1973-1986 Hawkes/Minford and in 1978-1980 Yang/Yang. Among all the translators who embarked on this endeavour, only Hawkes (1923-2009) and Minford (1946-) achieved the goal to produce a translation which clearly falls into the categorization of world literature, the others, as Gladys Yang stated, “were a poor shadow of the original”.[ Yang 1980 3:621-622.]<br />
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就这些翻译而言，无论是翻译质量还是所用英语的质量都没有达到世界文学的水平。关于全译本，20世纪60年代涌现了一些翻译家，比如布拉姆威尔·西顿·邦索尔、1973-1986年霍克斯/明福德和1978-1980年杨。在所有从事这项工作的翻译家中，只有霍克斯（1923-2009）和明福德（1946-）达到了翻译的目的，而这两个译本显然属于世界文学的范畴，而其他的译者，正如格拉迪斯·杨所说，“他们只是原作的一个影子”。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 04:26, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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就这些翻译而言，无论是翻译质量还是所用英语的质量都没有达到世界文学的水平。至于全译本，20世纪60年代涌现了一批翻译家，比如布拉姆威尔·西顿·邦索尔、1973-1986年霍克斯/明福德和1978-1980年杨宪益及其夫人。在所有从事这项工作的翻译家中，只有霍克斯（1923-2009）和明福德（1946-）达到了翻译的目的，而这两个译本显然属于世界文学的范畴，而其他的译者，正如格拉迪斯·杨所说，“他们只是原作的一个影子”。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:41, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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关于这些翻译，翻译质量以及所用英语的质量都没有达到世界文学的水平。 关于完整翻译，我们在1960年代的Bramwell Seaton Bonsall，1973-1986 Hawkes / Minford和1978-1980 Yang / Yang中都有。 在所有从事这一工作的翻译人员中，只有霍克斯（1923-2009）和明福德（1946-）达到了产生翻译的目标，该翻译显然属于世界文学的范畴，而其他人，如Gladys Yang所说，“ 原始的阴影。” [杨1980：3：621-622。]--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 14:46, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
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'''Early Misunderstandings'''<br />
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Before the novel was available in translation, we find a lot of misunderstandings and negative judgements on the novel: Morrison considered the novel to have been written in “Peking Dialect”, this mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the Dreams is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.] In 1842 Gützlaff[ “''Dreams in the Red Chamber''”, Friedrich August Gützlaff (1803-1851), “《紅樓夢》Hung Lau Mung, or Dreams in the Red Chamber; a novel. 20 vols. Noticed by a Correspondent”, in: ''Chinese Repository'', issue 11 (1842) 266-273.] introduced the protagonist as „the lady Páuyu“ (p. 268), even “a very petulant woman” (p. 270) and “busy lady” (p. 272), and took Jia Yucun贾雨村 (instead of Jia Zheng 贾政) as Baoyu’s father.<br />
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在小说被翻译出版之前，我们发现了很多关于小说的误解和负面判断。莫里森认为小说是用“北京话”写的，这个错误发展了它自己的传统。[即使在1995年，您也可以阅读 梦是用北京话写的，参见 舒常山，《死神的托马斯·曼斯》，中国，1995年，法兰克福：郎，326页。至少通瑶（《文学之路》，2006年）同时提到了北京方言和南京话。 弗里德里希·奥古斯特·古兹拉夫（Friedrich AugustGützlaff，1803-1851年），《《红楼梦》》 一本小说。 20卷 通讯员注意到”，在：中国资料库，第11版（1842）266-273。]中将主角介绍为“夫人帕尤”（第268页），甚至是“一个非常挑剔的女人”（第270页），以及“ （第272页），并以贾雨村贾雨村（而不是贾政贾政）为宝玉的父亲。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 02:19, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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早期出现的误解<br />
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在小说翻译出版之前，出现了很多关于小说的误解和负面判断：莫里森认为小说是用“北京话”写的，这种误解延续了很久。[即使在1995年，你也会看到《红楼梦》是用北京话写的这种说法，参见 舒常山，《死神的托马斯·曼斯》，中国，1995年，法兰克福：郎，326页。至少通瑶（《文学之路》，2006年）同时提到了北京方言和南京话。 弗里德里希·奥古斯特·古兹拉夫（Friedrich AugustGützlaff，1803-1851年），《《红楼梦》》 一本小说。 20卷 通讯员注意到”，在：中国资料库，第11版（1842）266-273。]中将主角介绍为“宝玉夫人”（第268页），甚至是称他是“一个非常挑剔的女人”（第270页），以及“ （第272页），并把贾雨村（而不是贾政）当成宝玉的父亲。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:04, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
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Also his overall judgement is “in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces.” and he recommends it for language learning (p. 273). Even in 1900, Herbert Allen Giles introduced the novel as have been written in “Peking dialect” and attributed to Cao Xueqin “of the 17th cent.”[ “HUNG-LOU-MENG: 紅樓夢 A famous Chinese novel in the Peking dialect, popularly known as the Dream of the Red Chamber, dealing chiefly with events of domestic life which are very graphically described, and attributed to Ts'ao Hsiieh-ch'in of the 17th cent.” See: Herbert Allen Giles, ''A glossary of reference on subjects connected with the Far East'', 1900, pp. 127-128]<br />
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此外，他的总体判断是“在表达我们对文学价值的意见时，我们可以说，这种风格没有任何艺术，实际上是北方各省较高阶层的口语。”他建议将它用于语言学习(第273页)。甚至在1900年，翟理斯介绍说这部小说是用“北京话”写成的，被认为是17世纪曹雪芹的代表作.【紅樓夢：一部以北京话写成的中国著名小说，俗称《红楼梦》，主要描写家庭生活中的琐事，描写生动形象，被认为是十七世纪曹雪芹的主要作品。参考:赫伯特·艾伦·翟里斯，《远东相关主题参考词汇》，1900年，第127-128页]】--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 04:08, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，他认为，在表达我们对文学价值的意见时，我们可以说，这种风格不带有任何艺术成分，是北方各省较高阶层的口语用词。他建议将它用于语言学习当中(第273页)。在1900年，翟理斯表示，这部小说是用“北京话”写成，是17世纪曹雪芹的代表作.【《红楼梦》：一部以北京话写成的中国著名小说，俗称《红楼梦》，主要描写家庭生活中的琐事，其描写生动形象，被认为是十七世纪曹雪芹的代表作。参考：赫伯特·艾伦·翟里斯，《远东相关主题参考词汇》，1900年，第127-128页]】<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
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Also he claimed that the title “红楼梦” would be “a term which is not found anywhere in the text”,[ Giles 1885.] therefore was figurative and should be translated as “A Vision of Wealth and Power”. Actually the expression is found several times in the text, even in the title of chapter 25 and Baoyu actually very often falls asleep and dreams in the red bed-chambers of his female relatives and friends.<br />
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同时，他指出，“红楼梦”这一题目是“一个在文本中完全没有出现的术语”，[翟理斯 1885.]因此，它富含比喻意，应该将之译为“对财富和权力的憧憬”。实际上，“红楼梦”这一表述在文中出现了好几次，甚至出现在25章的标题中，除此之外，宝玉经常在睡梦中梦见他的女性亲友的红色寝室。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:34, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
此外，他还声称 "红楼梦 "是 "一个在文本中任何地方都找不到的术语"，[ 翟理斯1885.]因此是形象化的，应译为 "财富和权力的愿景"。其实这句话在正文中，甚至在第二十五回的标题中，都多次出现过，而且宝玉也确实经常在他的女性亲友的红色卧房中入睡和入梦。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 09:58, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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而且，他认为“红楼梦”这个名字“在整个作品中无迹可寻”（翟理斯）因此它的选用是修辞手法的表达，并且应该译为“财富与权力之现象”。事实上，“红楼梦”的表达在文章中出现过好几次，甚至出现在第25章的标题里，宝玉经常在女性亲朋好友的红色厢房里睡觉和做梦。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:10, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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'''Early Reception of the novel in the West'''<br />
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We first must credit pioneers like J. Davis, who not only tried to systematize Chinese poetry with examples from the ''Red Chamber Dreams'', but also sent the first translations of the novel out in the world and made it known in America and Europe just a decade after it has been published in China. Some sinologists used the story simply as a good example for learning Chinese (Morrison, Thom).<br />
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“中国小说传到西方早期”<br />
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我们必须赞赏像约翰·戴维斯这样的先驱，他从《红楼梦》中收集诗句，不仅将中国诗词系统化，同时也将《红楼梦》的第一份译文传向世界，使其在中国出版仅10年后，便在美国和欧洲为人所知。一些汉学家将《红楼梦》作为开始学习中文的素材。（汤姆·莫里森）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首先，我们必须称赞像约翰·戴维斯这样的先驱，他引用《红楼梦》中的诗句，努力将中国诗词系统化，同时还将《红楼梦》的第一版译文传向世界，使其在中国出版仅10年后，便在美国和欧洲广为人知。一些汉学家将《红楼梦》作为开始学习中文的素材。（汤姆·莫里森）--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:22, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
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One can conclude that the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' transported a differentiated image of China, of fashion, of hair and clothes (Barrow, Bruguière, Goldsmith), of human relations (Goldsmith), and of a highly developed language. In this language, some poetical expressions were only understandable to those who had a broad knowledge of Chinese culture. The finesse of the differentiated use of the dialects according to the respective characters in the novel was simply overlooked (Morrison, Gützlaff, Thom) and only discovered much later.<br />
我们可以得出这样的结论：《红楼梦》传达了一种关于中国，关于时尚，关于发型和衣服（巴罗、布吕吉埃、戈德史密斯），关于人际关系（戈德史密斯），以及关于高度发达的语言的不同形象。在这种语言中，一些诗意的表达方式只有对中国文化有广泛了解的人才能理解。小说中根据各自的人物区分使用方言的精妙之处，根本被忽略了（莫里森、居茨拉夫、托姆），直到后来才发现。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 09:54, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们可以得出这样的结论：《红楼梦》传达出一种与众不同的中国形象，包括时尚、发型和服饰（巴罗，布鲁吉尔，戈德史密斯）、人际关系（戈德史密斯）和高度发达的语言。在这种语言中，一些诗歌表达只有对中国文化有广泛了解的人才能理解。根据小说中人物的不同而区别使用方言的技巧被忽略了（莫里森、古茨拉夫、汤姆），直到后来才被发现。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:21, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
The first phase of the Western reception was ethnocentric, partially due to the China-bashing of philosophers like Montesquieu, Herder, Hegel and to the imperialist spirit of contemporary Europe. The judgments on the novel are mostly driven by argumentation strategies; that is, the novel is used as a tool to prove one’s own existing attitudes. The novel is exploited to argue for:<br />
<br />
民族中心主义时期是接受西方的第一个时期，这部分源于中国对于孟德斯鸠、赫尔德、黑格尔等哲学家的猛烈抨击，以及当代欧洲的帝国主义精神。这本小说中的观点大多是由论证策略驱动的，也就是说，这本小说实际上是用以论证某人已有观点的工具。它论证的有：--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:04, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
民族中心主义时期是接受西方的第一个时期。这个时期的产生与中国对于孟德斯鸠、赫尔德、黑格尔等哲学家的猛烈抨击有关，同时也离不开当代欧洲的帝国主义精神。这本小说中的观点大多是由论证策略驱动的，也就是说，这本小说实际上是用以论证某人已有观点的工具。它论证的有：--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:21, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
- exoticism (J. Davis, Barrow, Bruguière)<br />
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- the inferiority of Chinese literature (Gützlaff, Langdon Davies, Harte, Giles, Headland)<br />
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- polarization by confronting opposite conceptions like ideal of beauty etc. (Goldsmith)<br />
<br />
- to proof own hypotheses, like a self-made categorization of Chinese poetry (J. Davis)<br />
<br />
<br />
In this beginning phase, most comparisons were done within Chinese literature (Gützlaff: best of Chinese literature but inferior to Western literature, later: best of Chinese literature).<br />
<br />
- 异国情调（J.戴维斯，巴罗，布鲁基耶）<br />
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- 中国文学的劣势（古兹拉夫，兰登戴维斯，哈特，贾尔斯，海德兰）<br />
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- 通过对立的概念实现两极分化，如理想之美。（戈尔登史密斯）<br />
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- 证明自己的假设，就像中国诗歌的自我分类（J.戴维斯）<br />
<br />
在最开始的阶段，大多数的比较都是关于中国文学的。（古兹拉夫：最好的中国文学，但不及西方文学，后来:最好的中国文学）--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 15:01, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-异国情调（J.戴维斯，巴罗，布鲁基耶）<br />
<br />
-中国文学的劣势（古茨拉夫，兰登·戴维斯，哈特，吉尔斯，海德兰）<br />
<br />
-通过概念的对立来实现两极分化，如理想之美等。（戈德史密斯）<br />
<br />
-证明自己的假设，例如对中国诗歌的自我归类（J.戴维斯）<br />
<br />
<br />
在这个开始阶段，大多数比较都是在中国文学中进行的（古茨拉夫：中国文学最好，但次于西方文学，后来：中国文学最好）。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:15, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
<br />
However, when Herder revised his China perception, and when the still inadequate perception of China called for a more differentiated image, the first translated extracts of this rich novel of manners helped to change the perception of China.<br />
<br />
Finally ''Dream'' was compared to Western literature (Erkes, Wilhelm), was enshrined in the temple of world literature and was assigned attributes that added value to the Western reading experience (Clemons: “slowing down”).<br />
<br />
然而，赫尔德修正了他的中国观，对中国仍不充分的认知使他需要一个更加差异化的中国形象，而这本的充满礼仪的小说的第一批翻译摘录帮助他改变了对中国的看法。<br />
红楼梦被比作西方文学（埃尔克斯，威廉）被供奉在西方文学殿堂，它被赋予了额外价值，能够增加西方阅读体验（克莱蒙斯：“放慢速度”）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 06:55, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
<br />
'''Motifs for judgements'''<br />
<br />
As motifs for the early judgements mentioned above, I identify exoticization (joy of otherness of fashion and dressing, customs), universalization (world literature), the instrumentalization of the novel as evidence for own hypotheses on literature (Davis’ poetry), the instrumentalization for language learning etc.<br />
<br />
There is a change of motifs over time from exoticization and instrumentalization for proving inferiority to Western novels to accepting the novel as part of world literature and a masterpiece of Chinese culture with a special value in documenting Chinese society.<br />
判断的主题<br />
作为上述提及的早期判断的主题，我确定了小说的异国化（时尚和穿着的别样喜乐，习俗），普遍化（世界文学），小说的工具化作为文学假设的证据（如戴维斯的诗歌），以及小说的工具化用于语言学习等。<br />
随着时间的推移，小说主题也发生了变化，从异国化和工具化证明西方小说的劣势，到接受小说作为世界文学的一部分以及可以记录中国社会的具有独特价值的中国文化杰作。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:06, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
判断主题<br />
上述提到的早起判断主题，我认为小说的异国化（别样的时尚穿着，习俗带来的乐趣），普遍化（世界文学），工具化，证实了我们对文学（戴维斯诗歌）的假设，也证实了语言学习工具化。<br />
随着时间的推移，小说主题从异国化变成工具化，证实了本身不如西方小说，接受小说是世界文学的一部分，也接受中国文化杰作在记录中国社会方面有一种独特价值。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:11, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
<br />
'''The novel title'''<br />
<br />
The book title changed from the first translations as “Red Chamber Dreams” to singular “Dream” in 1843 by德明 (А. И. Коваńко / A. I. Kovańko)[ „Traumgesicht auf dem rothen Thurm“, see> 德明 А. И. Коваńко (1808-1870, trans.): „''Chun-lou-men'' (‚Traumgesicht auf dem rothen Thurm‘) oder ‚Geschichte des Steins‘（《石头记》）. Tschen-schi-in erfährt im Traume die Wiederbelebung des Steins; Zja-jui-zun verliebt sich in seiner Armuth in eine schöne Magd.“ , in: ''Das Ausland'', Munich 26 (1843) 198-199, 201-203.] and in 1846 by Robert Thom[ Robert Thom 羅伯聃, “Extract from the Hung-low-mung, chapter VI”, in: Robert Thom, 《正音撮要》 The Chinese speaker. Extracts from works written in the Mandarin language, as spoken at Peking. Compiled for the use of students, by Robert Thom, Esq., H. M. Consul at Ningpo. Part I, Ningpo: Presbyterian Mission Press 1846, pp. 62-89].<br />
<br />
<br />
'''小说名'''<br />
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书名刚开始翻译为“红楼梦”（Red Chamber Dreams），1843年德明将其译成了单数“梦”（Dream）。1846年，羅伯聃也将其译为单数形式。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 11:33, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
<br />
Many scholars have discussed the question if it was more appropriate to call the novel “Story of the Stone” instead of “Dream of the Red Chamber”. Arguments for the latter are that the first printed edition and most of the printed editions afterwards carried this title, so that it reached its fame and was read under this title until today, there was also at least one 120-chapter manuscript copy, the 《乾隆抄本百二十回紅樓夢》Qianlong 120 chapter manuscript; with this title circulating before. However, e.g. the Hawkes/Minford translation and the German Schwarz/Woesler translation use both titles with “also called” in between.<br />
<br />
许多学者都讨论过这样一个问题，即这部小说是否应该叫 "石头的故事 "而不是 "红楼梦 "更合适。支持后者的论点是，第一版印刷版和之后的大部分印刷版都使用这个书名，所以它有了自己的名气，直到今天还用这个书名，至少还有一个120章的手抄本，即乾隆抄本百二十回红楼梦；之前流传着这个书名。不过，如霍克斯/明福译本和德国施瓦兹/沃斯勒译本都使用这两个书名，中间有 "也叫"。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许多学者都讨论过一个问题，即把这部小说起名为《石头记》 相比《红楼梦》而言是否更为合适。支持后者的人认为，第一版和之后的大多数印刷版已经有《红楼梦》这个名字了，所以名气传播开来，直至今日人们读到的还是这个书名，至少还有一个一百二十回的手抄稿，即《乾隆抄本百二十回红楼梦》，之前就流传这个书名。不过，在霍克斯/明福译本和德国施瓦茨/沃斯勒译本中，两个书名都用到了，之间含有“亦称”两字。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:16, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
<br />
Some scholars argue that the German title ''Traum der Roten Kammer'' was grammatically and logically not correct in German, but you need more than a grammar teacher’s imagination to find the answer why this title prevailed: A book title, especially a poetic one of a work of literature, does not at all have to be grammatically correct or logical, the title is simply assigned with the first translations and translators and then naturally develops in the cultural field over time.<br />
<br />
一些学者认为,德译版本《红楼梦》的标题“Traum der Roten Kammer”在德语中的语法和逻辑不正确,但是要找到这个标题为什么盛行，光靠语法老师的想象力是不够的:书名,尤其是像诗歌文学作品,并不需要一定在语法或逻辑上正确,标题只是简单地由最初翻译版本和译者指定的，然后随着时间的推移自然地在文化领域发展。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:50, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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一些学者认为，《红楼梦》标题的德版译文Traum der Roten Kammer在德语的语法和逻辑上是不正确的，但想到找到这个标题为什么流行的答案，光拥有跟语法老师一样的想象力是不够的:书名，尤其是文学作品充满诗意的书名，根本不需要语法正确或有逻辑，标题只是简单地由最初的译文和译者定下来，然后自然而然地随着时间的推移在文化领域发展。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:05, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一些学者认为,德译版本《红楼梦》的标题“Traum der Roten Kammer”在德语的语法和逻辑方面有误，,但是要找到这个标题为什么盛行的原因，光靠语法老师的想象力是不够的:书名,尤其是像诗歌文学作品的书名,不必在语法或逻辑上正确,因为标题由最初翻译版本和译者指定的，然后随着时间的推移自然地在文化领域发展。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:31, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
<br />
Language development exactly works like this: New, seemingly incorrect forms of expressions come into existence, and become correct and a part of language simply because they are used. All translation decisions need to be balanced: They do not have to adhere only to a word-by-word translation, or to logic or grammar, but to what is a common expression or broadly accepted.<br />
<br />
语言的发展就是这样的:新的，看似不正确的表达形式出现，变得正确且成为语言的一部分，仅仅因为它们被使用了。所有的翻译方式需要权衡:它们不必只遵循逐字的翻译，或是遵循逻辑或语法翻译，而是遵循一种通用的表达方式或被广泛接受的表达方式。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:07, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
语言的发展就是这样的:新的，看似不正确的表达形式开始出现，然后变得正确且成为语言的一部分，仅仅因为人们使用了它们。译者需要权衡所有的翻译方式:他们不必只遵循逐字翻译，或是只根据逻辑或语法规则，而是应该使用一种通用的或被广泛接受的表达方式。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:44, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
语言就是以这样的方式发展的：新的，看似不正确的表达新式首先出现，然后它们变为正确表达，且成为语言的一部分，这仅仅因为它们被使用了。翻译需要权衡；不必只遵循字对字的翻译或是遵从逻辑或语法，而应该遵照人们广泛接受的表达。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 14:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
<br />
There are historical settings which influence these historical decisions, like the existence of the English translation title “Dream of the Red Chamber” at that time. Other reasons are that “Traum der” is simply shorter than “Träume im/vom roten Anwesen”, while the reader will still associate the logically correct meaning behind it. The word “Kammer” at the time when the novel was first published in Chinese was linked to luxurious rooms e.g. in castles, so very much appropriate. And the “red” is a leitmotiv.<br />
有一些历史背景影响着这些历史决定，比如当时英译本《红楼梦》的存在。另一个原因是“Traum der”比“Träume im/vom roten Anwesen”短，而读者会联想到其背后逻辑上正确的含义。当该小说第一次以中文出版时，“坎默”一词指豪华的房间（如城堡），非常恰当。“红色”是主旨。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:20, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
有一些历史背景会影响这些历史决定，例如当时“红楼梦”标题的英文翻译。另一原因是“ Traum der”短于“Träumeim / vom roten Anwesen”，而读者仍会联想到其背后逻辑上正确的含义。当小说首次以中文出版时，“ Kammer”一词指豪华的房间（如城堡），这是非常恰当的，因为“红色”是主旨。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:17, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
<br />
To pay tribute to historical developments of becoming a well-known expression, in the German edition, the mentioning of “rote Kammer” was capitalized into “Rote Kammer” in the new edition, very much alike “Red Chamber” in English at the very beginning of the English translation history.<br />
为了纪念历史的发展成为一个众所周知的表达，在德语版中，“rote Kammer”在新版中被大写为“Rote Kammer”，非常类似于英语翻译史开始时的英版红楼梦。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 04:30, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
。<br />
向历史发展致敬成为一种众所周知的表达方式,在德语版中，“rote Kammer”在新版中被大写为“Rote Kammer”，非常类似于英语翻译史开始时对红楼梦的译法。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:11, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在德语版本中，为了纪念“rote Kammer”成为一个著名表达这一历史进--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 07:13, 16 November 2020 (UTC)程，新版中提到的“rote Kammer”被大写化为“Rote Kammer”，很像英语翻译历史之初时对红楼梦的译法“Red Chamber”。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 07:13, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
'''80 or 120 chapters'''<br />
<br />
The First European Conference on the Dream of the Red Chamber in Bonn 1992 agreed that the 120 chapter version was the authoritative one because it was simply the version under which the novel reached its fame and is best known among readers. Publishing houses argue that a fragment is harder to sell. Also, the part of Cao Xueqin in the last 40 chapters is not finally enligthened, and I always recommend to stick to the editors claims until falsification, therefore we should at least assume Cao’s authorship of the last 40 chapter titles and maybe even some parts of the text.<br />
<br />
“80章还是120章”<br />
<br />
第一届以红楼梦为主题的欧洲会议于1992年在波恩举行，会议上，专家们一致认为120章的版本更具权威性。原因是这个版本在世界上广为流传，在读者中广为人知。出版社认为，单独把书的某几个章节拎出来是很难出售的。此外，曹雪芹撰写的最后40章中部分内容并没有被最终确定下来，因此我始终建议坚持编者的主张，直到被篡改为止。基于此，我们至少应承认曹雪芹拥有最后40章甚至是部分文本的著作权。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 09:37, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''80章还是120章'''<br />
<br />
第一届以红楼梦为主题的欧洲会坛于1992年在波恩举办。与会者一致认为120章的版本是权威版本，因为这个版本使红楼梦声名远扬、广为人知。出版社认为取其中几章出版成书，销量会更惨淡。曹雪芹撰写的最后40章是否出版最终也没有确定。我会一直坚持编者的观点，直到这本小说被改动后出版。因此，我们至少应该承认曹雪芹对于最后40章甚至是部分文本的著作权。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:09, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
<br />
How far other contributors have come close to or deviated from Cao’s original intent for the last 40 chapters may stay object of research. However, they seem to have been successful, because the 120-chapter has prevailed historically, also in its translations, and found the acceptance of the readership.<br />
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'''Deviations from the original'''<br />
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Kuhn, successful and critizised, with his Adapting and Foreignizing, very pleasing but ever-the-same-style translations of so different novels like Shuihuzhuan, Xiyouji and Hongloumeng is history and today one among many translations and more and more readers are able to read the Hongloumeng in other languages like English or even in Chinese.<br />
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在最后40章中，其他编著者在多大程度上接近或偏离了曹雪芹原本的意图，这仍是一个有待考究的问题。然而，他们似乎取得了成功，因为120章的版本及其译本在历史上一直很流行，并获得了读者的认可。<br />
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'''与原始版本的差异'''<br />
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翻译家库恩（Kuhn）很成功但也受到了批评，他对许多不同小说的翻译经过改编和异化都非常有趣但风格千篇一律，例如《水浒传》、《西游记》和《红楼梦》之类的小说的译本已成为历史，如今已是众多译本中的一种，越来越多的读者能够阅读其他语言（英语甚至中文）版本的《红楼梦》。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:10, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
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Kuhn mentions to have used two specific copies of the original work. There are scholars who doubted that he really used the copies he indicated, because they could not be found. I see no reason to doubt Kuhn’s statement, it is more likely that he used grey editions which are not registered and maybe cannot be found any more.<br />
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'''1st deviation by Minford: The explicit episode about the human-ghostly intercourse, chapter 102'''<br />
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This episode is a black humour one, where Wu Gui’s wife has “a little bit a cold”, takes the wrong medicine and dies.<br />
库恩提到，他使用了原作的两个特定副本。有学者质疑他是否真的使用了他指出的副本，因为它们没法被找到。我认为没有理由怀疑库恩的说法，更有可能是他使用的灰色版本没有注册，可能已经找不到了。<br />
闵福德的第一次偏离:关于人鬼交合的突出情节，第102章<br />
这一集是黑色幽默的一集，讲的是吴贵的妻子“有点感冒”，吃错了药然后死了。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 15:29, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
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At this passage, it looks like we have the opposite case as in the second example: In the Chinese original the whole sentence “enjoyed her at inordinate length” is missing.<br />
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程甲本: 那媳妇子本有些感冒着了，日间吃错了药，晚上吴贵到家，已死在炕上。外面的人因那媳妇子不妥当，便都说妖怪爬过墙吸了精去死的。<br />
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程乙本: 那媳妇子本有些感冒着了，日间吃错了药，晚上吴贵到家，已死在炕上。外面的人因那媳妇子不大妥当，便说妖怪爬过墙来吸了精去死的。<br />
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Minford: Because of her reputation for promiscuity, other members of the household staff concluded that a spirit must have climbed over the Garden wall, enjoyed her at inordinate length, and finally sucked the sap' out of her.<br />
She had caught a cold before;Worsely she took the wrong medicine in the day time, dead already when Wu Gui arrived home in the evening.Neighbours gossiped she was sucked to death by a monster because of lacking in virtue.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 17:15, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
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The sentence seems to be made up by John Minford. It is the explicit report of a sexual intercourse between a ghost and a woman, which ended, when the ghost sucked the lifeblood out of her. Minford does not only extend this brief report about the death of a woman by adding a sexual intercourse between a human and a non-human, which is inappropriate or abnormal by itself, but stresses the abnormality even by characterizing this intercourse in more detail, as taking “inordinate” long.<br />
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这个句子看起来像是约翰·闵福德生造的。它是一个幽灵和一个女人之间性交往的明确表述，并且在这个幽灵吸食女人的血时戛然而止。闵福德不仅仅只是用增加一段人与非人之间的性交往的方式展开了这段简要的表述，因为这段表述是不恰当或不正常的，甚至他还将这种交往更细节的表达作为特色来强调这种不正常，正如这个句子有着过分的长度。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 08:33, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
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Originally, Cao/Gao had only very briefly reported on Wu Gui’s wife’s death. They mentioned the natural cause of death, that she had taken the wrong medicine. However, since most of the strokes of fate in this novel are explained as to be motivated through moral retaliation, Cao/Gao describe her as “promiscuous”. In the logic of moral retaliation, she earns to die. The ghost then would be the executor. But still he only is described as climbing over the wall and sucking the lifeblood out of her.<br />
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最初，曹高二人只是非常简短地提到吴贵妻子的去世。 他们提到了死亡的自然原因，她服错了药。 但是，这本小说中大多数人的命运，被解释为是出于道德报复的动机，所以曹高二人将她形容为“滥交”。 按照道德报复的逻辑，她死了， 妖怪成了杀人凶手。 但是，妖怪仍然只是被描述为从墙上爬过，将血从她身上吸了出来。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:02, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最初，曹高二人只是非常简短地提到吴贵妻子的死。他们提到了她死亡的自然原因，是她服错了药。但是，由于这本小说中大多数对命运的描写都被解释为是出于道德报复的动机，所以曹高二人将她描写为“滥交的”。按照道德报复的逻辑，她死了，幽灵将成为她死亡的执行者。但是他仍然只是被描述为从墙上爬过，吸干了她的血夺走了她的命。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:32, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
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Minford adds an action, which leads further than Cao/Gao wrote. This action still is connected to the story, it even drives its authority from Wu Gui’s wife’s promiscuous way of living. The scene might have stimulated the readers’ fantasy, but not necessarily in the direction of Minfords account. Did Minford simply give his fancy full scope? He might also have been encouraged to interpret this scene the way he did because of the parallel scene with the mirror in chapter 12, where Jia Rui also has inordinate often sexual intercourse with the ghost of Xifeng, and gradually loses his lifeblood until he dies on a large patch of semen.<br />
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闵福德给曹雪芹、高鹗所作的《红楼梦》注入了新的血液。这一举动仍紧贴故事，甚至从吴贵妻子淫乱的生活方式中汲取了权威理由。这个场景可能激发了读者的想象，尽管并不一定是按照闵福德描写的方向。闵福德仅是完整呈现了他幻想的全部吗？他可能也在努力按照第十二章处风月宝鉴镜中的平行场景来解释这个场景，在该场景中，贾瑞经常与西峰的美女幻影云雨欢爱，逐渐失去了生命力，最终死在一滩留有大块精液的床上。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:31, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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闵福德之举给曹雪芹、高鹗所作的《红楼梦》注入了新的血液。这一举动仍紧贴故事，甚至从吴贵妻子淫乱的生活方式中汲取了合理理由。这个场景可能激发了读者幻想，尽管并不一定是按照闵福德描写的方向。闵福德仅是完整呈现了他幻想的全部吗？他可能已受鼓舞地按照第十二章处风月宝鉴镜中的平行场景来解释这个场景。在该场景中，贾瑞经常与西峰的倩影幽魂共赴云雨，渐渐被吸尽了精气直到咽气，身下一大滩精液。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 14:58, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
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After Minford had altered the original, the original ending of that scene did not fit any more: The action of killing her by sucking the lifeblood out of her comes too abrupt. In one subordinate clause they enjoy their sex and even inappropriately long, and in the next he kills her, which is by itself also outrageous. So Minford had to step into the original text sentence and add the adverb “finally” in order to bring it into a chronological and resultative relation.<br />
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在闵福德修改了原著后，原著的结局不再合适:吸她的血来杀死她的动作来得太突然了。在一个从句中，他们享受他们的性爱，甚至久得不太合适，在下一个从句中，他杀了她，这本身也是令人发指的。因此，他不得不在原文句中加入副词“finally”，使之连接起来。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 07:05, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在闵福德修改了原作之后，原作的结局不再合适：从她身上吸血来杀死她显得太突然了。 在一个从句中，他们享受性爱；而在下一个从句中，他杀死了她，这本身也是令人发指的。 因此，他必须在原文中添加副词“finally”，以使其按时间顺序和因果关系连接。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 07:44, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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闵福德修改了原著之后，原本的结局便不再符合原著：吸她的血来杀死她的动作来得太突然。在一个从句中写到他们享受他们的性爱，甚至长久得不太合适，而在下一个句子中，他杀了她，这行为本身也是令人发指。因此，闵福德不得不在原文句中加上副词“finally”，使句子能够按时间顺序和因果关系展开。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 08:59, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
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Kuhn and Schwartz/Woesler have translated this passage without these additions and did not elaborate possible fantasies.<br />
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The effect of Minfords addition is, that the episode becomes more interesting, scandalous and sexually explicit.<br />
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In order to find out, what made Minford add this information, we should consider not only the original, but also a then existing translation. Minford in his preface thanked Yang Xianyi for his help with his own translation Hawkes/Minford 4:30. When we look at the Yang/Yang translation, we find the adding already there:<br />
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库恩和施瓦茨/韦斯勒翻译了这一段,但是没有这些补充，也没有详细描述这些可能的幻想。<br />
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Minford的补充让这一集变得更加有趣、具有诽谤性和性外显。<br />
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为了找出为什么Minford要补充这些信息，我们不仅要考虑原文，还要考虑当时的翻译环境。Minford在序言中感谢杨宪益对他翻译的帮助(Hawkes/Minford 4:30)。当我们看杨或者杨的翻译时，我们发现早已有所补充：--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 08:51, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
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Yang/Yang: Outsiders, knowing her bad reputation, claimed that a monster had climbed over the wall to enjoy her until she died of exhaustion.<br />
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This translation in many respects is not so accurate. The couple Yang/Yang uses more general words, leaving out the causal conjunction “because” [she was known for promiscuity]. For 不[大]妥当 (promiscuity) they even use the more general “bad reputation”, and maybe in order to compensate for the lacking sexual connotation in this, they added “to enjoy her”, which we do not find in the Chinese original text.<br />
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杨氏夫妇：局外人觉得她的声誉不好，都说曾有一个怪物翻过了围墙，奸杀了她。<br />
这种翻译在很多方面都是很模糊的。杨氏夫妇使用了更为笼统的词语，删减了关联词“因为”（她以滥交闻名）。 对于不大妥当的词语（滥交），他们甚至使用更模糊的“坏名声”来处理，也许是为了弥补其中缺乏的性内涵，他们添加了“to enjoy her”，这在原文中是找不到出处的。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 07:34, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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杨氏夫妇：局外人知道她名声不好，他们都说曾有一个怪物翻过围墙来奸杀了她。<br />
这翻译有很多地方都很模糊。所以杨氏夫妇使用了更为笼统的词语，他们删减了关联词“因为”（她以滥交闻名）。 对于不大妥当的词语（滥交），他们甚至用更模糊的词语“坏名声”来处理，也许是为了弥补其中缺乏的性欲，他们添加了“to enjoy her”，这在原文中是找不到出处的。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:10, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
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And they already prepare the way for Minford’s “finally” by adding the “until”. As the whole Yang/Yang translation uses simpler words, 妖怪 is translated as “monster” instead of “ghost”. Since immediately before this episode the garden is described as being the home of ghosts, he latter might have been the better expression. Also the “death of exhaustion” is an interpretation, the Chinese text only reads “sucked the lifeblood out of her”.<br />
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他们也将闵福德的“finally”(最后)一词改为“until”(直到)。杨戴夫妇的整个译文用的都是相对简单的词，如“妖怪”译成“monster”(怪兽)而不是“ghost”(幽灵)。在上一个片段中，杨戴夫妇将花园描述成幽灵的家，所以用后者(ghost)表达或许更好。同样，“死于精疲力竭”只是一种解释，在中文文本中只解作“吸干她的生命之血”。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 09:17, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们也将闵福德的“finally”(最后)一词改为“until”(直到)。杨戴夫妇的整个译文用的都是相对简单的词，如“妖怪”译成“monster”(怪兽)而不是“ghost”(幽灵)。但就在上一个片段中，花园描述为幽灵的家，所以用后者(ghost)表达或许更好。同样，“死于精疲力竭”只是一种解释，在中文文本中只解作“吸干她的生命之血”。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 15:07, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
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So it seems that Minford has decided to keep the deviation of Yang/Yang, which is disloyal to the original and therefore falls under category c. However it may protect the Yang/Yang translation from discovery of its same deviation, since only people fluent in both languages will be able to discover it. Was Minford’s disloyalty to the original and his loyalty to his fellow translators a conspiracy? Or did Minford not directly translate from the Chinese, but simply improve the Yang/Yang translation? Since he uses “spirit” instead of “monster”, he still seems to have been conscious about everything and seems to have consciously decided to keep the Yang/Yang deviation for the mentioned possible reasons.<br />
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因此，Minford似乎决定保留Yang / Yang的变体，这与原文有所偏差，因此属于c类。 但是，由于只有精通两种语言的人才能发现它，因此它可以保留Yang / Yang这一翻译，而读者不会发现这一变体。 Minford对原著的不忠和对同时期译者的不忠是阴谋吗？ 还是Minford不直接从中文翻译而只是改进了Yang / Yang这一翻译？ 由于他使用“精神”而不是“怪物”，因此他似乎全文有所了解，并且出于上述可能的原因，似乎有意识地决定保持Yang / Yang这一变体。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:18, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
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'''2nd deviation by Minford: The explicit episode on the first attempt of the rape of the nun Miaoyu, chapter 111'''<br />
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In chapter 111, we find another anecdote, where thieves invade Rongguofu and steal chests of treasures. On their way, they discover the appealing nun Miaoyu and start a first attempt to rape her. The exact passage reads in both editions:<br />
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程甲本and程乙本: 又欺上屋俱是女人，且又畏惧，正要踹进门去，因听外面有人进来追赶，所以贼众上房。<br />
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'''闵福德的第二处改编：在第111章节，详细描述第一次强奸尼姑妙玉'''<br />
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在第111章节，我们发现了另一处轶事，当强盗为抢夺金库的财宝闯进荣国府时，他们看到了美貌如花的妙玉，并开始尝试第一次强奸她。具体的细节在两个版本中都有体现。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
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Yang/Yang: The thieves had known that there were no men in the house. While in Hsi-Chun’s courtyard they had peeped through the window and been inflamed by the sight of a ravishing nun. As there were only terrified women inside, they were about to kick down the door when they heard the night-watch rushing in after them and promptly climbed up the roof.<br />
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Minford: After the main part of their mission was accomplished, the thieves, knowing how unprotected the Jia mansion was, had been casually snooping around in Xi-chun's courtyard, and had caught a glimpse there of a very attractive young nun, which had put all sorts of mischievous ideas into their heads.<br />
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杨/阳:贼人早知屋内没有男人。在熙春的院子里时，他们曾从窗外偷看，看到一个淫荡的尼姑，就被激怒了。由于里面只有被吓坏的女人，他们正要踹门，却听到守夜人跟着冲进来，于是立即爬上屋顶。<br />
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明福:在完成了主要部分的任务后，盗贼们知道贾府是多么的没有防范，就在熙春的院子里随意地窥探，在那里瞥见了一个很有魅力的年轻尼姑，这让他们产生了各种恶作剧的想法。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:02, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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杨/阳:贼人早知屋内没有男人。在熙春院子里时，贼人们从窗外偷看过，在看到是一个淫荡的尼姑后怒火中烧。房里面只有被吓坏的女人，他们正要踹门，却听到守夜人跟着冲进来，就立即爬上了屋顶。<br />
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明福:在完成了主要任务后，盗贼们知道了贾府的防范是多么松懈，就在熙春的院子里随意地窥探。后在那里瞥见了一个风情万种的年轻尼姑，这让他们产生了各种恶作剧的想法。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 01:57, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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杨/阳:贼人早知屋内没有男人。在熙春的院子里时，他们曾从窗外偷看到一个淫荡的尼姑，并为之激怒。房间只有被吓坏的女人，他们正要踹门，却听到守夜人跟着冲进来，于是立即爬上屋顶。<br />
闵福德:在完成了主要任务后，盗贼们知道贾府没有多少防范，就在熙春的院子里随意地窥探，他们在那里瞥见了一个很有魅力的年轻尼姑，由此产生了各种恶作剧的想法。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:43, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
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They knew that the apartment was unguarded save by a handful of scared old women, and were about to kick the door in and put an abrupt end to Adamantina's meditations when they heard the sound of footsteps corning from outside and escaped onto the roof-top.<br />
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Minford has added a sentence here. We see that the original did not contain this sexually explicit clause, therefore the deviation does not fall under category a. We can also exclude the possibility that Minford used an earlier edition which might have been censored in the more prudish socialist era, since we have the original Cheng-Gao edition from 1791/1792.<br />
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他们知道那院子无人看守，只有寥寥几个年纪大的姑子在。他们正要踢开门，打断法师的冥想，却听到门外传来了脚步声，接着就逃上了屋顶。<br />
明福在这里加了一个句子。我们可以看到原版是没有这种直接带性意味的从句的，因此这种偏差没有受到分类的影响。我们可以排除这种可能性，那就是明福用的是早先的版本，这种版本可能是在更为保守的社会主义时代通过了审查的，因为我们有1791/1792年的程高原版作对照。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 01:51, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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他们知道公寓无人看守，里面只有几个胆小的老妇人在。他们正准备踢门进屋，打断阿曼丹蒂娜的沉思，却听到了门外传来的脚步声，于是就逃到了屋顶上。<br />
<br />
Minford在这里添加了一个句子。 我们看到原始文件不包含此色情内容从句，因此该偏差不属于类别a。 我们还可以排除Minford使用较早版本的可能性，该版本可能在更为审慎的社会主义时代受到审查，因为我们拥有的最早的高教版本是1791/1792。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:47, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
Minford’s extra sentence also does not exist in the translations Yang/Yang, Kuhn, nor in the later Schwartz/Woesler.<br />
<br />
In the Chinese original, the emerging sexual tension, stimulating the readers fantasy of a rape, is stopped immediately, when the kicking in of the door already at the beginning of this sentence is relieved by the wording “正要” were just about to… <br />
<br />
We can also exclude the category b. here, because it is not possible to read one subordinate clause more into the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
闵福德的附加句也不存在于杨/阳、库恩以及后来的施瓦茨/沃斯勒的译本中。<br />
在中文原著中出现的性张力，因刺激了读者对强奸的幻想，立即被制止了，在句子开头敲门动作开始的时候，通过“正要（were just about to）"一词所代替。<br />
在这里，我们也可以排除b类，因为不可能在原文中多一个从句。<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:36, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
闵福德的附加句也不存在于杨/阳、库恩以及后来的施瓦茨/沃斯勒的译本中。<br />
在中文原著中出现的性张力，因刺激了读者对强奸犯的幻想，立即被制止了，在句子开头敲门动作开始的时候，通过“正要（were just about to）"一词代替。<br />
在这里，我们也可以排除b类，因为不可能在原文中多一个从句。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 08:09, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
<br />
Might it have been a necessary explanation, which Minford did not want to explain in an annotation and therefore had to integrate into the text? This, we can also exclude, since from the context it is explicitly clear why they wanted to kick in the door. <br />
<br />
In order to understand Minford’s intention, we should ask what effect this wilful addition of this sentence has on the reader? First, this sexually arousing scene becomes longer. This gives the reader more time to develop fantasies, what might happen. Minford adds a sentence which expresses exactly these fantasies: When the men enter the room, Miaoyu will stop her meditation.<br />
<br />
这可能是一个必要的解释，闵福德不想在注释中解释，因此必须融入文本?这一点，我们也可以排除，因为从上下文可以清楚地看出他们为什么要踢门。<br />
<br />
为了理解闵福德的意图，我们应该问一下这个故意添加的句子对读者产生了什么影响?首先，这个性刺激的场景变得更长。这给读者更多的时间去想象会发生什么。闵福德加了一句话，就准确地表达了这些幻想:当男人进入房间时，妙玉就会停止冥想。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 08:15, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
闵福德不想在注释中解释，因此必须整合在文本中，这是否是一个合理的解释？但这一点我们也可以排除，因为可以从上下文清楚地得知他们想去踢门的原因。<br />
<br />
为了理解闵福德的意图，我们应该问一下这个故意添加的句子对读者产生了什么影响？首先，这个性刺激的情景延长，这给与了读者更多的时间去幻想到底发生了什么。闵福德添加了一个句子，恰当的解释了这些幻想：当男人们进入房间时，妙玉就会停止冥想。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:05, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
<br />
The shifting of the perspective to the woman adds to the sexual tension. Both, the active men and the so far passive woman are now mentioned and can act in the fantasies of the reader. Even the end of passivity of the woman is associated, when Minford explicitly states that the meditation will end. And he stresses again the brutal aspect of this scene, using the word “abrupt”.<br />
<br />
The novel is mostly very implicit and connotative, it uses metaphors like “wind and rain game” for describing sexual intercourse. Having explored the effects, Minford achieved with his deviation, one might guess, that the intention was to make this episode more explicit, to sexually arouse the readers.<br />
<br />
把视角转向女性会增加性紧张。现在提到的两个人——积极的男人和消极的女人可以在读者的幻想中行动。当明福德明确指出，冥想的结束与女人被动的结束有关。他用“突兀”一词再次强调了这一幕的残酷。<br />
<br />
小说描写大多含蓄，用“风雨游戏”等隐喻来描写性交。明福德用这些隐喻证实，在探索国这些效果之后，人们可能会猜到，他的目的是使这一集更明确，以性唤起读者。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 01:32, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
把视角转向女性会增加性紧张。积极的男人和消极的女人现在都被提到了，并且可以在读者的幻想中行动。当闵福德明确指出冥想会结束时，甚至女人结束被动的状态都是有关联的。并且他用“突兀”一词再次强调了这一幕残酷的那一面。<br />
<br />
这部小说大体上是含蓄且隐含意义丰富的。它用“风和雨游戏”等隐喻来描写性交。人们可能会猜测，在探索过这些效果之后，闵福德用他对原文的偏离达到了他的目的，即是使这一片段更加明确，以性唤起读者。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 08:52, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
<br />
This can be seen as disloyal to the original and its author, and it maybe seen as loyal to the profit of the press and the royalties.<br />
<br />
这可以被视为对原著及其作者的不忠，也可能被视为忠于新闻界的利益和版税。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:29, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''Sequels'''<br />
<br />
续集--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:29, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many other authors also were inspired by the author and wrote a sequel to the novel. Soon, the novel was broadly accepted as another novel of the format of “四大奇书 Si da qi shu” and, since times became more strict regarding pornographic literature, replaced the ''Jin Ping Mei''. Already three years after the appearance, the Suoyin-School was founded and speculations began about the author and if the story had a real background. Please refer to the table of sequels in the attachment.<br />
<br />
许多其他作家也受到作者的启发，写了这部小说的续集。很快，大家认为这本小说是另一部形式为“四大奇书（The Four masterpieces）”的小说，并随着时代对色情文学的严格要求，该小说取代了《金瓶梅》。三年后，索音学校成立了，人们开始猜测作者和故事是否有真实的背景。请参阅附件中的续集表。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:29, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
'''Spreading of the novel to Russia'''<br />
<br />
In 1832, a member of the Russian Orthodox Mission in China (俄国驻北京宗教使团学员) brought a manuscript copy of the Story of the Stone back to Russia. It had 35 vols. (currently in the St. Petersburg branch of the Russian Scientific Oriental Institute). Another member of the Mission, А. И. Коваńко, used the pen name 德明 to introduce part of the first chapter to the West. <br />
<br />
'''Reevaluation in Late Qing and status in the Cultural Revolution'''<br />
<br />
小说传入俄国<br />
1832年，许多俄国驻北京宗教使团学员把《红楼梦》的手稿摘抄本带去俄国，总共有35卷，如今收藏在俄国科学东方组织圣彼得堡分部。其中的一个使团成员A.N.Kobanko使用笔名“德明”把第一章的部分内容介绍给西方。<br />
晚清的重新评价以及文化大革命的地位--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 01:53, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei improved the status of the novel since 1885, he saw it as one of the most important pieces of Chinese literature, and the discussions of Hu Shi and Yu Pingbo. <br />
<br />
During the Cultural Revolution, the Dream of the Red Chamber was forbidden again.<br />
<br />
'''Spreading in Germany'''<br />
<br />
The total number of copies published between 1932 and 1977 is 89335 volumes, the ''Jin Ping Mei'' 《金瓶梅》 reached between 1930 and 1977 175000 vols. Der Traum der Roten Kammer rangiert auf Platz 4 der Welt-Bestsellerliste. <br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
[Please refer to the full bibliographic references in the footnotes for now.]<br />
<br />
王国维自1885年以来就改善了这部小说的地位，他将其视为中国文学中最重要的作品之一，并讨论了胡适和于平波。<br />
在文化大革命期间，《红楼梦》再次被禁。<br />
在德国传播<br />
1932年至1977年间出版的总册数为89335卷，《金瓶梅》在1930年至1977年间达到了175000卷。<br />
Der Traum der Roten Kammer rangiert auf Platz 4 der Welt-Bestsellerliste。<br />
参考文献<br />
[现在请参阅脚注中的完整书目参考。]--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 13:55, 23 November 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
<br />
'''Report'''<br />
<br />
'''3rd International Dream of the Red Chamber Conference in Europe'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
On November 7-8, 2015, the in¬ter¬national conference “Celebrating Cao Xue¬qin’s 300th anniversary - 3rd International ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' Conference Europe” was hosted at Folkwang University of Arts, Essen/Germany and organized by Martin Woesler. The Cao Xueqin Society (Peking) and the European Dream of the Red Chamber Society (Bochum) invited 30 speakers from the USA, Australia, Asia (Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea), Europe (Germany, Hungary, Norway, Slovakia, Switzerland) and China (from the cities of Peking, Shanghai, Chengdu). Sponsor was the Beijing Cao Xueqin Culture Development Foundation.<br />
报告<br />
第三届欧洲红会国际梦想大会<br />
Martin Woesler（吴漠汀）<br />
2015年11月7日至8日，由Martin Woesler（吴漠汀）组织的“庆祝曹雪芹诞辰300周年——第三届欧洲红楼梦国际会议”在德国埃森福克旺艺术大学主办。曹雪芹学会（北京）和欧洲红室协会的梦想（波鸿）邀请了来自美国、澳大利亚、亚洲（香港、台湾、韩国）、欧洲（德国、匈牙利、挪威、斯洛伐克、瑞士）和中国（来自北京、上海、上海城市）的30位发言者。发起人是北京曹雪芹文化发展基金会。--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 07:11, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
<br />
In the greetings, Cultural Attaché Chinese Embassy Berlin Chen Ping, Essen Folkwang University of Arts’ chancellor Michael Fricke and Essen mayor Thomas Kufen expressed their gratitude and their feelings of great honor to host this 3rd international conference in Europe on Cao and his novel after the first two conferences in Bonn/Germany 1992 and Olomouc/Czech Republic 2014. Vice Minister Hu Deping, president of the Peking Cao Xueqin Society, said this conference offered the rare opportunity of sharing findings among experts from China and experts from the rest of the world, opening opportunities for further cooperation.<br />
<br />
中国驻柏林大使馆文化专员陈平，埃森福克旺艺术大学校长麦克·弗里克和埃森市市长托马斯·库夫纳致欢迎辞。继1992年在德国波恩和2014年在捷克共和国的奥洛穆茨的前两届会议之后，能够表示主持第三届关于曹雪芹和他的小说的欧洲国际会议，他们表示十分感激也感到莫大的荣幸。副部长、北京曹雪芹学会会长胡德平表示，这次会议为中国和世界专家分享研究成果提供了难得的机会，为进一步合作提供了机会。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 04:01, 16 November 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler welcomed the participants in his function as president of the European Dream of the Red Chamber Society. He expressed his satisfaction with the high quality of the contributions submitted from all over the world, including 10 written contributions, a selection of which would be published in the ''European Journal of Sinology''. Duan Jiangli announced that a selection of the Chinese papers will be published in the ''Cao Xueqin Research''.<br />
<br />
作为欧洲红学会的主席，吴漠汀热烈欢迎所有参会者。他非常满意对来自世界各地的10篇高质量的书面稿件，其中一部分将在《欧洲汉学杂志》上发表。段江力宣布，中国论文选集将在《曹雪芹研究》上发表。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
作为欧洲红学会的主席，吴漠汀热烈欢迎所有参会者。对于来自世界各地的10篇高质量的书面稿件，他表示十分满意，其中一部分将在《欧洲汉学杂志》上发表。段江力宣布，精选的中国论文将会在《曹雪芹研究》上发表。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 15:20, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为欧洲红学会的主席，吴漠汀热烈欢迎所有参会者。他对来自世界各地的10篇高质量书面稿件表示十分满意，其中一部分选集将发表在《欧洲汉学杂志》上。段江力宣布，中国论文选集将会发表在《曹雪芹研究》上。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:43, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
<br />
Hu Deping opened the first panel on studies on the author (Caoxue) with a discussion of the banner identity of Cao Xueqin, he stressed the imperial proximity of his even plain white banner and his high social status. Hu sees descriptions of Cao asking to put drinks on his tab as a proof of his trustworthiness due to his steady imperial stipend. Fan Zhibin in his contribution interpreted Cao’s status lower. Hu Deping expressed his skepticism towards the authenticity of any findings of cultural relicts after the 1970s attributed to Cao. But he pointed at the fact, that two places in the Old Summer Palace are called like the Daguan yuan itself (‘Daguan’) or like a place in it.<br />
胡德平组织了曹学研究的第一次研讨会，会上讨论了曹雪芹的正白旗身份。他强调了正白旗与皇室关系之亲密，社会地位之显赫。胡认为，关于曹雪芹赊账喝酒的描述证明了他为人可靠，因为他有稳定的皇室津贴。范志斌在其作品中说明曹雪芹地位低下。胡德平对20世纪70年代以来曹雪芹文化遗物的真实性表示怀疑，但他指出了一个事实：圆明园中有两处像是大观园，或大观园一角。--[[User:Monan|Monan]] ([[User talk:Monan|talk]]) 12:30, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
胡德平组织了曹学研究的第一次研讨会，会上讨论了曹雪芹的正白旗身份。他强调了正白旗与皇室关系之亲密，社会地位之显赫。胡认为，关于曹雪芹赊账喝酒的描述证明了他为人可靠，因为他有稳定的皇室津贴。范志斌在其作品中说曹雪芹的身份地位低下。胡德平对20世纪70年代以来曹雪芹文化遗物的真实性表示怀疑，但他指出了一个事实：圆明园中有两处像是大观园，或大观园一角。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 13:59, 23 November 2020 (UTC)MsShuya<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
<br />
Ellen B. Widmer (Wellesley College) analyzed the characterization of Cao as a dramatic character in the sequel ''Hou Honglou meng''. Zhang Shucai (Peking) explained further the findings on social status of aristocratic families and banner people close to the imperial court, with an analysis of the Han and Manchu heritages. Zhan Song (Peking) also reflected on the ethnic identity, when he introduced ''Honglou meng''-critics among Qing Eight Banner people. Duan Qiming (Peking) approached the family history from Cao Yin’s “''Beihong fuji''”, showing connections to author and novel.<br />
<br />
Ellen B. Widmer（威尔斯利学院）对于《后红楼梦》这一续编将曹雪芹描写为戏剧人物的做法进行了研究。张书才（北京）通过分析汉族和满族的文化遗产，进一步阐释了关于处于世族社会地位以及接近王室的旗人研究。詹颂（北京）在介绍红楼梦时同样反映了族群身份这种现象。张书才和詹颂均为清代八旗人士的批评家。段启明（北京）从曹寅的《北红拂记》中研究了曹雪芹的家族历史，体现了作者与小说之间的联系。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:30, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
Ellen B. Widmer（威尔斯利学院）对于《后红楼梦》将曹雪芹描写为戏剧人物的做法进行了研究。张书才（北京）通过分析汉族和满族的文化，进一步阐释了关于处于世族社会地位以及与王室关系亲密的旗人研究。詹颂（北京）在介绍红楼梦时同样反映了族群身份这种现象。张书才和詹颂均为清代八旗人士的批评家。段启明（北京）从曹寅的《北红拂记》中研究了曹雪芹的家族历史，体现了作者与小说之间的联系。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 04:38, 16 November 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
Ellen B. Widmer（威尔斯利学院）对于《后红楼梦》这一续编将曹雪芹描写为戏剧人物的做法进行了研究。张书才（北京）通过分析汉族和满族的文化遗产，进一步阐释了关于处于世族社会地位以及接近王室的旗人研究。詹颂（北京）在介绍清代八旗人士对于《红楼梦》的评论时同样反映了族群身份。段启明（北京）从曹寅的《北红拂记》中研究了曹雪芹的家族历史，体现了作者与小说之间的联系。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 04:46, 16 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
<br />
Ling Hon Lam (Berkeley) opened the 2nd panel “Studies on the novel” with an analysis of the difference of the reading culture in the novel and its sequels. Since the habit of ‘reading silently’ changed at the beginning of Qing to ‘reading aloud’, the silent reading is prominent in the novel and the out loud reading is prominent in the sequels as well as in the last 40 chapters. Duan Jiangli (Peking) introduced the different handwritten comments in the manuscript versions and stressed the importance of the early Zhi Yanzhai commentary. Zhou Wenye (Peking) presented a tool to compare and analyze the different manuscript versions including comments and the different print versions of the novel.<br />
<br />
林汉麟（伯克利）通过分析小说及其续集中的阅读文化差异，开设了第二个小组“小说研究”。由于自清初开始，“默读”的习惯就变成了“大声朗读”，因此，小说中突出了无声阅读，而续集和最后40章中突出了大声朗读。段江丽（北京）在稿件版本中介绍了不同的手写评论，并强调了早期的阎彦斋评论的重要性。周文业（北京）介绍了一种工具，用于比较和分析不同的手稿版本，包括评论和小说的不同印刷版本。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:24, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
<br />
Up to three versions can be displayed simultaneously with the differences highlighted. He demonstrated how to prove which kind of relation certain versions had and what suggested that, in certain cases, there must still exist a missing edition. He favored the Cheng B edition over the Cheng A edition, since the corrections were mostly improvements. He also argued that there were many intermediate editions, even between Cheng A and B, since all surplus printed pages were used for later editions. Zhang Hui (Hong Kong) introduced the novel in a different media form, the drama, focusing on one example of a drama adaption.<br />
<br />
最多可以同时展示三个版本，并突出显示不同之处。 他解释了如何证明某些版本具有什么样的关系，以及在某些情况下该证据表明仍然存在一个缺失的版本。 相较于程甲本，他更喜欢程乙本，因为乙本对甲本的更正大部分是进行了润色。 他还认为，即使在甲本和乙本之间也有许多版本，因为所有多余的印刷页面都用于后来的版本。 张晖（香港）以另一种媒体形式（即戏剧）介绍了这部小说，重点讲述了一部戏剧改编的例子。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 02:27, 16 November 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
<br />
Marina Čarnogurská (Slovakia), translator of the Slovakian full translation, argued that the last 40 chapters were authored not by Gao E, but maybe even by Cao Xueqin. General consent among the participants was that Gao might have had a more editorial function and some parts of the last 40 chapters might have been written by Cao.<br />
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In the 3rd panel “Interdisciplinary/Intertextual Approaches”, Shang Wei (Columbia University/USA) presented insights into visual culture in Qing dynasty and argued that there was a strong European influence in the Manchu court, which is traceable in the novel and influenced Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
玛丽娜·乔阿诺古尔斯卡（斯洛伐克）是斯洛伐克语译本的译者，她认为书的后四十章的作者不是高鹗，而是曹雪芹。参会人员也一致同意，高鹗更多的只是负责编写，后四十章的创作实际是曹雪芹完成的。<br />
<br />
在第三场主题为“跨学科/跨文本方法”的座谈会上，尚伟（美国哥伦比亚大学）提出了关于清朝时期视觉文化的一些观点，他认为满洲朝廷受欧洲文化影响颇深，这种影响在曹雪芹的小说中也有迹可循。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 06:27, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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玛丽娜·乔阿诺古尔斯卡Marina Čarnogurská(斯洛伐克)认为，最后40章的作者不是高鄂，甚至可能是曹雪芹。与会代表普遍认为，高娥可能有更多的编辑功能，最后40章的部分内容可能是曹雪芹写的。<br />
<br />
在第三板块 "跨学科/跨文本方法 "中，尚伟（美国哥伦比亚大学）提出了对清代视觉文化的见解，认为满族宫廷中存在着强烈的欧洲影响，这在小说中是有迹可循的，并影响了曹雪芹。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
<br />
Kam Louie (Hong Kong) compared the novel with Three Kingdoms in regard to masculinity, homo-sociality and class, arguing how Jia Baoyu’s homo-erotic friendships were perceived differently depending on times and lenses. Louise P. Edwards (Australia) explored an aestheticized masculinity in clothing, dress and decoration as described in the novel. Karl-Heinz Pohl (Trier/Ger¬many) analyzed Buddhist thoughts in the novel with the example of several wisdoms from the “Heart Sutra”, he showed pro¬xi¬mi¬ty between Buddhist and Daoist thoughts. Harro von Senger (Frei¬burg/ Ger¬¬many) compared supraplanning (in China traditionally ‘''moulüe''’) in the novel and the German family tragedy ‘Nibelun¬gen¬lied’.<br />
雷金庆（香港）在男性特质、男子间的同性交往和阶级这三个方面将《红楼梦》与《三个国王》进行比较，他主张在在不同的时代和角度下，读者对贾宝玉的同性恋式的友情的看法也不一样。Louise P. Edyards（澳大利亚）探究了书中所描绘的服饰所展现出的颇具美感的男性特质。卜松山（德国特里尔）通过一些引自《心经》的名言分析了小说中的佛教思想，展示了佛教思想和道教思想之间的亲密性。胜雅律（德国弗赖堡）对比分析了《红楼梦》和德国家庭悲剧《尼伯龙根之歌》中的谋略之异同。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 01:46, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ping (Peking) introduced the historical background of drama culture at the time of Kangxi, Yongzheng (the time the novel was written), and Qianlong. Kristina Schröder (Zurich/Switzerland) ex¬plained references of early illustrations of the novel with the ‘Romance of the West Chamber’ with the example of Wang Xilian ordering flowers to blossom. Stefan Mess¬mann (Budapest/Hungary) asked from the legal perspective, if the Marxist dream of equality had been achieved. Laura Bing Han (Trier) compared the novel and the ‘Buddenbrooks’ regarding philosophical dua¬lism.<br />
朱平(北京)介绍了康熙、雍正、乾隆时期戏剧文化的历史背景。克里斯蒂娜·施洛德(苏黎世/瑞士)以王喜莲命令花朵开放为例，简单地引用了《西厢记》的早期插图。斯特芬·密瑟安(布达佩斯/匈牙利)从法律的角度提问，马克思主义的平等梦想是否已经实现。劳拉冰寒(特里尔)比较了小说和“布登布鲁克斯”关于哲学对立主义的问题。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:24, 15 November 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
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朱平（北京）介绍了康熙，雍正（该小说创作的时间）和乾隆时期戏剧文化的历史背景。 克里斯蒂娜·施罗德（KristinaSchröder）（苏黎世/瑞士）以王喜莲命令花朵开放为例，解释了《西厢记》小说早期插图的引用。 斯蒂芬·梅斯曼（布达佩斯/匈牙利）从法律的角度提问，马克思主义的平等梦想是否已经实现。 劳拉·宾·汉（Laura Bing Han，Trier）比较了小说和“布登布鲁克”（Buddenbrooks关于哲学对立主义的问题。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 02:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
<br />
Panel 4 introduced the novel’s in¬ter¬national dissemination, and here Martin Woesler (Witten/Germany, Rome/Italy) ana¬lyzed the changing reception of the novel by early Western translators and recipients. The novel was instrumentalized (e.g. for language learning) and exoticized. Wu Wei (Oslo/Norway, Heidelberg/Ger¬many) explored the color symbolism of ‘redness’ in novel. <br />
<br />
第4小组介绍了小说的国际传播，马丁·怀斯勒（Martin Woesler）（威滕/德国，罗马/意大利）分析了早期西方译者和接受者对小说的接受态度。 这本小说被工具化（例如用于语言学习）并被异化。 Wu Wei（奥斯陆/挪威，海德堡/德国）探索小说中“红色”的色彩象征。<br />
<br />
The translations were dealt with in panel 5, Daniela Zhang Cziráková (Slovakia) in-tro¬duced the Czech and Slovak translations of the novel. He Jun (Chengdu) introduced German excerpt translations before Franz Kuhn and Khoo An Ny (Fudan Shanghai) the state of translations in Malaysia.<br />
<br />
在第5小组中讨论了译文，其中Daniela ZhangCziráková（斯洛伐克）介绍了该小说的捷克语和斯洛伐克语翻译。 何俊（成都）在弗朗兹·库恩（Franz Kuhn）和邱安妮（Kou An Ny）（复旦上海）介绍马来西亚的翻译状况之前，先介绍了德国的摘录翻译。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:54, 14 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:54, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
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General consent of the participants was that the 120 chapter version was the most authoritative one and that the title ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was more common than its alternative title ''Story of the Stone''.<br />
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Wei Lingzhi (Peking) introduced results of a 2015 representative survey among Chinese readers about the novel and the author proving its unbroken popularity and high esteem. Regarding translations, the Hawkes/Minford translation was preferred over Yang/Yang.<br />
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与会者普遍同意120章回版本是最具权威的版本，而且《红楼梦》这一书名比《石头记》更为常见。<br />
<br />
魏凌志（北京）介绍了2015年中国读者对这部小说及作者的代表性调查结果，证明了这部小说一直以来所受到的广泛欢迎和高度尊重。至于翻译版本，霍克斯、闵福德的比杨阳更受喜爱。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:45, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与会者普遍同意120章回版本是最具权威的版本，而且《红楼梦》比另一个书名《石头记》更为常见。<br />
<br />
魏凌志（北京）介绍了2015年中国读者对这部小说及作者的代表性调查结果，证明了这部小说一直以来所受到的广泛欢迎和高度尊重。至于翻译版本，霍克斯/闵福德的比杨阳的翻译版本更受喜爱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 08:24, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
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All participants praised the importance of the recently published full translations in German and other languages and welcomed the opportunity to share their findings especially between Chinese and non-Chinese scholars. The choreographer Shen Fang-yu and the dramaturg Martin Woesler also presented a taping of the Folkwang Dance Studio Performance “REDCHAMBERDREAM”. <br />
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For further information please refer to the conference website http://china-studies. com.<br />
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所有与会者都赞扬了最近出版的德语和其他语言的完整译本的重要性，并由衷希望有机会在中国学者和非中国学者之间分享他们的发现。舞蹈编导沉芳玉和戏剧编剧马丁·伍斯勒（Martin Woesler）也为富克旺根舞蹈工作室表演的“红楼梦”进行了录制。<br />
有关更多信息，请访问会议网站http://china-studies.com。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 14:03, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
'''World Citizen Lu Xun:''' <br />
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'''Critical reception of European Culture by Lu Xun with the examples of Nazi cultural politics and of the Nobel Prize'''<br />
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'''世界公民魯迅：魯迅批判性地接受歐洲文化——以納粹文化政治與諾貝爾獎為例'''<br />
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'''''Martin Woesler 吳漠汀'''''<br />
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Witten/Herdecke University 北京師範大學<br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
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Abstract<br />
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Lu Xun was well aware of global politics in culture, as proven by documents discovered a few years ago. Three days after the book burning in Berlin on May 10, 1933, Lu Xun, as a Member of the Executive Board of the “China League for Civil Rights,” protested the “brutal terror and reaction” of Nazi Germany. Lu Xun took action and submitted an official protest to the German Consulate in Shanghai, which was taken seriously by the Nazi diplomats. He protested the racist suppression of Jewish authors while his own piece of world literature, “A Madman’s Diary” (1918), would have been considered “degenerate art” if published in Germany. In June 1933, he proved his in-depth understanding of Nazi crimes, especially the book-burning, humiliation and deportation of writers, in two essays.<br />
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摘要<br />
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近年发现的档案证明，鲁迅在文化事件中有很强的政治意识。在1933年5月10日柏林焚书事件发生后三日，鲁迅作为中国民权保障同盟执行委员会的一员对纳粹德国的“恐怖行径和残忍回应”表示抗议。鲁迅采取行动并向德国驻上海使馆提交了一份官方抗议书，对此，纳粹外交官的态度十分慎重。鲁迅抗议对犹太作家的种族压迫，而他自己的一篇世界文学，“狂人日记”（1918），若在德国出版，也会被视作“堕落艺术”。1933年6月，在两篇文章中，他证明自己对纳粹的罪行，尤其是焚书以及对侮辱和驱逐作家有了深入的理解。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 09:19, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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近年发现的档案证明，鲁迅在文化事件中有很强的政治意识。在1933年5月10日柏林焚书事件发生后三日，鲁迅作为中国民权保障同盟执行委员会的一员对纳粹德国的“恐怖行径和残忍回应”表示抗议。鲁迅采取行动并向德国驻上海使馆提交了一份官方抗议书，对此，纳粹外交官的态度十分慎重。鲁迅抗议对犹太作家的种族压迫，而他自己的一篇世界文学，“狂人日记”（1918），若在德国出版，也会被视作“堕落艺术”。1933年6月，在两篇文章中，他深刻论证了德国纳粹的罪行，尤其是体现其对焚书以及对侮辱和驱逐作家有了深入的理解。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:03, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
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因近年来所新发现的文物资料，鲁迅很深刻的意識到和瞭解了全球文化政治。柏林焚书案（1933年5月10日）发生的第三天，鲁迅做为“中国民权保障同盟”委员会成员，抗议德国纳粹“残忍的恐怖行径”。鲁迅立刻展开行动，向德国驻上海使领馆提出抗议（当时该处已经由德国纳粹接管）。他抗议纳粹对犹太作家的压制，当时他自己的世界文学作品“狂人日记”在德国也被看作是“变态艺术”。1933年6月，他通过2篇杂文，深刻论证了德国纳粹的罪行，特别是焚烧书籍、羞辱和驱逐作家等。<br />
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Because of the newly discovered cultural relics in recent years, Lu Xun deeply understood and understood the global culture and politics. On the third day of the book burning in Berlin (May 10, 1933), Lu Xun, as a member of the Committee of the China Civil Rights Protection Alliance, protested against the "cruel terrorist acts" of the German Nazis. Lu Xun immediately took action to protest to the German Embassy and Consulate in Shanghai (which had been taken over by the German Nazis at that time). He protested against the Nazi crackdown on Jewish writers, when his own world literature, the Madman's Diary, was also regarded as "abnormal art" in Germany. In June 1933, he profoundly demonstrated the crimes of the German Nazis through two essays, especially the burning of books, humiliation and expulsion of writers.--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 10:11, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他曾于1927年被提名为诺贝尔文学奖的候选人，但是他拒绝了，不仅是个人的谦逊，也是考量到当时的全球政治环境。<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
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Both cases show a different side of Lu Xun’s Reception of European Culture: He was not just an admiring, importing, translator of European culture who was influenced by it (as seen in his own life and work). Instead, his reception was more complex and critical; he applied universal moral standards, as defined by civil and human rights, which he referred to.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 15:45, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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两个例子展现了鲁迅对于欧洲文化接受的不同面：他不仅是一位令人尊敬、举足轻重、受欧洲文化影响的翻译者（参见他的生平和作品）。另一方面，他对西方文化的接受也是复杂而具有批判性的；他遵循普世价值观，是他所说的公民权和人权所定义的价值观。<br />
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This makes Lu Xun a world citizen, one who cannot simply be claimed by certain parties or nations.<br />
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综上所述，鲁迅是一位世界公民，不属于任何政党或民族。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 15:45, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
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'''Introduction''''''简介'''<br />
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Beginning with his earliest student years in 1902-1903, Lu Xun became an important translator of foreign literature (Jules Verne: ''Journey to the Moon, Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea''). In March 1906, he decided to give up the study of Western medicine in order to become a writer; to cure the Chinese people’s minds instead of their physical illnesses. During his lifetime, Lu Xun was torn between his hope that he could turn Chinese people’s lives to the better and his disappointment that a writer’s works alone were not powerful enough to actually change things or to instigate people to change them.<br />
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介绍<br />
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在鲁迅学生年代早期（1902-1903），他就是翻译国外文学的一名重要译员。（儒勒·凡尔纳：“月球之旅，海底两万里”）1906年3月，他决定放弃西医学习，成为一名作家，决定治愈中国人的思想而不是身体疾病。不过在他的一生中，希望和失望交织，他希望能带领中国人过上好日子；不过单凭他的作品，无力真正改变一件事物，也不能煽动人们去改变这些事，对此他感到很失望。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 11:38, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
简介<br />
从1902-1903年早期学生生涯开始，鲁迅就成为了外国文学的重要译者（儒勒·凡尔纳：《月球之旅，海底两万里》）。 1906年3月，他决定放弃西医研究，成为一名作家。 治愈中国人的精神疾病而不是身体疾病 鲁迅一生中希望和失望交织，他希望能带领中国人过上好日子；不过单凭他的作品，无力真正改变一件事物，也不能引导人们去改变这些事，因而他对此感到很失望。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 03:43, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
<br />
In 1917, when his friend Qian Xuantong asked him to contribute to the new radical magazine ''New Youth'' (founded by Chen Duxiu), Lu Xun responded: "Imagine an iron house: without windows or doors, utterly indestructible, and full of sound sleepers – all about to suffocate to death. Let them die in their sleep, and they will feel nothing. Is it right to cry out, to rouse the light sleepers among them, causing them inconsolable agony before they die?" In spite of this opinion, in 1918 he still wrote his first story published under his name; “A Madman’s Diary.<br />
”1917年，当他的朋友钱选同邀请他为新的激进杂志“新青年”（由陈独秀创立）做出贡献时，鲁迅回答说：“想像一座铁房子：没有门或窗，坚不可摧，而且设施齐全 睡眠的人–快要窒息而死.让他们在睡眠中死亡，他们将不会有任何感觉。哭出来，唤醒其中的轻便睡床，在他们死前造成痛苦的痛苦是正确的吗？” 尽管有这种观点，他在1918年仍然写了他的第一个故事，以他的名字出版. “狂人日记.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 13:40, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1917年，当他的朋友钱玄同请他为陈独秀创办的新激进杂志《新青年》投稿时，鲁迅回答说：“想象一间铁屋：没有门窗，坚不可摧，到处都是熟睡的人——都快窒息而死。让他们在睡梦中死去，他们就什么都感觉不到了。大声喊叫，唤醒他们中间那些睡得很轻的人，在他们死前给他们带来难以忘怀的痛苦，这是对的吗？”尽管如此，1918年，他仍然以自己的名字写了他的第一篇小说《狂人日记》。”--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:33, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
It was a social-critical short story which reached world literature level, with one fictional element placed in a realistic setting (influenced by Gogol and parallel to Kafka’s stories using a similar technique). He placed his hopes on the next generation, as we know from the last lines “A Madman’s Diary:” “Save the children....” We also know that Lu Xun engaged in political activities, starting, perhaps, with his support of the Tongmenghui in Japan and by developing plans to educate politically active students etc.<br />
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<br />
这是一个达到了世界文学水平的短篇小说，将一个虚构元素放置在现实的背景下(受到果戈理的影响，和使用类似技巧的卡夫卡小说是同类型的)，对社会进行批判。他寄希望于下一代，我们可以从《狂人日记》的最后几行得知:“拯救孩子....。” 我们也知道，鲁迅从事政治活动，可能是从他支持日本同盟会开始的，也可能是从他计划去培养政治上活跃的学生开始的。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 14:47, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
So while Lu Xun was at first concerned with China, he understood the signs of the times and was anxious to get additional education in Western sciences. He absorbed Western knowledge, learned several European languages and was an important translator of Western literature, e.g. in 1909 he published a book with translated Eastern European stories in Japan. While Lu Xun’s target was the Chinese people, he was very well aware that backwardness in China could only be overcome by learning from the West, especially from Europe.<br />
<br />
因此，虽然鲁迅最初关心的是中国，但他明白这个时代的迹象，并急于接受西方科学方面的进修深造。他研究了西方知识，学习了几门欧洲语言，还成为了西方文学的著名翻译家。例如，1909年，他在日本出版了一本东欧故事的译著。虽然鲁迅的目标读者是中国人民，但他深知，中国的落后只能通过向西方学习，特别是向欧洲学习来克服。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:18, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，尽管最初鲁迅担忧中国命运，但他清楚地认识到时代的迹象，并急于出国深造，学习西方科学知识。他从西方知识汲取养分，学习了几门欧洲语言，还成为了一位著名的西方文学翻译家。比如，1909年，他在日本出版了他翻译的东欧故事集。虽然鲁迅的目标读者是中国人民，但他深知，中国只有向西方学习，尤其是向欧洲学习，才能摆脱落后的局面。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 07:37, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Because of Lu Xun’s extremely critical attitude and his concern for China, the Communist Party and patriots in China claimed to have him in their “pocket.” However, although Lu Xun’s target was China, his measurement scale and means were international universal principles and he was too fierce a protester to be in anyone’s “pocket.” He was active in different political initiatives – such as the China League for Civil Rights (中國民權保障同盟) and the later Leagues of Left-Wing Writers (although some members accused him of being a Right-Wing writer).<br />
<br />
鲁迅因为其极度评判态度以及对中国的担忧，共产党和爱国主义者们声称会对其进行“支配”。然而，鲁迅的目标尽管是中国，但是他度量的范围和方式是依照国际原则的，他是这样一个凶猛的反抗者不会被谁“支配”，他在不同的政治活动中都很积极--比如中国民权保障同盟和之后的左翼作家联盟。（尽管有部分成员称他是一名右翼作家）--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:05, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
He did not become a member of the Chinese Communist Party, but instead quarreled with Communists ideologists. In 1935, he declined to write a pro-Communist novel. Shortly before his death, he wrote: “Forget about me, and care about your own life – you're a fool if you don't.” In spite of this, the Party posthumously made him a Communist Party Member and Mao Zedong wrote the calligraphy above his tomb.<br />
<br />
Denton, Kirk (2002), Lu Xun Biography, MCLC Resource Center.<br />
<br />
他没有加入中国共产党，反而拒绝接受共产党的意识形态。1935年，他婉言谢绝写一部支持共产党的小说。他去世前不久写道：“忘掉我，管自己的生活---倘不，那就真是糊涂虫。”尽管这样，共产党在鲁迅死后仍将其算作中共党员，毛泽东为其亲笔题写墓碑。<br />
<br />
Denton, Kirk (2002), Lu Xun Biography, MCLC Resource Center.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 07:06, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他没有加入中国共产党，并且还跟共产党的思想家争论。1935年，他拒绝写一部支持共产党的小说。他去世不久前写道：“忘了我，关心你们自己的生活吧。如果不这样做，你们可真的太傻了。”尽管如此，在他去世后，共产党仍然接收他为中共党员，毛泽东还亲自提笔为他写墓碑。<br />
<br />
丹顿·柯克（2002),鲁迅传记，MCLC资源中心。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 11:17, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
'''Westernization?'''<br />
<br />
Did Lu Xun trough his Western education and translations of Western literature simply fully supported a ‘Westernization’ of China (全盤西化)? This can be disproven with the following examples: his criticism of Nazi crimes and his decline of the Nobel Prize. His critical mind and intellectual capacities did not allow him simple answers to complex questions.<br />
<br />
Only three days after the book burning in Berlin (May 10, 1933), Lu Xun protested at the Shanghai Consulate against Nazi Germany. This shows his extreme awareness of international politics and the nature of societies.<br />
鲁迅是否通过他的西方教育和西方文学翻译来完全支持中国的“全盘西化”？ 以下例子可以证明这一点：他对纳粹罪行的批评和对诺贝尔奖的拒绝。 他的批判性思维和智力能力使他无法简单地回答复杂的问题。在柏林焚书事件发生的三天后（1933年5月10日），鲁迅在上海领事馆抗议德国纳粹，这表明他对国际政治和社会性质的极致认识。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 02:01, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''西化？'''<br />
<br />
鲁迅仅仅是通过接受西方教育和翻译西方文学来支持中国“全盘西化”吗？以下例子可证明这一点：他批判纳粹罪行且拒绝接受诺贝尔奖。他不能凭借其批判思维和聪明才智简单回应这类复杂问题。<br />
<br />
柏林焚书事件（1933年5月10日）刚刚过去三天，鲁迅就在上海领事馆抗议德国纳粹，这表明他对国际政治和社会性质的极致认识。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:14, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
The reaction of the Vice General Consul in his report to the German Embassy in Peking shows that the German Consulate engaged in counter propaganda and denied the allegations, referring even to their support of the Jewish community in Shanghai. While the world was still asleep, Lu Xun already understood and criticized Nazi anti-writer politics in Germany. It took the rest of the world almost a decade more to “wake up.” Even Nazi Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939 did not “wake up” other countries, enabling Nazi Germany to conduct further surprise attacks (blitzkrieg) in Western Europe (Netherlands, Belgium, France etc.).<br />
<br />
在给德国驻北京大使馆的报告中，副总领事的反应表明，德国领事馆反对这些宣传，并否认有关指控，甚至拒绝承认他们支持上海的犹太社区。当世界还在沉睡的时候，鲁迅已经理解并批判德国的纳粹反作家政治。而世界上其他的国家花了将近10年的时间才“醒悟”，甚至1939年纳粹德国入侵波兰的事件也没能“唤醒”其他国家，这使得纳粹德国能够在西欧（荷兰、比利时、法国等）发动进一步的突然袭击（闪电战）。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 15:08, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在副总领事给德国驻北京大使馆的报告中的反应表明，德国领事馆反对这些宣传，并否认有关指控，还提到他们支持上海的犹太人聚居区。当世界还在沉睡的时候，鲁迅已经理解并批判德国的纳粹反作家政治。而世界上其他的国家花了将近10年的时间才“醒悟”，甚至1939年纳粹德国入侵波兰的事件也没能“唤醒”其他国家，这使得纳粹德国能够在西欧（荷兰、比利时、法国等）发动进一步的突然袭击（闪电战）。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 14:09, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
副总领事在给德国驻北京大使馆的报告中所作的反应表明，德国领事反对这些宣传，并否认有关指控，甚至提到了他们对上海犹太社区的支持。当世界还在沉睡之时，鲁迅已经理解并批判纳粹德国的反作家政治。而世界上的其他国家用了将近10年的时间才“觉醒”。即使纳粹德国于1939年入侵波兰，也没能“唤醒”其他国家，使纳粹德国能够在西欧（荷兰、比利时、法国等）发动进一步的突袭（闪电战）。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 14:21, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was well able to distinguish between positive and negative parts of European culture, which leads to the question: which moral standards did he actually live up to? The thesis of this paper is that he oriented himself to abstract universal human values and morals. As proof, the following details of Lu Xun’s protests are examined.<br />
<br />
鲁迅能够很好地区分欧洲文化的正面和负面，这就引出了一个问题:他到底遵循什么样的道德标准?这篇论文是以鲁迅的抽象普世人类价值和道德为主题。为了证明这一点，我们考查了鲁迅抗议宣言的一些细节。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:08, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲁迅对于欧洲文化的态度究竟是积极还是消极的呢？这也引出另一个问题：他到底遵循哪一种道德价值观？本文将论证，鲁迅遵循的是普世价值观。<br />
<br />
鲁迅能够很好地区分欧洲文化中积极和消极的部分，这就引出了一个问题：他究竟遵循的是哪些道德标准？本文将论证：鲁迅遵循的是抽象的人类普世价值和道德。本文将从鲁迅的抗议宣言中分析论证。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:09, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
鲁迅能够很好地区分欧洲文化的正面和负面的部分，从而也引出了问题：他到底遵循的是什么样的道德标准？本文的理论是以鲁迅对人类的普世价值和道德理念为主。鲁迅的声明中列出的细节都真实可考。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 09:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲁迅善于分辨欧洲文化的积极和消极部分，这也引出了一个问题：他实际上遵循了什么道德标准？本文的论点是他遵循抽象普世的人类价值观和道德观。为了证明，以下是可考的鲁迅抗议的细节。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:30, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲁迅善于区分欧洲文化积极和消极的部分，但这也带来一个问题：他到底遵循何种道德标准？本文论点旨在说明他遵循的是抽象的普世价值和道德。为了论证，以下细节可供论证。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:28, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
'''Lu Xun’s in-depth and early understanding of Nazi crimes'''<br />
<br />
On July 11 and 16, 1933, Lu Xun (using his pseudonyms) published two essays against Nazi crimes – about the book burning in China and Germany. As shown by this immediate response, Lu Xun was quick to retrieve information and form a judgment – independent of regionalism and dependent only upon universal moral values.<br />
<br />
Lovell, Julia. "Introduction". In ''Lu Xun: The Real story of Ah-Q and Other Tales of China, The Complete Fiction of Lu Xun''. England: Penguin Classics. 2009. ISBN 978-0-140-45548-9, here pp. xxx.<br />
<br />
Silvia Kettelhut: G''eschäfte übernommen: Deutsches Konsulat, Shanghai, Impressionen aus 150 Jahren,'' Shanghai 2006.<br />
<br />
“鲁迅早期对纳粹罪行的深入了解”<br />
<br />
1933年7月11日至16日，鲁迅（使用化名）发表了两篇反对纳粹罪行的文章，该书在中德两国畅销。正如这一即时反应所表明的那样，鲁迅迅速地获取信息并作出判断——独立于区域主义，仅依赖于普遍的道德价值观。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 12:36, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
In his essay “The Book burning in China and Germany” (dated June 28 and published July 11, 1933), Lu Xun, under the penname Ru Niu, compares Qin Shihuangdi’s book burning with the one by Hitler. He points out that the emperor did not burn books on agriculture and medicine and instead still accepted pluralism. Polemically he criticizes his Chinese colleagues for not understanding that the threat by Hitler is a threat to freedom in general. Lu Xun directly addresses the German dictator Hitler as “Mr. Hitler.”<br />
<br />
鲁迅，笔名儒牛，在他的文章《在中国和德国焚书》(日期为1933年6月28日，出版于1933年7月11日)中，将秦始皇的焚书与希特勒的焚书进行了比较。他指出，皇帝并没有焚烧有关农业和医药的书籍，仍然是接受多元主义。他在辩论中批评其中国同事没有理解希特勒的威胁是对自由的普遍威胁。鲁迅直接称德国独裁者希特勒为“希特勒先生”--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 00:55, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
In the second essay, “Surplus of Knowledge” (dated July 12 and published July 16, 1933) he compares a recent agricultural crisis in China following a “harvest surplus” and the demand to abandon the learning of theories in favor of learning practical things with the demand in Nazi Germany to abandon liberal and pluralistic education. Polemically he calls the German imprisonment of students in labor camps a “solution to the unemployment problem.” He demands that China get rid of knowledge, insisting that people should become fatalist and opportunist.<br />
<br />
在第二篇文章“过剩的知识”中，他比较了最近中国在“丰收盈余”之后的农业危机，放弃理论学习以学习实际事物的要求，以及纳粹德国要求放弃自由和多元化教育的要求。颇具争议性的是，他称德国将学生关押在劳改营是“解决失业问题的办法”。他要求中国摆脱知识，坚持认为人们应该成为宿命主义者和机会主义者。<br />
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--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:35, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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在第二篇文章“过剩的知识”中，他比较了最近中国在“丰收盈余”之后的农业危机，放弃理论学习以学习实际事物的要求，以及纳粹德国要求放弃自由和多元化教育的要求。颇具争议性的是，他声称德国将学生关押在劳改营这种行为是“解决失业问题的办法”。此外，他还要求中国摆脱知识，坚持认为人们应该成为宿命主义者和机会主义者。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 09:36, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun early had studied the German philosopher Nietzsche, who was also pocketed by the Nazis, and wanted to study abroad in Germany. His critical reflection of Nazi German situation shows that he could also be extremely critical against Germany and was able to judge it according to universal values.<br />
<br />
鲁迅早年研究过德国哲学家尼采，后者为纳粹收入囊中并且想去德国留学。鲁迅对纳粹德国现状的批判说明，他有能力根据普世价值来评判纳粹德国。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:33, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
鲁迅很早就研究过德国哲学家尼采，而尼采也曾被纳粹骗过，并曾想去德国留学。他对纳粹德国处境的批判反思表明，他也可以对德国极端批判，并能够以普世价值来判断德国。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:49, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
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'''The China League for Civil Rights'''<br />
<br />
The China League for Civil Rights was established with the outspoken goal to free prisoners from Guomindang (GMD) imprisonment. Prominent among members of the League was Song Qingling (left-wing GMD), the widow of Sun Yat-sen, who broke with Qiang Kai-shek in 1927 – when the GMD turned more and more repressive. The Communists also had massive losses after 1927 and went underground. Lu Xun was the most prolific member of the League.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
In 1931, Song Qingling returned to Shanghai from Europe and headed a campaign to rescue a foreign couple detained without trial by the GMD. I did not find evidence that she knew that the couple were Comintern agents; the campaign did not address their identity. It concentrated on the legal aspects of the detainment.<br />
<br />
1931年，宋庆龄从欧洲回到上海后，对一对经国民党政府扣押但未审讯的外国夫妇发起了营救运动。对于她是否知道那对夫妇是共产主义国际宣传者，我无从知晓；此次营救活动没有标明他们的身份，其重点在于此次拘留的合法性。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:02, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
An early stage of this part of the study including the translation of the two essays into German has been published as “Der Protest des chinesischen Intellektuellen Lu Xun gegen Nazi-Verbrechen”, in: ''Bulletin of the German China Association'' 54 (2010) 119 pp., pp. 53-58, ISSN 1436-8048. This first essay was published as Ru Niu 孺牛 [Lu Xun]: 华德焚书异同论 (Discussion of Parellels and Differences of the Book Burning in China and Germany), July 11, 1933, 申报 Shen Bao, 自由谈 (Free Talks), German translation by Martin Woesler as “ Die Bücherverbrennungen in China und Deutschland Diskussion der Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede ” in: ''Bulletin of the German China Association'' 54 (2010) 53-55.<br />
<br />
这部分研究的早期阶段，包括将两篇论文翻译成德语，已发表在《德中协会公报》54（2010）119页，第53-58页，ISSN 1436-8048，发表于《中国抗议》第54（2010）119页，第53-58页，ISSN 1436-8048。本文第一篇论文发表于1933年7月11日，英文名为《中国与德国焚书的平行线与差异》，马丁·沃斯勒译为《中国与德国图书焚烧的平行线与差异》Unterschiede in:“中德协会公报”54（2010）53-55。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 09:28, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
This second essay was published as Yu Ming 虞明 [Lu Xun]: “智识过剩 (Surplus of Knowledge)“, dated July 12, 1933, ''Shen Bao'' am 16.7.1933, English translation in: ''Lu Xun, Selected Works'', Übers. Yang Xianyi, Gladys Yang, Bd. 3, S. 324f., 1st ed 1959/1960, 2nd ed. 1964 p. 289-290, 3rd ed. 1980 p. 324 f., 4th ed. 2003 (Peking: Foreign Languages Press), German translation by Martin Woesler as “Wissensüberschuss” in: ''Bulletin of the German China Association 54'' (2010) 56-58.<br />
<br />
第二篇论文在1933年7月12日以虞明（鲁迅）为笔名出版：“智识过剩”，“申报”1933年7月16日上午，英文名为：“鲁迅选集”，杨宪益，戴乃迭，Bd. 3, S. 324f.,第一版1959/1960,第二版1964 p. 289-290, 第三版 1980 p. 324 f., 第四版. 2003 （北京：外文出版社），德语版本由 Martin Woesler as “Wissensüberschuss”翻译为《德中协会公报》(2010) 56-58.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 12:10, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
The couple Paul and Gertrud Ruegg is also known as Mr. and Mrs. Hilaire Noulens. Ruegg's public role was secretary-general of the Pan-Pacific Trade Union, an international agent for organizing the Chinese labour movement. His secret role was secretary of the Comintern's Far Eastern Bureau in Shanghai. In June 1930, the couple was first arrested by the police in the International Settlement, and then turned over to GMD authorities. See: Jinxing Chen: “The Rise and Fall of the China League for Civil Rights”, in: ''China Review'' Vol. 6, No. 2, Special Issue on: WTO and China's Financial Development (Fall 2006), pp. 121-147.<br />
<br />
Bruun, Ole, and Michael Jacobsen. ''Human rights and Asian values: Contesting national identities and cultural representations in Asia''. Vol. 6. Psychology Press, 2000.<br />
<br />
保罗和格特鲁德·鲁格夫妇也被称作牛兰夫妇。鲁格的公开角色是泛太平洋工会的秘书长，这是一个组织中国劳工运动的国际代理机构。 他的秘密角色是共产国际上海远东局的秘书。 1930年6月，这对夫妇先是被国际定居点的警察逮捕，然后被移交给国民党当局。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:18, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
In the League’s press conference in Shanghai, on 30 December 1932, Cai Yuanpei referred to J. J. Rousseau and said that the League would not be placed in the pocket of any political party. The League was very active in publishing statements, sending telegrams to foreign governments in about half a dozen cases and seeing government officials on behalf of the imprisonment of intellectuals out of political reasons.<br />
<br />
1932年12月30日在上海召开的中国民权保障同盟发布会上，蔡元培提到卢梭并称该同盟不会被任何政党所控。该组织表现活跃，积极发表声明，发电报给外国政府（几乎有一半的电报出自该同盟会之手），此外还代表政治罪犯跟政府进行会谈。<br />
<br />
On May 13, 1933, Ms. Song Qingling announced her visit to the German Vice General Consul, Richard Behrend, in Shanghai, and representatives of the League – including its president Song Qingling, Cai Yuanpei, Lu Xun, Yang Xing¬fo (Yang Quan) – submitted the following protest note.<br />
<br />
1933年5月13日，宋庆龄女士宣布她将拜访德国驻上海副总领事理查德.贝伦德，并由该同盟会的代表--包括主席宋庆龄，蔡元培，鲁迅和杨杏佛递交以下抗议书。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:04, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
Transcription, from Kettelhut 2006 pp. 155-158. Source: PA AA (Political Archive of the Foreign Office / Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes) R 98440.<br />
<br />
Submission of the protest note to Vice General Consulate Behrend by the Board of the China League of Civil Rights, including the widow of Sun Yat-sen, Song Qingling, the president of Academia Si¬ni¬ca, Cai Yuanpei, Lu Xun and the Vice President of Academia Sinica, Yang Xing¬fo (Yang Quan). Wood block print by Zhao Yannian 趙延年 (born 1924) 1956. Not displayed in the wood block print are the writers Lin Yutang, Agnes Smedley und Harold Isaacs, which, according to the report of the Consulate, were also present. Lin Yutang was also not mentioned by the Chinese press.<br />
<br />
转录，摘自Kettelhut 2006，第155-158页。 资料来源：PA AA（外交部政治档案馆/AuswärtigenAmtes档案馆）R 98440。<br />
<br />
中国民权联盟理事会向贝伦副总领事馆递交了抗议说明，其中包括孙中山遗孀宋庆龄，学术界的领袖西尼卡，蔡元培，鲁迅和中央研究院副院长杨兴佛（阳泉）。 赵延年（生于1924年）在1956年制作了这些木刻版画。根据领事馆的报告，作家林语堂、艾格尼丝·史沫特莱和哈罗德——以撒并未陈列其中。 中国媒体也并未提及林语堂。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 03:12, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
中国民权联盟理事会向贝伦副总领事馆递交了抗议说明，其中包括孙中山的遗孀宋庆龄，学术界的领袖西尼卡，蔡元培，鲁迅和中央研究院副院长杨兴佛（阳泉）。 赵延年（生于1924）在1956年制作了这些木刻版画。根据领事馆的报告，作家林语堂、艾格尼丝·史沫特莱和哈罗德——以撒并未陈列其中。 中国媒体也并未提及林语堂。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:07, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
The vice consul took the protest seriously and submitted the letter to Peking, accompanied with a report in which he described Ms Song Qingling as the head of the League and listed Lu Xun as “the famous writer” and leading fighter for the “New Chinese Language Movement.” <br />
<br />
Song Qingling, about a month after the visit at the Consulate, on June 17, 1933 sent a telegram to “Chancellor Hitler” demanding the immediate release of political prisoners.<br />
<br />
For the involvement of foreigners in the League see Chen Jinxing 2006 and others.<br />
<br />
Report by Behrendt for the German Embassy Peking dated May 15, 1933, see Kettelhut 2006.<br />
<br />
副总领事对这次抗议活动非常重视，并向北京递交了这封信。他在信中称宋庆龄女士是“共青团”的领袖，并将鲁迅列为“著名作家”和“新汉语运动”的主要斗士。<br />
1933年6月17日，宋庆龄在访问领事馆一个月后，给“总理希特勒”发去电报，要求立即释放政治犯。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:05, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
The reaction from Berlin was that they should try to influence Song Qingling. The reply from the German diplomats in China was that it had been tried earlier and another attempt would probably be counter-productive since Ms. Song was close to the Communists.<br />
<br />
The League did not survive long. Hu Shi won the leadership of the Peking arm of the League. His critical review of a prison report led to some tensions within the League, leading to the dissolvement of the Peking arm. In the end, Yang Quan, the Secretary General, was assassinated by GMD, while Song Qingling received a letter with a bullet in it – forcing her to hide. All of this combined into a fatal blow to the League. Chen Jinxing (2006), however, suspects that tensions within the League (e.g. with Hu Shi) helped its dissolution.<br />
他们试图通过柏林反抗来影响宋庆龄，但是他们从德国驻华大使那里得到的回答是他们早就尝试过了。由于宋庆龄与共产党关系密切，再一次尝试只会适得其反。<br />
中国民权保障同盟存在时间很短。胡适成了该同盟会北京分会的领导。他对监狱报告的严格审查导致同盟内部紧绷，从而也导致了北京分会的解散。最终，秘书长杨铨也被国民党暗杀，宋庆龄也收到一封带有子弹的信件，使她不得不躲起来。所有这些都对该同盟造成了致命的打击。然而，陈金星（2006）怀疑该同盟内部的紧张局势（例如与胡适的关系）导致了其解散。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 04:52, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
As the most prolific member of the league, Lu Xun’s active, and prominent, participation in the League’s protests shows his devotion to the principles of universal human rights – reaching beyond concern only for his countrymen.鲁迅的抗议显示了他普世人权的原则。<br />
<br />
Price, Ruth. ''The Lives of Agnes Smedley''. OUP USA, 2005.<br />
<br />
Chen, Jinxing: “The Rise and Fall of the China League for Civil Rights”, in: ''China Review'' Vol. 6, No. 2, Special Issue on: WTO and China's Financial Development (Fall 2006), pp. 121-147.<br />
<br />
作为联盟中最多产的成员，鲁迅积极而杰出地参与联盟抗议活动，显示出他对普遍人权原则的热爱——仅仅出于他对同胞的关注。<br />
<br />
普莱斯•露丝。艾格妮丝•史沫特莱的生平。牛津大学出版社，美国，2005年。<br />
<br />
陈金星：“中国民权同盟的兴衰”，载于《中国评论》第一卷。 第六卷，第二期，关于：WTO与中国金融发展的专刊(Fall 2006), pp. 121-147.--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:56, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为联盟中最多产的成员，鲁迅积极参与联盟抗议活动，显示出他对普世人权原则的热爱——仅仅出于他对同胞的关注。<br />
<br />
普莱斯•露丝。艾格妮丝•史沫特莱的生平。牛津大学出版社，美国，2005年。<br />
<br />
陈金星：“中国民权同盟的兴衰”，载于《中国评论》第一卷。 第六卷，第二期，关于：WTO与中国金融发展的专刊(Fall 2006), pp. 121-147.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 08:03, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
'''The Nobel Prize of Literature'''<br />
<br />
In 1926, “The True Story of Ah Q” was translated by Jing Yinyu into French. In September 1927, Peking University Professor Liu Bannong suggested to Sven Hedish (member of the Swedish Academy) that Lu Xun be considered for laureateship. Nobel Prize Laureate Kenzaburō Ōe called Lu Xun "The greatest writer Asia produced in the twentieth century." In the 1920s, 1915 Nobel Laureate Romain Rolland introduced Chinese literature to the world. In 1927, he especially recommended Lu Xun and his story “Ah Q.”<br />
<br />
'''诺贝尔文学奖'''<br />
1926年，敬隐渔将《阿Q正传》译为法文。1927年9月，北京大学教授刘半农向斯文·赫迪什（瑞士文学院院士）建议考虑授予鲁迅桂冠诗人的称号。诺贝尔文学奖获得者肯扎布尔称鲁迅是“二十世纪亚洲最伟大的作家。”在1920年代，1915年诺贝尔文学奖获得者罗曼罗兰向世界介绍了中国文学。1927年时，他特别推荐了鲁迅和他的故事“阿Q”。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:20, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''诺贝尔文学奖'''<br />
1926年，敬隐渔将《阿Q正传》译为法文。1927年9月，北京大学教授刘半农向斯文·赫迪什（瑞士文学院院士）建议考虑授予鲁迅桂冠诗人的称号。诺贝尔文学奖的桂冠诗人肯扎布尔称鲁迅是“二十世纪亚洲最伟大的作家。”在20世纪20年代，1915年诺贝尔文学奖桂冠诗人罗曼罗兰向世界介绍了中国文学。1927年时，他特别推荐了鲁迅和他的故事“阿Q”。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 15:40, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun rejected the nomination in a letter to his former student and confidante, Tai Jingnong, with the following reasoning: “There are a lot of better writers than me in the world and they can’t get it.” He further said “I think there is nobody truly deserving the Nobel Prize in China. It would be better for Sweden to ignore us. It would only encourage Chinese egotism, causing them to believe they could really parallel those great foreign writers if yellow-skinned people were given preferential consideration. The result would not be good at all.” (Eventually, the prize was awarded to Sinclair Lewis.)<br />
<br />
鲁迅在给之前的学生兼知己台静农的回信中拒绝了提名，理由是：“世界上有太多比我更优秀的作家，他们都不能获此殊荣，”他接着说道“我认为中国还没人能获诺贝尔奖，瑞典方最好是忽略掉我们。如果给黄种人优待，这只会让中国人盈盈自满，认为自己可以与外国优秀作家相提并论。结果并不如是。“（最终，奖项颁给了辛克莱·刘易斯）。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 09:21, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲁迅在给他旧时的学生兼知己，台静农的一封回信中拒绝了提名，理由如下：“世界上比我好的作家有很多，他们尚没有获此殊荣。”他又说：“我觉得在中国没有人真配得上诺贝尔奖。瑞典要是不把我们考虑在内那是最好。如果黄种人享有优待的话，只会徒增中国人的自大，让他们觉得自己真的能比肩那些伟大的外国作家。这可不是什么好事。”（最后，获奖者为辛克莱·刘易斯）。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:05, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was well acquainted with many famous foreign writers. During these days, he personally met several, such as Agnes Smedley, Harold Isaacs, and Bernhard Shaw. Therefore, Lu Xun had an understanding of the domestic political implications of the Nobel Prize; of awarding such a prize to a national literature which was still under development and had not yet reached a satisfying level. He understood that the effect of such an award would be to increase Chinese egotism. So he sacrificed his own honor in order not to send the wrong signal; in order to not discourage Chinese literature by receiving mercy from the international community, but instead to encourage its further development so that it might eventually reach the level of the “great foreign writers.”<br />
<br />
鲁迅与许多著名的外国作家很熟。在这些日子里，他亲自见了几个人，如艾格尼丝·史沫特莱、哈罗德·艾萨克斯和伯恩哈德·肖。因此，鲁迅对诺贝尔文学奖的国内政治含义有了一个认识，即把诺贝尔奖颁给一个尚处于发展阶段、尚未达到令人满意水平的民族文学。他明白这样一个奖项的效果会增加中国人的自负。因此，为了不发出错误的信号他牺牲了自己的荣誉，；为了不让中国文学受到国际社会的怜悯而气馁，而是鼓励中国文学进一步发展，使之最终达到“伟大的外国作家”的水平。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:10, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲁迅与许多外国著名作家相识。在这些日子里，他亲自见到了几位，如艾格尼丝—史沫特莱、哈罗德-艾萨克斯、萧伯纳等。因此，鲁迅明白诺贝尔奖在国内的政治影响，以及把这样一个奖颁给尚在发展中的、尚未达到令人满意水平的民族文学的影响。他明白，这样的奖项导致中国人自负心增强。因此，为了不向国人发出错误的信号，他牺牲了自己的荣誉；他不愿中国文学因接受国际社会的怜悯而积极性受挫，而是鼓励中国文学进一步发展，最终达到 “外国大作家 ”的水平。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:00, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Biography of Sven Hedin (1865-1952), see George Kish, ''To the Heart of Asia: The Life of Sven Hedin'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984). Hedin was in Beijing in late 1926 and early 1927 seeking government permission for an exploration to Mongolia (''ibid.'', p. 114). Quoted after: Wang, B. [汪宝荣]. (2011). Lu Xun's fiction in English translation: the early years. (Thesis). University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4696908 (in the following: Wang 2011).<br />
<br />
斯文·赫丁传见诸于乔治·基什撰写的《亚洲的心脏：斯文·赫丁的一生》（阿安伯：密歇根大学出版社，1984）。1926年年末以及1927年年初，赫丁在北京为得到可以让他蒙古进行勘探的政治许可（同上，第114页）。引用：Wang，B.[王宝荣].（2011）。鲁迅小说英文版：早年。（论文）香港特别行政区波克富兰大学。引用于 http://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4696908 （如下：王，2011）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:42, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, “Zhi Tai Jingnong” 致台静农, 25 Sept. 1927, rpt. in ''LXQJ'' 12: 73-74. See a penetrating discussion of Lu Xun’s international stature and Nobel candidacy in Paul B. Foster, “The Ironic Inflation of Chinese National Character: Lu Xun’s International Reputation, Romain Rolland’s Critique of ‘The True Story of Ah Q,’ and the Nobel Prize”, ''Modern Chinese Literature and Culture'', 13.1 (Spring, 2001): 140-168. Interestingly, Foster suggests that Lu Xun may have contributed to the publicity which eventually led to the suggestion that he be nominated for a Nobel Prize. Quoted after: Wang 2011.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, 《致台静农》, 1927.0925 ，《鲁迅全集》：73-74. 确定了鲁迅在国际文学界的地位，鲁迅因此被福斯特提名诺贝尔文学奖，罗曼罗兰评价其作品《阿q正传》充满着讽刺意味，《中国现代文学与文化》，13.1（2001年春）：140-168。王2011：有趣的是，福斯特认为，鲁迅文学对公众产生了深远影响，这可能也是他被提名诺贝尔奖的原因。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 04:37, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
This shows that Lu Xun was modest and aware of the global position of Chinese literature, and that he had a vision for its development.这些显示鲁迅很谦逊，其在中国文学的得到世界的认可，同时，他的视野也促进了中国文学的发展。 Who would decline a Nobel Prize? Only someone with principles more important than the Nobel Prize. Lu Xun firmly believed in universal values, against which even the Nobel Prize had to step back. 鲁迅相信普世价值观，为此甚至可以拒绝诺贝尔奖。These principles were universal values, with the aim to lead Chinese literature, as a whole, to world level instead of singling out anybody to let the people further “sleep in their iron house.”<br />
<br />
<br />
This shows that Lu Xun was modest and aware of the global position of Chinese literature, and that he had a vision for its development.<br />
<br />
这表明鲁迅很谦逊，对中国文学的国际地位有着清醒的认识，对中国文学的发展有着远见卓识。<br />
<br />
Who would decline a Nobel Prize? Only someone with principles more important than the Nobel Prize. Lu Xun firmly believed in universal values, against which even the Nobel Prize had to step back. <br />
<br />
谁会拒绝诺贝尔奖？除非他的原则比诺贝尔奖更为重要。鲁迅坚信普世价值，即使诺贝尔奖也不得不在这一价值面前退让。<br />
<br />
These principles were universal values, with the aim to lead Chinese literature, as a whole, to world level instead of singling out anybody to let the people further “sleep in their iron house.”<br />
<br />
这些原则是普世价值，旨在把中国文学作为一个整体，带到世界水平，而不是挑出一个人，然后让其他人继续“睡在铁屋子里”。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Several researchers have also interpreted the incident. Foster (2001) pointed to Romain Rolland’s role. Wang (2011) blames the bad quality of the French translation of “Ah Q” by Jing Yinyu as contributing to the fact that Lu Xun was not awarded the Nobel Prize. However, Romain Rolland, 1915 Nobel Prize Laureate, praised this French translation and also supported a Nobel Prize for Lu Xun. Gloria Davies recounts further incidents around this matter.<br />
<br />
一些研究人员也对该事件进行了解释。福斯特（2001）指出罗曼-罗兰德的作用。王晓东（2011）称景印宇的《阿Q正传》法译本质量不过关，是导致鲁迅没有获得诺贝尔奖的原因。然而，1915年诺贝尔奖获得者罗曼-罗兰德对这一法译本大加赞赏，也支持为鲁迅设立诺贝尔奖。格洛丽亚-戴维斯还讲述了与此事相关的其他事件。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:01, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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<br />
一些研究人员也对此事进行了解释。福斯特（2001）指出罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）在其中的作用。 王晓东（2011）认为景印宇的《阿Q正传》法译本质量不过关，导致鲁迅未获得诺贝尔奖。 然而，1915年诺贝尔奖获得者罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）对这一法译本大加赞赏，并支持鲁迅获得诺贝尔奖。 格洛丽亚·戴维斯（Gloria Davies）讲述了有关此事的后续事件。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:41, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一些研究人员也对此事进行了解释。福斯特（2001）指出罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）在其中的作用。 王晓东（2011）将鲁迅未获得诺贝尔奖的原因归咎于景印宇的《阿Q正传》法译本质量不过关。然而，1915年诺贝尔奖获得者罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）对这一法译本大加赞赏，并支持鲁迅获得诺贝尔奖。 格洛丽亚·戴维斯（Gloria Davies）讲述了有关此事的后续事件。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:54, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion: Universalism'''<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was very much involved in daily politics in China and fought several fights with other intellectuals and even the Communist Party publically by the means of ''zawen'' (critical essays). For us today, these fights about small and sometimes strange issues seem to characterize its actors as caught in provinciality. However, he was universal – both in his political understanding (recognizing German domestic suppression much earlier than many others and suspecting that even the Nobel Prize could be understood as a tool of mercy towards the underdeveloped nation of China) as well as in his literature. While he wrote literary pieces of the same level as Franz Kafka, he was producing world literature in a climate which was – despite all daily chaos – freer than the one in Germany.<br />
结论:普遍性<br />
鲁迅经常参与中国的日常政治活动，并通过《杂文》公开地与其他知识分子甚至共产党争论过。对今天的我们来说，这些因小而有时奇怪的问题而引发的争论，似乎表明人陷入了狭隘的窠臼。然而，他具有普遍性——无论是在他的政治理解(比许多人更早认识到德国对国内的镇压，甚至怀疑诺贝尔奖可以被理解为对欠发达国家中国的怜悯工具)，在他的文学作品中一样。尽管他的文学作品与弗朗茨·卡夫卡不相上下，但他创作世界文学的环境却比德国更为自由——尽管这里每天都是一片混乱。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 11:01, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
Criticism of suspected political motifs behind a Noble Prize for him and of the human rights violations in Germany show that Lu Xun was neither an advocate of total westernization nor that he oriented himself towards the West as a contrast foil for China. He placed nothing less than universal values as the contrast foil to China. True, also the League of Left-wing Writers was a short-lived daily-policy tool within China (Lu Xun himself said, it “may not last long”), but it represented universal values. He also referred to the children. This was another way of distancing himself from daily politics as he pointed to existential and universal ideals like future, hope, another chance and new people who are innocent; not pre-educated and burdened with the past.<br />
<br />
对鲁迅的诺贝尔奖背后的可疑政治主题和德国侵犯人权的批评表明，鲁迅既不是全盘西化的倡导者，也不是把自己定位于西方，作为中国的对照。他把普世价值作为与中国的对比。诚然，左翼作家联盟在中国是一个短暂的日常政策工具（鲁迅本人说过，它“可能不会长久”），但它代表了普世价值。他还提到了孩子们。这是他与日常政治保持距离的另一种方式，因为他指的是存在主义和普遍的理想，如未来、希望、另一个机会和无辜的新人；不是受过教育的人，也不是背负着过去的重担的人。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 06:37, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
Paul B. Foster, “The Ironic Inflation of Chinese National Character: Lu Xun’s International Reputation, Romain Rolland’s Critique of ‘The True Story of Ah Q,’ and the Nobel Prize”, ''Modern Chinese Literature and Culture'', 13.1 (Spring, 2001): 141.<br />
<br />
保罗·B·福斯特:中国民族个性的膨胀讽刺地表现为鲁迅享有国际声誉，罗曼·罗兰批判《阿Q正传》获诺贝尔奖，以及《现代中国文学与文化》，13.1（春，2001）：141。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:48, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Jeffrey Wasserstrom: “All I see Around Me is the Same Old Darkness: Gloria Davies on Lu Xun”, Nov 4, 2013, https://goo.gl/HgqmCe. See also Gloria Davies, ''Lu Xun’s Revolution'', Harvard University Press:2012.<br />
<br />
杰夫瑞.瓦瑟施特伦：“我看到周围都是像鲁迅笔下的格洛丽亚·戴维斯一样古老的黑暗”，2013年11月4日，https://goo.gl/HgqmCe。参见《鲁迅的革命》中的格洛丽亚·戴维斯，哈佛大学出版社2012年版。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:48, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s reception of Western culture was not uncritical; he was shaped by both his heritage education and his Western education, applying universal standards to the Chinese development - a Chinese man with universal values – a true citizen of the world.鲁迅并非“全盘西化”，他的价值观受到传统教育和西方教育的影响，用普世价值来判斷中国发展——一个具有普世价值的中国人——一个真正的世界公民。<br />
<br />
鲁迅对西方文化的接受并不是没有批判的;他受到了传统教育和西方教育的双重影响，把普世价值观应用到中国的发展中——一个具有普世价值观的中国人——一个真正的世界公民。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 11:03, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
鲁迅并非不加批判完全接受西方文化；用普世价值来判断中国的发展--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 17:22, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲁迅批判性地接受了西方文化。他受传统教育和西方教育的双重影响，用普世价值评判中国的发展。他不仅是一个有着普世价值观的中国人，更是一个真正的世界公民。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 07:49, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
'''Appendix: Lu Xun’s two essays in Chinese<br />
<br />
智识过剩'''<br />
虞明<br />
<br />
世界因为生产过剩，所以闹经济恐慌。虽然同时有三千万以上的工人挨饿，但 是粮食过剩仍旧是“客观现实”，否则美国不会赊借麦粉给我们，我们也不会 “丰收成灾”。<br />
然而智识也会过剩的，智识过剩，恐慌就更大了。据说中国现行教育在乡间提 倡愈甚，则农村之破产愈速。这大概是智识的丰收成灾了。美国因为棉花 贱，所以在铲棉田了。中国却应当铲智识。这是西洋传来的妙法。<br />
西洋人是能干的。五六年前，德国就嚷着大学生太多了，一些政治家和教育 家，大声疾呼的劝告青年不要进大学。现在德国是不但劝告，而且实行铲除智识 了：例如放火烧毁一些书籍，叫作家把自己的文稿吞进肚子去，还有，就是把一群 群的大学生关在营房里做苦工，这叫做“解决失业问题”。<br />
中国不是也嚷着文法科的大学生过剩吗？其实何止文法科。<br />
就是中学生也太多了。要用“严厉的”会考制度，像铁扫帚似的——刷， 刷，刷，把大多数的智识青年刷回“民间”去。<br />
智识过剩何以会闹恐慌？中国不是百分之八九十的人还不识字吗？然而智识过 剩始终是“客观现实”，而由此而来的恐慌，也是“客观现实”。智识太多了，不是心 活，就是心软。<br />
心活就会胡思乱想，心软就不肯下辣手。结果，不是自己不镇静，就是妨害别 人的镇静。于是灾祸就来了。所以智识非铲除不可。<br />
然而单是铲除还是不够的。必须予以适合实用之教育，第一，是命理学——要乐 天知命，命虽然苦，但还是应当乐。第二，是识相学——要“识相点”，知道点近代武 器的利害。至少，这两种适合实用的学问是要赶快提倡的。<br />
提倡的方法很简单：—— 古代一个哲学家反驳唯心论，他说，你要是怀疑这碗麦饭的物质是否存在，那最好 请你吃下去，看饱不饱。现在譬如说罢，要叫人懂得电学，最好是使他触电，看痛 不痛；要叫人知道飞机等类的效用，最好是在他头上驾起飞机，掷下炸弹，看死不死 ……<br />
<br />
有了这样的实用教育，智识就不过剩了。亚门！<br />
<br />
七月十二日。<br />
<br />
The world is in economic panic because of overproduction. More than 30 million workers are starving, but the surplus is still a reality, or the United States would not have lent us wheat flour on credit, and we would not have had a "bumper harvest".<br />
<br />
But there will be an excess of intellectuals, too, and the panic will be even greater. It is said that the more China's current education is promoted in the countryside, the faster the countryside will come down, which is probably due to the bumper harvest of wisdom. The United States is shoveling cotton because it's cheap. As for China, following the example of the west, intellectuals should be shoveled. Westerners are capable. Five or six years ago, Germany shouted that there were too many college students, and some politicians and educators urged the young not to go to university. Apart from that, the Germans is now eliminating intellectuals. For example, burning some books, telling writers to swallow their manuscripts, and locking groups of college students in barracks to do hard work, which is called "solving the problem of unemployment." <br />
<br />
China also complains about the surplus of students majoring in art and law. Actually it's more than art and law. Even the number of middle school students is overwhelming. The "severe" examination system should be used like an iron broom -- brush most of the intellectual youth back to the ground.<br />
<br />
Why does excess intellectuals cause panic? Isn't there 80 or 90 percent of Chinese people still illiterate? But excess intellectuals is always an objective fact, and so is the resulting panic. Too much wisdom causes either wandering minds or soft hearts. The former will lead to entangled thoughts and the latter to vacillation, the result of which is bother himself or disturb others. Then came the disaster. Wisdom must be eradicated. <br />
<br />
But eradication alone is not enough. An education suitable for practical use must be given. The first is numerology -- to be happy to know one's destiny, and to be happy even though one's life is tough. Second, it is the learning of getting points -- we should try our best to know the advantages and disadvantages of modern weapons. At least, these two kinds of practical knowledge should be advocated as soon as possible.<br />
<br />
The method is very simple. An ancient philosopher refuted idealism. He said, if you doubt the material existence of the bowl of rice, you'd better eat it, see if you are stuffed. Now, for example, if you want to teach a man electricity, you'd better give him an electric shock and see if it hurts. To teach a person the utility of planes, you'd better fly an airplane on his head, throw a bomb, see if he die or not...<br />
<br />
With such a practical education, there will be no excess of wisdom. Amen! --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 03:15, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun to Tai Jingnong, 12 February 1933, Lu Xun shuxinji (Collected Correspondence of Lu Xun) (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1976), Vol. 1, p. 354; Zou Taofen, Taofen wenji (Collected Works of Taofen) (Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Co. Ltd., 1957), Vol. 1, p. 73.<br />
<br />
《鲁迅致台静农》，1933年2月12日，鲁迅书信集（鲁迅合集）（北京：人民文学出版社，1976），第1卷，第354页；邹韬奋文集（韬奋合集）（香港：联合出版社集团，1957），第1卷，第73页。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 08:51, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《鲁迅致台静农》，1933年2月12日，徐迅书信集（鲁迅合集）（北京：人民文学出版社，1976），第一卷，第354页；邹韬奋，韬奋文集（韬奋合集）（香港：联合出版有限公司，1957），第一卷。第73页。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:26, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
《鲁迅致台静农》，1933年2月12日，鲁迅书信集（鲁迅合集）（北京：人民文学出版社，1976），第一卷，第354页；；邹韬奋，韬奋文集（韬奋合集）（香港三联书店，1957），第一卷。第73页。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 01:24, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
'''华德焚书异同论''' <br />
<br />
孺牛<br />
<br />
德国的希特拉先生们一烧书，中国和日本的论者们都比之于秦始皇。然而秦始皇实在冤枉得很，他的吃亏是在二世而亡，一班帮闲们都替新主子去讲他的坏话了。<br />
<br />
'''Walt's book burning dissimilarity theory '''<br />
<br />
Ru Niu<br />
<br />
As soon as the German Hitler gentlemen burned their books, the Chinese and Japanese commentators all compared it to Qin Shi Huang. However, Qin Shi Huang was so wronged that he gained his ignominious reputation in the reign of his next emperor when a group of helpers went to speak ill of him for their new master.<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 01:53, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
不错，秦始皇烧过书，烧书是为了统一思想。但他没有烧掉农书和医书；他收罗许多别国的“客卿”，并不专重“秦的思想”，倒是博采各种的思想的。<br />
Exactly, First Emperor of Qin had burned books to unify thoughts. Yet, books for agriculture and medicine were saved; he had embraced many guest officials from other states and was open to all kinds of ideas without only holding "thought's in Qin State" as highly esteemed.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:51, 13 November 2020 (UTC) Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
It is true that Qin Shihuang burned books to unify his thoughts. But he did not burn down agricultural and medical books; he collected many "alienministers" from other countries, and did not focus exclusively on "Qin's thoughts", but collected various ideas.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
秦人重小儿；始皇之母，赵女也，赵重妇人，所以我们从“剧秦”的遗文中，也看不见轻贱女人的痕迹。<br />
<br />
People in the state of Qin attached great importance to children, while the state of Zhao emphasized women. And the mother of First Emperor of Qin is a woman from country Zhao. Therefore, we see no trace of contempt for women even in literature which depreciated Qin.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:22, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
希特拉先生们却不同了，他所烧的首先是“非德国思想”的书，没有容纳客卿的魄力；其次是关于性的书，这就是毁灭以科学来研究性道德的解放，结果必将使妇 人和小儿沉沦在往古的地位，见不到光明。而可比于秦始皇的车同轨，书同文……之类的大事业，他们一点也做不到。<br />
<br />
Hitler, however, was different. The books he chose to burn first were “non-German thought”; next were the books about sex, which destroyed the research of sex in a scientific way, leading to a lower status of women and children. Compare to Qin Shi Huang, he was not enough. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:21, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
阿剌伯人攻陷亚历山德府的时候，就烧掉了那里的图书馆，那理论是：如果那些书籍所讲的道理，和《可兰经》相同，则已有《可兰经》，无须留了；倘使不同，则是异端，不该留了。这才是希特拉先生们的嫡派祖师——虽然阿剌伯人也是“非德国的”——和秦的烧书，是不能比较的。<br />
<br />
When the Arabo people captured Alexandria House, they burned down the library there. The theory is: if the truths of those books are the same as the Koran, then there is already the Koran, and there is no need to keep those books. ; If it is different, it is a heresy and should not stay. This is the direct ancestor of the Hitlers-although the Arabo people are also "non-German"-and burning of books in Qin Dynasty is incomparable.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 12:10, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
但是结果往往和英雄们的豫算不同。始皇想皇帝传至万世，而偏偏二世而亡，赦免了农书和医书，而秦以前的这一类书，现在却偏偏一部也不剩。<br />
<br />
But the results are often different from those of the heroes.The first emperor wanted the emperor to pass on to the world, but the second died, pardoning the books of agriculture and medicine, and the former books of the Qin Dynasty had no one left--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 05:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But the results are often different from the calculations of the heroes. The first emperor wanted the emperor to be passed on to all generations, but the second died, pardoning agricultural books and medical books, but now there is none of those books before Qin Dynasty left. --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:18, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
希特拉先生一上台，烧书，打犹太人，不可一世，连这里的黄脸干儿们，也听得兴高彩烈，向被压迫者大加嘲笑，对讽刺文字放出讽刺的冷箭来——到底还明白的冷冷的讯问道：你们究竟要自由不要？不自由，无宁死。现在你们为什么不去拚死呢？<br />
As soon as Hitler came to power, he burned books and beat The Jews with such insolence.Even these Chinese literators who supported the cultural tyranny looked it with such delight, ridiculing the oppressed, and asking soberly with the satirical words: Do you actually want freedom or not? " Without freedom, we'd better dead." Now why don't you fight to the death?--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
这回是不必二世，只有半年，希特拉先生的门徒 们在奥国一被禁止，连党徽也改成三色玫瑰了。最有趣的是因为不准叫口号，大家就以手遮嘴，用了“掩口式”。<br />
<br />
<br />
This time there is no need for the second king, is only half a year. Mr. Hitler’s disciples were banned in Austria, and even the party emblem was changed to a three-color rose. The most interesting thing is that because slogans are not allowed to be called, everyone covers their mouths with their hands and uses the "mouth cover".--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 09:16, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
这真是一个大讽刺。刺的是谁，不问也罢，但可见讽刺也还不是“梦呓”，质之黄脸干儿们，不知以为何如？六月二十八日。<br />
<br />
What an irony it is! Don't bother who it hurts, but it is still not a dream. When asked, ordinary people generally don't know what to do.<br />
------ June 28th --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:14, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
When we define an academic category like "Chinese studies", we pay respect to the fact that the world historically has developed differently in different regions. Of course the world was far less connected than today, with slow carriers like horses and ships and often bad or risky infrastructure like roads.<br />
<br />
在定义诸如“中国研究”之类的学术类别时，我们要尊重这一事实：从历史上看，全球不同地区发展轨迹不同。当然，那是马匹和船只等运输工具速度慢，马路等基础设施经常是破烂不堪或有造成事故的风险，当时世界的联系远比现在低。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:54, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在定义诸如“中国研究”之类的学术类别时，我们要尊重这一事实：从历史上看，全球不同地区发展轨迹不同。当然，那是马匹和船只等运输工具速度慢，马路等基础设施经常是破烂不堪或有造成事故的风险，当时世界的联系远没有现在紧密。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:20, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Therefore it appears on first sight that these regions have developed their culture, their civilization and even first written languages on their own, independently. The oldest evidence of written civilizations, dating back around 3500 years BC, we find in the fertile crescent Mesopotamia with the clay tablets of the Sumerer. A little bit later there is evidence in Ancient Egypt, then in Proto-India and finally also in China.<br />
因此，乍一看这些地区独立地发展了自己的文化、文明甚至最早的文字。最古老的文字文明的证据，可以追溯到公元前3500年左右，我们在美索不达米亚肥沃的新月地带发现了苏美尔人的泥板。不久后，人们在古埃及发现了佐证，然后是在原始印度，最后在中国也出现了一些证据。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:18, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
But the more we explore history, the more fascinating evidence comes to light that these seemingly independently developing regions have had more trade relations and exchange of ideas than seems likely bearing in mind mobility: The Silk Road is not only rediscovered and reevaluated historically, but also rebuilt as a political agenda today.<br />
但是，我们探究历史探究得越多，就会有显露更多振奋人心的证据，证明这些看似独立发展的区域，其实早有过贸易交往与思想交流，而且比我们以为的流动性大得多：从历史的角度来看，今天不仅是重新发现与重估了丝绸之路，并且将其重建为政治议程。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 07:04, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但随着对历史探究的深入，有更多振奋人心的证据表明，这些看似独立发展的地区拥有的贸易关系和思想交流远比我们以为的流动性大得多。丝绸之路不仅是在历史上被重新发现和重新定位，而且如今已作为政治议程进行了重建。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:14, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
We today find early evidence of European civilizations in America and Asia as well as the Chinese civilization also in America and Europe.<br />
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Cultural Science is more influenced by its subject than other sciences, since we are part of it and cannot leave it to examine it. The history of cultural science has developed from the first times of intercultural encounters to today’s life, in which cultures are mixed and people understand each other as being part of different cultures simultaneously.<br />
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今天，我们发现了美洲和亚洲欧洲文明以及美洲和欧洲中华文明的早期证据。<br />
与其他科学相比，文化科学受其学科影响更大，因为我们是文化科学的一部分，便不能利用它去研究其本身。文化科学的历史已经从第一次跨文化的相遇发展到今天的生活，在这种文化中，文化是混杂的，彼此理解的人们同时又是不同文化的一部分。--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:22, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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今天，我们发现了美洲和亚洲欧洲文明以及美洲和欧洲中华文明存在的早期证据。<br />
与其他科学相比，文化科学受其学科影响更大。作为文化科学的一部分，我们不能利用它去研究其本身。文化科学的历史已经从第一次跨文化的相遇发展到今天的生活，在这种文化中，文化是混杂的，彼此理解的人们同时又是不同文化的一部分。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:27, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
However, there will always be differentiation between cultures, simply because the trends of integration and separation occur at the same time.<br />
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When there is different cultures, there is an interest in comparing these. This medal has two sides. As soon as you start to compare, you may value. Cultural encounters happened before there were experts or a whole discipline.<br />
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然而文化之间总是会有差异的，因为融合和分离的趋势是同时发生的。<br />
当存在不同的文化时，比较这些文化是有意义的。这个奖牌有两面。一旦你开始比较，你可能会珍惜。文化交流发生在专家或整个学科出现之前。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，文化之间总是存在差异，只是因为融合和分离的趋势同时出现。<br />
当存在不同的文化时，将这些文化做对比是有意义的。这枚奖牌有两面性。一旦你开始比较，你可能会重视。在文化专家或整个学科出现之前，文化交流就已经发生了。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:20, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，文化之间总是存在差异，仅仅是因为融合和分离的趋势同时出现。<br />
当存在不同的文化时，将这些文化做对比是有意义的。这枚奖牌有两面性。一旦你开始比较，你可能会重视。在文化专家或整个学科出现之前，文化交流就已经发生了。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 04:34, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
So the first comparisons between cultures were ethnocentric: You compared whatever you encountered as “other”, “foreign” or “alien”, to your own culture. This was often accompanied with feelings. There was both, the feeling of fear of the unknown and curiosness in the exotic.<br />
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因此，第一次文化间的比较是种族中心主义的：你把你遇到的“其他的”、“外国的”或“异族的”文化与你自己的文化进行比较。这常常伴随着感情。既有对未知事物的恐惧感，又有异国风情中的好奇。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:16, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，第一次文化比较是一种民族中心主义的体现：人们把所有认为是“其他的”、“外来的”或者“异域的”与本民族文化作比较。这种行为通常着伴随着两种感情，对未知的恐惧和对异族的好奇。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:20, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
You may categorize civilizations into so-called “high civilizations” and “low civilizations”, into “developed” and “underdeveloped” cultures. This was an ethnocentric approach in the age of cultural relativism. Today in the age of post-growth economy and after tragic experiences of colonialization and missionization, we know that each culture is equal and cannot be ranked to be higher or lower, of more or less value than the other.<br />
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你可以把各种文明分为“高等文明”、“低等文明”、“发达文明”和“不发达文明”。这是文化相对主义时代的一种民族中心主义方法。在经济后增长的今天，在经历了殖民和传教的悲惨经历之后，我们知道，每一种文化都是平等的，不能比较，没有一种文化文化比另一种文化更高级或更低级、更具价值或更少价值。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:00, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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你可以将文明划分为“高等文明”、“低等文明”、“发达文明”和“不发达文明”。这是文化相对主义时代民族中心主义的分法。人类在经历了殖民和传教的悲惨经历之后，在经济后增长的今天，我们知道，每一种文化都是平等的，没有高低贵贱之分。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 12:42, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
While very early there were historians collecting knowledge from travel reports or official delegations visiting foreign cultures, in the middle ages handbooks collected the knowledge to describe different cultures. Even the Romans had words for the Chinese (Seres in the North and Sinae in the South) and attributed to Asian-looking people certain characteristics of behaviour, attitudes, value systems, beliefs, morals and character.<br />
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虽然很早以前，有历史学家从旅行报告中或者从政府代表团造访异域文化时候汲取知识，但是中世纪的时候指南书籍都是到处搜集知识来描述不同文化的。哪怕是罗马人也有描述中国人的词语（罗马北方称为Sere，南方称为Sinae），他们还把行为、态度、价值体系、信仰、道德和性格这些特定特征与长有亚洲外貌的人联系在一起。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:08, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
The first in-depth analysis of the Chinese culture through Western people came not with the merchants, but with the Jesuits. How few was known about China can be seen from the fact, that only the Jesuits managed to clarify, that the myth of the two empires, Tartary and Kitai/Cathay, in fact both were the same (China).<br />
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首次通过西方人来深入分析中国文化，不是由商人发起的，而是耶稣会。过去鲜少有人真正了解中国，只有耶稣会设法澄清关于两个帝国的神话，实际上，鞑靼和契丹所指一样，都是指的中国。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:02, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首次深入分析中国文化的西方人不是商人，而是耶稣信徒。了解中国的人有多么少，我们可以从这个事实中看出来：只有耶稣信徒能够分清鞑靼和契丹这两大帝国的神话。实际上这两者都是指中国。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:43, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
However, the Jesuit’s approach was still ethnocentric and cultural relativist, because by portraying (like Du Halde) China as a seemingly ideal state suitable for mission work, they contributed to subjective views on China.<br />
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然而，耶稣会的分析方法仍然带有种族中心主义和文化相对论的思想。因为通过将中国描绘成一个看起来像是适合进行宣教工作的理想国家（比如杜赫德神父的作品），他们对中国的观点带有主观色彩。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:43, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，耶稣会士的分析方法仍然带有种族中心主义和文化相对主义的思想。因为他们带着主观色彩看待中国，所以将中国描绘成一个看似适合进行宣教的理想国度（比如杜赫德神父的作品）。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:18, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，耶稣会的分析方法仍然带有种族中心主义和文化相对论的思想。这是因为他们通过将中国描绘成一个看似适合进行传教工作的理想国度（如杜赫德神父），以至于对中国的观点往往带有主观的色彩。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:13, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
Around 1720 presumably the French Jesuit Jean-François Noëlas even translated the Dao de jing into Latin.[ Collani, Claudia von, Harald Holz, Konrad Wegmann eds. Uroffenbarung und Daoismus: jesuitische Missionshermeneutik des Daoismus. Europ. University Press, 2008. [Partial retranslation Chinese-Latin-German.]] The translation turns out to deviate from the original in the way that we suddenly find the Christian trinity god in it.<br />
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大约在1720年法国人让·弗朗索瓦·诺埃拉斯甚至将《道德经》翻译为拉丁语。结果证明，译文背离了原文，我们突然在其中发现基督教三位一体的上帝。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:14, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1720年左右，一位名叫让·弗朗索瓦·诺埃拉斯的法国人甚至将《道德经》翻译成了拉丁文。但他的翻译背离了原文，因为我们突然发现译文中出现了基督教三位一体的上帝。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:03, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
This is the starting point of an ethnocentric tradition to read the self and the own into the other and the alien, instead of respecting the other as a value by itself and allowing it to even challenge the own beliefs. Even the German Christian missionary and sinologist Richard Wilhelm used a Christian language (belief, heavens’ doors, life after death etc.) in his influential 1919 Taoteking translation and in 1925 he translated “god” into the Analects of Confucius.<br />
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这就是种族中心主义的起点，即把自身文化强加于其他文化及外国文化，而非尊重其他文化自身价值，甚至允许其他文化挑战自身信仰。甚至于德国基督教传教士及汉学家理查德•威廉，在其1919年具有影响力的《道德经》译本中使用了基督教语言（信仰、天堂之门、永生等），在1925年在翻译《论语》时加入“上帝”一词。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:07, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
这是民族中心主义的开始，它将自己的文化强加给其它的文化，既不不尊重其他文化的自身价值，也不允许其他文化挑战自己的信仰。甚至德国基督教传教士兼汉学家理查德•威廉，在他1919年颇具影响的《道教经》译文中使用了基督教的语言（信仰、天堂之门、永生等），且在他1925年翻译的《论语》中也加入了“上帝”一词。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:29, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
The missionaries baptized the seemingly “backward” aborigines in several continents, sometimes supported by the sword. A lot of cultures, considered less “developed”, were heavily influenced or even destroyed and extinguished. Earlier, the “Warriors of the Cross” even fought wars and devastated complete regions.<br />
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传教士在一些大洲为看似“落后”的原住民洗礼，有时是因为武力的加持。 许多被认为不那么“发达”的文化受到了严重的影响，甚至被摧毁和灭绝。早些时候，“穿越勇士们”甚至进行了战争，摧毁了整个地区。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 08:43, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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传教士在一些大洲为看似“落后”的原住民洗礼，有时还得到武力支持。 许多被认为不那么“发达”的文化受到了严重影响，甚至被摧毁和灭绝。 早些时候，“十字架上的战士”甚至进行了战争，摧毁了整个地区。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 09:23, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
The other aspect, the exotization of the other was expressed by the way the first Chinese people who came to Europe were received: They were passed on at tea meetings and gazed at like animals. Soon Chinese goods became the symbol of the exotic. Chinese porcellain and nick-nacks, even Chinese-style buildings were recreated in Europe.<br />
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另一方面，异国化表现在第一批来到欧洲的中国人受到的接待方式上:他们在茶会上被传下来，像动物一样被注视。很快，中国商品成为异国情调的象征。中国的瓷器和小装饰品，乃至中式建筑都在欧洲得到了重现。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 03:37, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
另一方面，作为第一批来到欧洲的中国人，他者的异域化表现在他们所受到的接待方式上：他们成为了茶会上的谈资，像动物一样被凝视着。很快中国货成为了异国情调的象征。中国的瓷器和小装饰品，甚至中国风格的建筑都在欧洲重现。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 06:56, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
The fever-like admiration of a China image, which certainly was not the true China, is called Chinoiserie. The Chinoiserie even involved European philosophers like Voltaire and Leibniz, who compared China to an ideal country without religion and still moral values, represented by a wise emperor.<br />
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对中国形象的狂热崇拜，当然不是真正的中国，被称为中国风。 中国艺术甚至与伏尔泰和莱布尼兹（Leibniz）之类的欧洲哲学家相提并论，他们将中国比作一个没有宗教信仰和道德价值观的理想国家，以一个明智的皇帝为代表。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:46, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对中国形象的狂热崇拜被称为“中国风”,这当然不是真正的中国。甚至连伏尔泰和莱布尼茨这样的欧洲哲学家也认同这种中国风这种观念，他们把中国比作一个没有宗教和道德价值观的理想国家，由一个明智的皇帝代表。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:44, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对中国形象的狂热崇拜被称为“中国风”,当然这并不是真正的中国。甚至连伏尔泰和莱布尼茨这样的欧洲哲学家也追逐中国风，他们把中国比作一个没有宗教信仰和道德价值，只以开明君主为代表的理想国度。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 09:27, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对中国形象的狂热崇拜，当然不是真正的中国，被称为中国风。像伏尔泰和莱布尼茨这样的欧洲哲学家也认同这种中国风这种观念，他们把中国比作一个没有宗教和道德价值观的理想国家，由一个明智的皇帝代表。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 12:29, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
In Europe, the first experts on Chinese culture were entrusted with the task to explain the Chinese culture no longer from the ethnocentric viewpoint, but from a scientific one: Professorships at universities were established. Their early translations show traces of admiration of the exotic. Chinoiserie was also countered by Européerie in China. However, this phase did only last as long as it fit to European politics.<br />
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在欧洲，第一批研究中国文化的专家被委以重任，不再从民族中心主义的观点来解释中国文化，而是从科学的角度来解释: 大学里设立了教授职位。他们早期的翻译显示出对异国情调的赞赏。在中国的欧洲人也反对“中国风”。然而，这一阶段只会在符合欧洲政治的情况下持续。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:12, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在欧洲，第一批研究中国文化的专家被委以重任，她们开始不再从民族中心主义的观点，而是从科学的角度来解释中国文化：在大学里设立了教授职位。他们早期的翻译显示出对异国情调的赞赏。在中国的欧洲人也反对“中国风”。然而，这一阶段只会在符合欧洲政治的情况下持续。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:58, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在欧洲，第一批研究中国文化的专家被委以重任，不再从民族中心的角度解释中国文化，而是从科学的角度解释中国文化：大学教授职位的设立。他们早期的翻译表现出对异国风情的赞赏。在中国的欧洲人也反对“中国风”。然而，这一阶段只会在它适合欧洲政治时持续。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 12:15, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
As soon as the import of colonial goods (and resources) became an economic factor, the (wrong) image of the ideal China changed into a negative one (similarly wrong). Not only mission and belief were motifs to look down on the Chinese culture, but also the comparison of economic development and living standards.<br />
把进口殖民商品作为经济来源会有损中国的积极形象使命和信仰会蔑视中国文化，也是比较经济发展和生活水平的动机。人们不仅会看不起中国文化所弘扬的理念和信仰，也会嘲笑中国人生活水平跟不上经济发展。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 12:25, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
一旦殖民商品(和资源)的进口成为一个经济因素，(错误的)理想中国形象就变成了一个负面形象(同样错误的)。使命和信仰不仅是蔑视中国文化的理由，也是比较经济发展和生活水平的依据。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:19, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
Hegel continued the ethnocentric view on China with his ranking of cultures. Although Confucius already had developed a “Golden Rule” principle comparable to Kant’s “Categorical Imperative”, Hegel declared Chinese philosophy as inferior to European philosophy, and even saw a geographical step by step development from Confucius over Buddha, Zarathustra, the ancient Greek and the Roman philosophy, leading to the European philosophy.<br />
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黑格尔通过其文化排名继续保持对中国的民族主义观点。尽管孔子已经制定了可与康德的“绝对命令”相媲美的“黄金法则”原则，但黑格尔却宣称中国哲学不如欧洲哲学，即使看到孔子和佛陀，扎拉特胡斯特拉，古希腊和古罗马哲学这些促进欧洲哲学发展的逐步发展。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:31, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
A ladder only second by the Arab philosophy. At the turn from the 19th to the 20th century, China was suddenly considered as static, as “the sick man of Asia”. Actually semi-colonialism in China helped to hinder development there.<br />
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这一阶梯仅次于阿拉伯哲学。19世纪到20世纪之交，人们认为中国一时停滞了，是 "东亚病夫"。但其实中国的半殖民主义进一步阻碍了其发展。<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
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Rereading the reviews of Chinese literature in contemporary Western journals, it is astonishing, how disrespectful even men of letters treated Chinese literature, even during a time, when it was not yet available in translation, so that it is save to say that ethnocentric attitude prevailed over knowledge.<br />
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重读当代西方期刊上关于中国文学的评论，令人吃惊的是，即使是在还没有译文的时期，就连文学家都对中国文学充满了不尊重，可以说民族优越感压倒了知识。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:32, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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重读当代西方期刊上对中国文学的评论后，感到惊讶的是，即使是文人也会如此不尊重地对待中国文学，即使是在还没有翻译的时代，以至于只能说，民族中心主义的态度压倒了知识。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 03:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对当代西方期刊关于中国文学的评论重读，吃惊的是，即使是在还没有译文的时期，就连文学家都对中国文学充满了不尊重，可以说民族优越感压倒了知识。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
This can be proven by the many mistakes you can find in the reviews (Morrison: the book was of low literary quality, but written in Peking dialect and therefore useful as language learning material; Gützlaff: the protagonist Baoyu is a petulant woman; Giles: the words “Red Chamber Dreams do not appear in the book” etc.). Also, the tradition of the title translation as “Dream of the Red Chamber” can be traced back to the origins of the better translation as “Red Chamber Dreams”, sacrificed by Francis Davis finally in favor of the powerful tool of Morrison’s dictionary calling it “Dream of the Red Chamber”.<br />
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这可以通过您在评论中发现的许多错误来证明（Morrison：这本书的文学素质很低，但是用北京话写的，因此可以用作语言学习材料;Gützlaff：主角宝玉是一个脾气暴躁的女人; Giles： 文字“红楼梦没有出现在书中”等）。 同样，标题翻译的传统是“红楼梦”，其源头可以追溯到更好的翻译作“红楼梦”，最终因弗朗西斯·戴维斯（Francis Davis）为支持莫里森词典中的强大工具而做出，译为“红楼梦”。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 07:26, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
Here, the exotic was used to make fun of China. Barrow introduces an excerpt, describing the outward appearance of Baoyu and Xifeng, translated by Francis Davis into English, explicitely for the reason to “amuse the beaux and belles”. Francis Davis himself picks two poems from the novel for translation, but not for its own sake, but to use them as a proof for his own (minority) opinion that the Chinese poetry knew a certain, “descriptive” function of poems in novels.<br />
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在这里，这种异域文化常用来取笑中国。巴罗引用了一段描述宝玉和熙凤外貌的文本，弗朗西斯·戴维斯将其翻译成英文版本，很明显其意图是取笑书中的“美人”。弗朗西斯·戴维斯从小说中选了两首诗进行翻译，但他不仅仅是为了这两首诗，而是为了用这两首诗证明自己（少数人）的观点，他认为我们对中国诗有一定了解之后，我们就自然会了解诗歌在小说中的描述性作用。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在这里，异国情调被用来取笑中国。巴罗引用了一段描述宝玉和熙凤外表的片段，由弗朗西斯·戴维斯翻译成英文，显然是为了取笑“书中的美人”。弗朗西斯·戴维斯本人从小说中挑选了两首诗进行翻译，但不是为了诗本身，而是为了证明他自己(少数人)的观点，即他认为我们对中国诗深入了解之后，我们一定会发现中国诗歌在小说中的某种“描写”功能。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 06:54, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “dreams of the red chamber.”[ He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.]<br />
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1815年，澳门神父罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison，1782-1834年）在《中国词典》中将《红楼梦》的标题译为“dreams of the red chamber”，这是《红楼梦》小说标题的第一个英译版本。他解释了“妙”字，认为小说中人物“妙玉Meaouyǔh[Miao Yu]意为“令人敬佩的宝石，这是《红楼梦》小说中的一个女性人物的名字”。罗伯特·莫里森的词典分三个部分介绍了中国语言，澳门：东印度公司出版社1815年，第一卷。 I.，930 pp。，此处p。 614，左栏。 印刷版出版24年后，出现了迄今已知的最早的对红楼梦标题的西译版本。 如果未发现更早的记录，则意味着莫里森创造了一直持续到今天几乎不变的对《红楼梦》标题的英译方法。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 09:13, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1815年，澳门神父罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison，1782-1834年）在《中国词典》中将《红楼梦》的标题译为“dreams of the red chamber”，这是《红楼梦》小说标题的第一个英译版本。他解释了“妙”字，认为小说中人物“妙玉Meaouyǔh[Miao Yu]意为“令人敬佩的宝石，这是小说《紅樓夢》中一个女性人物的名字”。罗伯特·莫里森的词典分三个部分介绍了中国语言，澳门：东印度公司出版社1815年，第一卷。 I.，930页，此处614页，左栏。 印刷版出版24年后，出现了迄今已知的最早的对红楼梦标题的西译版本。 如果未发现更早的记录，则意味着莫里森创造性地翻译了《红楼梦》标题，且直到今天也几乎未变。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 02:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “dreams of the red chamber.”[ He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.] He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation. Red Chamber Dreams is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
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1815年，澳门神父罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison，1782-1834年）在《中国词典》中将《红楼梦》的标题译为“dreams of the red chamber”，这是《红楼梦》小说标题的第一个英译版本。他解释了“妙”字，认为小说中人物“妙玉Meaouyǔh[Miao Yu]意为“令人敬佩的宝石，这是小说《紅樓夢》小说中一个女性人物的名字”。罗伯特·莫里森的词典分三个部分介绍了中国语言，澳门：东印度公司出版社1815年，第一卷。 I.，930页，此处614页，左栏。 印刷版出版24年后，出现了迄今已知的最早的对红楼梦标题的西译版本。 如果未发现更早的记录，则意味着莫里森创造性地翻译了《红楼梦》标题，且直到今天也几乎未变。他选择比较合理的复数形式，因为小说中有很多梦。 27年后，复数形式“dreams”变成了单数形式“dream”，比较笼统，故也是合理的。''Red Chamber Dreams''是迄今为止最常见的英文译本，其变体，即''Red Chamber Dream''，也是西方语言中最常见的译本。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 02:52, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation. Red Chamber Dreams is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
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他选择了复数，这是非常合情合理的，因为在小说中有很多的梦想。似乎27年后，复数的“梦想(dreams)”变成了单数的“梦想(dream)”，这听起来更加笼统，因此也是个合理的翻译。在英文中，在所有的变体中，在所有的西方语言中，“Red Chamber Dreams（《红楼梦》）”是迄今为止最常见译本。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 01:27, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他选择了复数，因为在小说中有很多梦境，这是很合理的。似乎在27年后，复数“dreams”变成了单数“dream”，这听起来更笼统一些，因此也是一个合理的翻译。“Red Chamber Dreams” 是迄今为止在所有西方语言中，在所有的译本中，最常见的英文译本。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:29, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他选择了复数形式是很合理的，因为小说中有很多的梦。似乎在27年后，复数的“梦”变成了单数的“梦”，听起来更笼统，因此也是一种合理的翻译。“Red Chamber Dreams”（《红楼梦》）是迄今为止英语中最常见的翻译版本，是所有西方语言的变体形式。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 02:37, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
In 1817 Rev. Robert Morrison published a book for studying Chinese,[ Robert Morrison, A view of China for philological purposes: containing a sketch of Chinese Chronology, Geography, Government, Religion & Customs, designed for the use of persons who study the Chinese language, Macao: East Asia Company Press, 1817, 141 S., hier S. 120-121.] in which he recommended “Dreams of the Red Chamber” as beginner readings, together with the novel Hao qiu zhuan, which was available mostly in English and partly in Portuguese by 1719, and fully in English by 1761. Both were written in colloquial style.<br />
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1817年，罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本研究汉语的书，[罗伯特·莫里森，从语言学的角度看中国：包含中国年表，地理，政府，宗教和习俗的梗概，旨在供学习汉语的人使用。 澳门：东亚公司出版社，1817年，141 S.，hier S. 120-121。]，其中他推荐《红楼梦》作为初学者阅读，包括小说《好逑传》，这本小说到1719年大部分都是用英语撰写，部分用葡萄牙语撰写，到1761年全部变成了英文版。两种语言都是口语化的。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:33, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1817年，启罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本学习中文的书,[罗伯特·莫里森,从语言学的角度看中国:包含中国年表、地理、政府、宗教和习俗,旨在供学习汉语的人使用,澳门:东亚公司出版社,1817年,141 S., hier S. 120-121.] 在这本书中，他推荐《红楼梦》和小说《好逑传》作为初学者读物。到1719年，《好逑传》主要以英文出版，部分以葡萄牙文出版，到1761年完全以英文出版。两者都是用口语化的。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:53, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
Morrison claims that Dream was written in Peking dialect. This does not hold true, since the author’s family Cao came from the South and many people in the novel have Nanking dialect sprinkles. In fact, the highly artful and intentional switch of dialects and sociolects contributed to the later fame of the novel. Morrison’s mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the Dreams is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.]<br />
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莫里森声称《梦》是用北京方言写成的。但事实并非如此，因为作者曹家来自南方，小说中的许多人物都有南京方言的点缀。事实上，方言和社会语的高度巧妙和有意的转换为这部小说后来的名声做出了贡献。莫里森的错误发展了自己的传统。[即使在1995年，大家也可以读到“《梦》是用北京方言写的”，参见舒长山、托马斯·曼斯的《中国的梦》（1995），法兰克福:朗，326页。至少佟耀《文学之声》（2006）同时提到了北京方言和南京方言。]--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:23, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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莫里森声称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但事实并非如此。因为作者所在的曹氏家族来自南方，而小说中许多人物也都夹杂了一些零碎的南京方言。事实上，后来这部小说名声大噪，也都离不开小说中方言与社会语言之间及其巧妙而又有意为之的语言转换。而莫里森的错误也延续下来形成传统了。[甚至在1995年，我们仍会读到说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的。参见舒长山、托马斯•曼斯的《中国的梦》（1995），法兰克福：朗，326页。至少佟耀《文学之声》(2006)则同时提及了北京方言和南京方言。]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 07:54, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
Barrow mentioned the title “[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams” on June 4, 1819, in the Quarterly Review. He inserted this reference into a review[ My own findings, so far not discussed in 20th century hongxue, and published first in October 2010. John Barrow, “Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”, in: William Gifford ed., Quarterly Review 21:41 (January 1819) S. 67-91, hier S. 79-80. This edition appeared (only by) June 4, 1819 with 13,000 copies. The author follows here the argumentation of the assignment to the author Barrow due to the following indications: “Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p. 76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his Q[uarterly] R[eview] articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works, see “Quarterly Review Archive” http://www.rc.umd.edu/ reference/qr/index/41.html, last visited March 10, 2018.] of Clarke Abel’s report of a journey through China.[ Clarke Abel, Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited, F.L.S. London 1818.]<br />
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巴罗提到书名“[……《红楼梦》，1819年6月4日在《季刊》上发表的。他在一篇评论中引用了这篇文章 [ 我自己的发现，到目前为止还没有在20世纪的红学中讨论过，并于2010年10月首次发表。约翰·巴罗《艺术》四系列中关于一八一六年和一八一七年在中国内地的旅行和往返中国的航行的叙述;其中记载了阿默斯特勋爵派往北京朝廷的最有趣的事务，以及他访问过的国家的观察。By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”, in: William Gifford ed., Quarterly Review 21:41 (January 1819) S. 67-91, hier S. 79-80. 这个版本出版(到1819年6月4日)有13000册。以下是作者对指派给作者巴罗的任务的论证，理由如下:“绅士杂志(1844年3月)，246-47。本文作者引用了#415和#438(包括一个特定的引用)，它们都是关于同一个主题，都是巴罗写的。另外巴罗在第422页评论了关于杀婴的讨论和莱佛士对爪哇的描述。在他的文章中，巴罗的标志性做法是提及自己的作品，参见“季度评论档案”http://www.rc.umd.edu/ reference/qr/index/41。html，上次访问于2018年3月10日中克拉克·阿贝尔关于中国之旅的报道。[克拉克·阿贝尔，《1816年和1817年在中国内地的一次旅行和一次往返中国的航行》;书中记述了阿默斯特勋爵派往北京朝廷的一些最有趣的事务，以及访问过的一些国家的见闻，载于1818年伦敦《F.L.S.》。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:11, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
He interrupted his review with an excursus on the uniform appearance and static nature of the Chinese, in line with the contemporary China-bashing of Herder and Hegel. For contemporary Europeans, the Chinese appeared abnormally uniform and simple in their clothes and appearance. <br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
They would not be subordinated to the tyranny of fashion; their culture was static. In order to entertain the “belles and beaux of Great Britain,” Barrow provides a foil to this general impression by quoting the descriptions of the garments and anatomy of two characters, Wang Xifeng and Jia Baoyu, from chapter 3 of J. Davis’ translation of Dream.<br />
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他们不会服从时尚专制，他们的文化是静态的。 为了娱乐“不列颠的淑女和绅士”，巴罗通过引用戴维斯的《梦》译本第3章中对两个角色王熙凤和贾宝玉的服装与解剖学的描述，为这种总体印象锦上添花。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 02:27, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
他们不会屈从于时尚专制，他们的文化是静止的。为了满足“英国淑女和绅士”，约翰•巴罗引用了约翰•弗朗西斯•戴维斯《红楼梦》翻译的第三回里面小说人物王熙凤和贾宝玉的着装和相貌描写,为衬托这种一般印象。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:55, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
In fact the graphic comparisons given in these descriptions were simply strange to Europeans of that time, since they apparently did not correspond to the European’s own ideal of beauty.<br />
Even in 1842 Gützlaff criticized: “the author [makes] many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] the style is without any art […] whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage”[ “Amongst the novels of the Chinese, this work holds a decidedly high rank. The author, after making many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] Having brought this tedious story to a conclusion, in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces. Some words that are used in a sense different from that in ordinary writings, and others are formed for the occasion, to express provincial sounds. But after reading one volume the sense is easily understood, and whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage.” ibid., p. 273.]<br />
事实上，这些描述中的形象对比对当时的欧洲人来说很奇怪，因为它们显然不符合欧洲人自己对美的理想。<br />
甚至1842年吉士笠批评道:“作者(使)许多人抗议说他不能做正义的主题,这是在书中唯一的真理[…]这风格没有任何艺术[…]凡希望熟悉法院北部方言说话口气的人,可以详细考察这个有优势的作品”(“在中国的小说,这作品绝对排名靠前。作者在许多人抗议说他不能公平对待之后,这确实是在书中唯一的真理[…]总结一下这个乏味的故事，关于文学价值表现表达我们的意见,我们可以说风格即没有任何艺术,是北部省份字面上更高的口语层次。有些词在某种意义上不同于普通文字，有些词则是为了表达地方的声音而专门造出来的。但是，读完一卷之后，这种意义就很容易理解了，任何想熟悉北方宫廷方言的人，都可以读一下这本书，从中获益。"同上，第273页。]--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:34, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
In 1867, 78 years after the first Chinese printed edition, we find a first real in-depth review of two pages by William Frederick Mayers:[ William Frederick Mayers, in: Notes and Queries (Dec 31, 1867) pp. 167-168, here p. 167. Mayers was Chinese secretary of the British Legation at Peking. He gives also short extracts in translation: <br />
“Vast as is Heaven above or Earth below –<br />
Sighs may such limits fill for passion vainly past <br />
Grieve for the senseless youth, the hapless maiden’s woe ! <br />
Not oft is love’s light pledge redeem’ed at last ! ” (p. 167) […] <br />
Vain to be soft in temper, mild in ways, <br />
Fair as the fairest … (p. 168) <br />
[…] <br />
Not often shines <br />
thy longings too are vain ! ” (p. 168)].]<br />
<br />
在1867年，也就是第一本中文版出版78年后，我们发现了威廉·弗雷德里克·迈尔斯第一次真正深入的评论，有两页纸那么长。（《备忘和查询》（1867，12月31）中记载，迈尔斯是英国驻北京公使馆的中国秘书。他还摘录了一些简短的译文:<br />
“苍苍穹苍，茫茫大地——<br />
但愿这无限的叹息填满激情的往昔，<br />
为无谓的青春悲叹，为不幸少女悲哀!”<br />
爱情的轻誓终不能兑现!“(167页)[……]<br />
性情温和，行为温顺，美如天至，都是枉然……(168页)<br />
[……]<br />
你的渴望并非时常闪耀，也枉然!”(168页)]。)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:00, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
“If it be lawful to avow a feeling approaching to enthusiasm for any Chinese production, The Hung Low Mêng 紅樓夢 or ‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’ is beyond possibility of cavil the work for which genuine admiration may be expressed. What, in English literature, the writings of Thackeray and Bulwer are in comparison with the wearisome and unskilful productions of previous generations, such is the Hung Low Mêng when compared with the works of fiction that have emanated from other Chinese authors.<br />
<br />
如果能够依法公开宣布我们对于任何一部中国作品近乎狂热的喜爱，红楼梦将无可挑剔地成为一部最值得对其倾诉真挚仰慕之情的作品。英国文学中，萨克雷和布尔沃的之前的作品与萨克雷和沃尔本人的作品相比显得乏味而笨拙，中国其他作家的作品和《红楼梦》相比也是如此。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:29, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
manated from other Chinese authors. Human character in its complex variety of shades, the intricacies of family relations, the force of passion and the torture of disappointed yearnings after love are pourtrayed with a degree of skill and knowledge such as in truth suggests a resemblance with the two great master-spirits of English romance; whilst, as in Nature's own drama of existence, the reflections of storm and sunshine are closely interlaced, and the lighter thread of comedy runs side by side with the dark main-strand of a story which opens with the omens of sorrow and is conducted to a tearful end. If, at the same time, a faint – a very faint – tinge of the supernatural is allowed to show itself in the conception of the tale, this is not only in full accord with the inclinations of the people for whom the work is written, but is also far less obtrusive than the similar element which pervades more than one of our own most celebrated fictions. […]”<br />
Reading through almost 80 years of reviews, during which more and more chapters of the novel became available, the ethnocentric attitude gradually changes to the scientific one and finally, with Mayr’s review of 1867 to a dialectic one, not only admitting that the Chinese novel was a piece of world literature, but even leaving open the possibility that it surpassed literary achievements of the own culture. This process certainly has been brought to a good end with the establishment of further diversified Chinese Studies in Europe and the USA, with the role of overseas Chinese at American universities, with further translations especially through Franz Kuhn in the 1930s and with the establishment of the German China Association in the 1950s.<br />
由其他中国作家授权。人性具有多种多样的色调，复杂的家庭关系，激情的力量以及对恋爱后的失望和所受的折磨，都带有一定程度的技能和知识，诸如英国浪漫史，实际上暗示着这两种伟大的大师精神的相似之处 ；同时，就像自然界存在自身的戏剧一样，暴风雨和阳光的反映紧密交织在一起，喜剧的轻松线索与故事的黑暗主线并肩而行，故事以悲伤的征兆开始，并以泪收场。如果同时允许在故事的概念中表现出淡淡的（极其淡的）超自然色彩，这不仅完全符合这本书所面向的读者的喜好，而且也远没有我们自己的一部最著名的小说中普遍存在的类似元素那么引人注目。<br />
[…]””<br />
阅读80年的大多数评论,在此期间,越来越多的小说章节可供借鉴,民族中心主义的态度最终逐渐改变为科学,梅尔（Mayr）对1867年的评论是一种辩证法，它不仅承认中国小说是世界文学作品中的一部分，而且甚至没有公开其超越自身文化的文学成就的可能性。随着在欧洲和美国建立更多多元化的中文研究，在美国大学中扮演海外华人的角色，特别是在1930年代通过Franz Kuhn进行的进一步翻译以及 1950年代的中德协会的建立。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 12:27, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
During its 60 years of history, the German China Association (next to the developing chairs of Chinese Studies at universities and next to other organizations dealing with China like friendship associations and Confucius Institutes) has helped to overcome prejudices, cultural relativism with diversity and tolerance. This is especially challenging, because the cultures and languages are quite distant and German media and internet community tends to bash China.<br />
<br />
在60多年的历史中，德中协会（次于正在发展中的大学里的中国研究主席，也次于其他与中国共事的组织，如友谊协会和孔子学院）帮助克服了偏见，具有多样性和宽容性的文化相对论。 这尤其具有挑战性，因为文化和语言相距遥远，而且德国媒体和互联网社区倾向于抨击中国。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 15:50, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
During the last 20 years, the German China Association was shaped through its prolific president, Gregor Paul, who has shaped the prestige of the Association with his sharp and precise analysis of a common logic in China and the West as well as universal values, including human rights, worth to strive for both in the West and in China. His entertaining and informative lectures used a rhethoric often referring to persuasive conventional wisdom, e.g. that differences often come from different opinions instead of a difference of the nature of the things, as can be seen from a quarrel with his wife about what both remembered had happened the day before.<br />
<br />
在过去20年间，德中协会是由其多产的主席格雷戈·保罗所塑造，他通过尖锐又精准地分析中西方的共同逻辑，以及分析包括中西方都值得为之奋斗的人权在内的普世价值，从而树立了协会的威望。他运用修辞手法进行寓教于乐的演讲，往往是关于一些具有说服力的传统大智慧。比如，分歧往往源于观点的不同而非事物性质的不同，这点从保罗和其妻子关于昨天发生之事的争论中可看出。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 12:37, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在过去的20年里，德中协会是由其多产的主席格雷戈·保罗所塑造，他通过尖锐又精准地分析中西方的共同逻辑，以及分析包括中西方都值得为之奋斗的包括人权在内的普世价值，从而树立了协会的威望。他运用修辞手法进行寓教于乐的演讲，往往是关于一些具有说服力的传统大智慧。比如，分歧往往源于观点的不同而非事物性质的不同，我们可以从保罗和他妻子关于昨天发生之事的对话中可看出。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 12:30, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
Paul is a consequent logician and a real universalist and he has added to Germany’s international reputation as “the land of poets and thinkers”.<br />
The process of doing more justice to China today culminates in the cooperation between Chinese and Western scholars at international conferences, in research projects or international book projects like A New Literary History of Modern China, Harvard University Press 2017.<br />
<br />
保尔是一位相应的逻辑学家，也是一位真正的普世主义者，他为德国 "诗人和思想家的国度 "的国际声誉添砖加瓦。这个过程中，对待当代中国也变得更加公正了，这激励着中西方的学者在国际会议中合作，在研究项目或国际图书项目中的合作，如2017年哈佛大学出版的《新编中国现代文学史》。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:45, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
保尔是一位相应的逻辑学家，也是一位真正的普世主义者，他为德国 "诗人和思想家的国度 "的国际声誉添砖加瓦。中西方的学者在国际会议中合作，在研究项目或国际图书项目中合作，如2017年共同编著由哈佛大学出版的《新编中国现代文学史》。在此过程中，他们对待中国的公正态度是前所未有的。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 04:07, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Europeans (and later US-Americans) have made a contribution to Chinese Studies in general. They were influenced heavily by the idealizers (Jesuits, European philosophers of the enlightenment) and by China-bashers (Hegel, the German emperor...). It took 100 years for a Chinese piece of world literature to be recognized as such in Europe. But today, Chinese literature and culture is recognized with the Nobel Prize and Confucius Institutes do successful work in the whole work promoting and exporting Chinese culture abroad.<br />
<br />
总体而言，欧洲人（以及后来的美国人）为“中国学”做出了贡献。 “中国学”曾受到理想主义者（耶稣会士，欧洲启蒙哲学家）和批判中国以赢取政治筹码者（黑格尔，德国皇帝……）的严重影响，中国的一部世界文学历时百年才被欧洲认可。但是今天，中国文学和文化获得了诺贝尔奖，孔子学院在促进向外传播中国文化的工作中取得了成功。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 09:37, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
总体而言，欧洲人（以及后来的美国人）为“汉学”做出了贡献。 “汉学”曾受到理想主义者（如耶稣会成员，欧洲启蒙哲学家）和中国抨击者（如黑格尔，德国皇帝……）的严重<br />
影响，一部世界文学中的中国作品需要历时百年才被欧洲认可。但是今天，中国文学和文化获得了诺贝尔奖的认可，孔子学院在促进向外传播中国文化的工作中也取得了成功。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:14, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Volunteer==<br />
However, we should not overestimate the European contribution. There are still examples of ethnocentrism, even of religiously motivated reading of things into Chinese literature. One of these examples is the 10 volume History of Chinese Literature published in Bonn. In two volumes, the one about the origins of Chinese literature and the one on Chinese poetry, a German sinologist, who formerly was a priest, defines, that the origin of Chinese literature lies in the dialogue of the author with god.<br />
<br />
然而，我们不应高估欧洲的贡献。现在仍然有民族中心主义的例子，甚至是出于宗教动机对中国文学作品的解读。在波恩出版的10卷《中国文学史》就是其中之一。德国汉学家在《中国文学起源论》和《中国诗歌论》两卷中，曾任神父的汉学家对中国文学的起源进行了界定:中国文学的起源在于作者与上帝的对话。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:27, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，我们不应高估欧洲的贡献。现在仍有种族中心主义的例子，甚至出于宗教动机解读中国文学。其中一个例子就是波恩出版的10卷《中国文学史》，作者波恩是曾任神父的德国汉学家。他在《中国文学起源》和《中国诗歌》两卷中明确指出，中国文学起源于作者与上帝的对话。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:39, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Volunteer==<br />
This reminds us again of the Jesuit reading of things into Chinese texts, it reminds us of the attempts, to impose your own culture on other seemingly backward cultures, in this case even the try to impose the Western god on the Chinese culture of a time, when China had a totally different understanding of the world and of heaven than that of a Christian god. The emergence of Chinese literature comes from songs, speeches and paintings, from the wish to document events, family etc., but not from an encounter with god.<br />
<br />
这再次让我们想起耶稣会会士对于中国经文的解读；想起我们试图强加自身的文化于其他看似落后的文化上，当时中国对世界和天堂的理解完全不同于基督教的上帝，在这种情况下我们甚至试图把西方的上帝强加于一个时代的中国文化上。中国文学起源于歌曲，演说和画作；源于期望记录事件，家庭等，而非起源于与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:33, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这再次让我们想起耶稣会会士对于中国经文的解读，它提醒我们那些试图把自己的文化强加给其他看似落后的文化的尝试，在这种情况下，甚至是试图把西方的上帝强加给一个时代的中国文化，当时中国对世界和天堂的理解完全不同于基督教的上帝。中国文学的出现来自于歌曲、演讲和绘画，来自于记录事件、家庭等的愿望，而不是来自与上帝的相遇。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 06:58, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Volunteer==<br />
The same German sinologist retranslated the Analects, attributed to Confucius, and translated some of the more than 50 occurrences of “heaven” or “demon/ghost” with the term “god”.[ Here Wolfgang Kubin stands in the tradition of Jean-François Noëlas 1720 and Richard Wilhelm 1925, see: Konfuzius: Gespräche. Transl. Richard Wilhelm. In Kubin’s commentary in the beginning of his identically titled book (Konfuzius: Gespräche Diederichs 2011), he justifies his reading of god into the Analects (p. 10). He translates “shen” as “gods” (p. 215) and claims, Confucius was sacrificing to the gods (p. 30), he understands „guishen“ as „demon and god“ or „spirit and god“ and “tian” as “god of heaven”, “supreme god”, (p. 213).] <br />
<br />
==Volunteer==<br />
Experts on Confucius also quote the few passages, where Confucius addresses the question of the supranatural like ghosts etc. and analyze that Confucius may have been at best not interested or even negative about the belief in ghosts, while he was positive about the social stability and peace rituals brought for the people.<br />
<br />
This reminds us of the fact, that it is to us to make sure that ethnocentrism is still existing today and that science is a field that needs to be aware of and cautious about it. And it needs courage to speak out against it.<br />
<br />
孔子专家也引用了一些段落,在这些段落中孔子探讨了像是鬼魂之类的超自然的问题。专家们分析认为孔子充其量可能是不感兴趣,甚至对鬼魂的存在持否定态度，尽管他对仪式给人们带来的社会稳定和和平持积极态度。<br />
<br />
这提醒我们一个事实：我们十分确信种族中心主义在今天仍然存在并且科学是需要注意和谨慎的领域，而公开反对它需要勇气。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:12, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
孔子专家也引用了几段话，其中孔子谈到了像鬼这样的超自然问题。并分析说，孔子对鬼神信仰顶多是不感兴趣，甚至是消极的，尽管他对社会稳定和为人民带来的和平仪式是积极的。<br />
这提醒了我们一个事实，那就是，我们要确保种族中心主义在今天仍然存在，科学是一个需要意识到并谨慎对待的领域。公开反对它需要勇气。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 04:15, 14 November 2020 (UTC)</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201102_trans&diff=11623420201102 trans2020-12-20T05:18:06Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
<br />
“化境”与“功能对等”理论的比较<br />
<br />
摘要：钱钟书与尤金·奈达分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。钱先生的“化境”理论与奈达的“功能对等”理论对中西翻译理论与实践方面有广泛深刻的影响。通过比较两者之间的异同，本文将从辩证法角度来认识这两者的理论价值。这种做法旨在更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们从历史与对立的角度看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
关键词：化境；功能对等；钱钟书；尤金·奈达--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 07:24, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“化境”论与“功能对等”论的比较<br />
<br />
摘要：钱锺书和尤金·奈达各是中西翻译史上杰出的译者。钱先生的“化境”论和奈达的“功能对等”论对中西方理论与实践产生了深远的影响。本文通过比较“化境”与“功能主义”的异同，从辩证法的角度认识两者的理论价值，旨在更好地将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，倡导从历史观和矛盾观来看待中西方翻译理论，使翻译研究更加系统和科学。<br />
<br />
关键词：化境；功能主义；钱锺书；尤金·奈达--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:28, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
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引言<br />
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作为著名的文学大师、翻译家和学者，钱锺书成就突出、知识渊博，被众多学者誉为“文化昆仑”。他的文学杰作包括《管锥编》、《谈艺录》、《七缀集》、《钱锺书手稿集》、《围城》等。此外，他提出“化境”的翻译理论，对中国传统翻译理论做出了巨大贡献，使翻译研究更加系统。中国学者陈福康评价道：“他（钱锺书）在文学和学术研究等重要领域取得了杰出成就，尽管有关翻译的讨论只是他学术殿堂中的雕琢，但在翻译研究领域产生了巨大影响” （陈福康2000：417）--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:12, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64).<br />
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尤金•乃达是美国当代著名语言学家和翻译理论家。他致力于《圣经》翻译，还从自己的翻译实践中总结了一系列翻译理论，其理论核心是“功能对等”（起初称为“动态对等”）。在他看来，“功能对等”指在目标文本中反映出的对等类型，该目标文本旨在使原文功能适应它得以生成以及为其而生成的特定语境。” （Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64）--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:35, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
尤金•奈达是美国当代著名的语言学家和翻译理论家。他致力于《圣经》翻译，还从自己的翻译实践中总结了一系列翻译理论。其理论核心是“功能对等”（起初称为“动态对等”）。在他看来，“功能对等”指在目标文本中反映出的对等类型，该目标文本旨在使原文功能适应它得以生成以及为其而生成的特定语境。” --[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 04:59, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
它要求翻译要注重原文的意义和精神，而不是拘于正式的对应关系。根据这一理论，他认为翻译必须有四个标准:(1)传达意义;(2)表达精神;(三)文字自然流畅;(4)受体反应相似。在《从一种语言到另一种语言》一书中，他将“动态对等”替换为“功能对等”，提出了指称意义和联想意义两个层次。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 05:58, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
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The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”.<br />
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1.“化境”及“功能对等”理论起源<br />
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1.1 “化境”理论起源<br />
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钱钟书在1963年写过一本书，名为《林纾翻译》，并于1979年在中华书局出版了“锥管集”，正是这两部作品让他想到了“化境”这一翻译理论。钱钟书认为翻译过程实际上就是运用“诱惑”，避免“误用”，以及追求“化境”的过程。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 10:31, 4 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 02:42, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.“化境”和“功能对等”的理论起源<br />
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1.1 “化境”的理论起源<br />
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钱钟书在1963年写下的《林纾的翻译》以及1979年中华书局出版的《管锥集》中提及“化境说”这一翻译理论。他认为翻译的过程实际上是遵循“化”，避免“讹”，以及追求“化境”的过程。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:45, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. “化境”及“功能对等”的理论起源<br />
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1.1 “化境”的理论起源<br />
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钱钟书的“化境”这一翻译理论思想体现在他的两本著作中，也就是他于1963年完成的《林纾的翻译》以及1979年由中华书局出版的《管锥编》。他认为翻译的过程实际上是遵循“化”，避免“讹”，而追求“化境”的过程。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 08:09, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”.<br />
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接着他指出：“ 文学翻译的最高理想境界就是‘化境’。在翻译文学作品时，我们无法避免由不同语言使用习惯所造成的僵硬，尴尬的表达痕迹，但这也完整保留了原著的韵味。这就是所谓的‘化境’”（钱钟书，2002:77）。根据他的解释，显而易见其翻译理论的核心便是“化境”。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 00:27, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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接着他指出：“文学翻译的最高理想是‘化境’。当把文学作品从一种语言翻译成另一种语言时，如果你不仅可以避免由于语言使用习惯的不同而造成的生硬和笨拙的表达痕迹，而且还可以完全保留原作的韵味。那么我们就可以说，这是‘化境’的实现”（钱钟书，2002:77)。根据他的解释，不难看出其翻译理论的核心是“化境”。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 04:58, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9).<br />
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而且，我们可以从钱钟书的理论中提取出三个等级的“化”（化境），一是将源文本转化为目标文本，其次是使用归化的方式使之更为自然，通顺，不带有因为文化及语言差异而产生的翻译腔，最后是“化境”的最高目标，即精神的转化，只改变源文本外在的躯壳，而保留其内在的精神和风格，使得目标文本与源文本没有丝毫偏差。换句话说，译文应该忠实于原文，读起来完全不像是翻译出来的，因为原著读起来也绝不会像是一部翻译作品一样。(Kao, 1975: 8-9)--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:43, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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另外，我们可以从钱钟书的理论中提取三种“化”（化境）的境界。首先，将源文本转换成目标文本，其次，运用归化方法将使源文本自然顺畅地表达成目标文本，避免由于文化和语言差异造成的明显的翻译腔。最后，“化境”的最终目标，即“灵魂的轮回”，取代源文本外部的形式，保留内部精神和风格，而不害其义。换句话说，翻译应该忠实于源文本，又使得译文读起来不像译文，因为用母语写成的文学作品读起来绝不会像是翻译过来的。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 10:11, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”.<br />
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“功能对等”的理论渊源<br />
奈达在其1964年出版的《翻译的科学探索》一书中首先提出了动态对等的概念。他认为翻译中有两种对等，即形式对等和动态对等。具体来说，形式对等是指“将原文的形式特征机械地复制到译文语言中”。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 04:39, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory.<br />
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相反，动态对等要求翻译过程中用目的语传递源语文本信息时，译文接收者对译文产生的反应应与原文读者对原文产生的反应相同。(奈达&泰伯, 1982:200-201)奈达的翻译理论源于其对圣经的翻译实践。在此过程中，他从语义和信息理论角度强调翻译的交际功能。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:28, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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相反，动态对等在翻译中体现在“原文本被翻译成接受文本时，译文接受者的反应应与原文接受者的反应大体相同”(奈达&泰伯, 1982:200-201)奈达的翻译理论源于其对圣经的翻译实践，在此实践中，他从语义和信息理论角度强调翻译的交际功能。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:52, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
更重要的是，他将翻译视为语际翻译，并强调关注受众反应的重要性，追求目标读者与原读者反应相同的标准。在他的《从一种语言到另一种语言》一书中，他将“动态对等”一词改为“功能对等”，并强调我们应该在源语言向目标语言传递一致信息的基础上努力实现形式对等。此外，他将翻译过程分为三个步骤，即“分析、转换、重组和检验”。通过这四个步骤，可以准确地传递原始信息，也关注目标受众的反应，从而很好地达到交流的目的。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:02, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation.<br />
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2. “化境”和“功能对等”之间的异同<br />
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2.1 “化境”和“功能对等”之间的相同点<br />
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（1）翻译过程的相似：如上文所述，钱钟书先生提出翻译是运用“诱”，避免“讹”，追求“化境”的过程。具体来说，“诱”指的是文化交流中起作用的翻译媒介。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:53, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. “化境”和“功能对等”之间的异同<br />
2.1 “化境”和“功能对等”之间的相同点<br />
（1）翻译过程的相同关注点：如上文所述，钱钟书先生提出翻译是运用“化”，避免“讹”，追求“化境”的过程。具体来说，“化”指的是文化交流中起作用的翻译媒介。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 00:37, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
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In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts.<br />
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从这个意义上讲，翻译可以看作是一种引导，可以使目标读者理解源语言及其文化，并更好地理解外国的优秀作品。 这个过程具有重要意义，因为如果读者对源语言文化和外国文学兴趣不大； 那么翻译作品将失去其价值。 因此，我们可以说翻译不仅是两种语言间的转换，而且是不同文化和思想之间的碰撞。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:50, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从这个意义上讲，翻译可以看作是向导，它可以引领目标读者理解源语言及文化，并更好地理解外国优秀作品。 这个过程具有重要意义，因为如果读者对源语言文化和外国文学缺乏兴趣； 那么翻译作品将失去其价值。 因此可以说，翻译不仅是两种语言的转换，它还是是不同文化和思想之间的碰撞。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:16, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression.<br />
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所谓的“讹”是指在翻译过程中对原文的歪曲和错误表达。由于“讹”在翻译中是无法避免的，无论一个译者多么优秀，无论他的译文多么流畅，他都不能避免以这样或那样的方式犯这样或那样的错误，但他可以用尽一切手段使原文信息得到最大程度的呈现(余承法，2003: 43)。这是由于不同语言之间的差异，译者理解事物方式的差异，写作风格与原文内容形式的差异，甚至译者理解能力与表达能力的差异。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:41, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality.<br />
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最后一步称为”化境“，”化“在这里是升华的意思，是文学翻译的最高理想，也是翻译过程的最终目标。译者应设法弄清楚原作者想法，并思考他所想象的东西，让自己沉迷于作者（的世界）（罗新璋， 1984: 511），钱钟书对翻译这一过程的解释是实现”化“的最根本的条件。因此，在做翻译练习时，译者每一步都必须做好准备，这对能力和素质有很高的要求。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 13:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最后一步称作“化境”；此处的“化”意指“升华”。“化”是文学翻译的最高境界，亦是翻译过程的最终目标。译者应尽力揣摩原作者意图并思考原作者脑中所想，从而深入到作者的世界中去。(罗新璋,1984:511)钱钟书对翻译过程的诠释是实现“升华”(化)的必要条件。因此，译者进行翻译实践时，每一步都要准备充分。这就要求译者的翻译水平和译文质量都要达到高标准。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:38, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text.<br />
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同样，奈达基于“功能对等”理论，从语言学角度，提出翻译过程“四步模型”：分析，迁移，重构，检验。奈达和泰伯提出：所有语言都有6～12中基本内核结构，并且，他们在内核层面的一致性远远大于其在更详细结构层面，比如词序上的一致性。首先，“分析”指的是我们要先分析原文本的表面结构，再掌握句子的语法意义，换句话说，就是掌握原文本的概念意义和内涵意义。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:48, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同样，奈达基于“功能对等”理论，从语言学角度提出翻译过程的“四步模型”，即“分析、转换、重组、检验”。奈达和泰伯认为所有语言都有六到十二种基本核心结构，它们在核心层面上比在更复杂的结构层次上更一致”，比如词序的一致性。首先，“分析”指我们必须分析源文本的表层结构，再掌握句子的语法意义，换句话说，就是指源文本的指称意义和内涵意义。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 14:22, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure.<br />
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为了正确传达原文信息，译者必须对原文进行从表层结构到深层结构的分析。然后是“转换”，转换的意思就是将分析过的源文本呈现到目的文本中。这一步包括两种不同语言符号和语言形式之间的转换，同时也是两种不同思想模式之间的转换。接着是“重构”，即对源文本进行再加工和再创造，在这一步中，译者在将源文本译成目的文本时需要遵循目的语言的表达方式，摆脱源文本表层结构的束缚，从而更深层地挖掘源文本深层结构的含义。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:11, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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为了正确地传达原文信息，译者必须对原文从表层结构到深层结构进行分析。然后，“转换”是指译者将分析后的原文本翻译成目标文本。这一步不仅包括两种不同语言符号和语言形式的转换，还是不同思维方式的交流。其次，“重构”是指对原文的再加工和再创造，译者将原文翻译成符合目的语表达的译文，摆脱原文表层结构的制约，从而进一步挖掘深层结构的意义。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 05:49, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63).<br />
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因此，重组可以定义为正向翻译，换句话说就是反向转换的过程（Shuttleworth & Cowie，2004:145）。最后，“检验”是指将源文本与目标文本进行比较，以避免翻译作品中出现语义错误，并追求译文内容与原文内容之间最大限度对等的过程。奈达和泰伯对这一过程的描述（1969:63-9）强调，与任何试图在特定的源语和目标语系统之间绘制一个完全等效列表的尝试相比，该方法都具有“科学性和实用性”的优势（Jeremy Munday，2016:63）。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 00:51, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.<br />
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(2)同样关注目标读者的反应。自古以来，国内外翻译家对优秀翻译的标准有不同的看法。严复在其翻译作品《天演论》中提出了著名的三字方针，即 "信、达、雅"。同样，西方翻译家亚历山大-弗雷泽-泰特勒也提出了 "翻译三原则"。简单地说，就是译文要完整地抄录原作的思想；译文的风格和写作方式要与原作具有相同的特点；译文要具有原作的所有易感性。<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them.<br />
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从严复和泰勒对翻译标准的描述中我们可以看出，译者研究翻译原则和标准正是其重视译入语读者、对译入语文化充满责任感的体现。钱钟书的“化境”论强调译者应该引导我们的读者阅读外国文学作品，或者让读者受到外国文化感染，了解外国作家。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 12:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过对严复和泰勒尔对翻译标准的描述的分析，我们可以看到，对翻译原则和标准的研究，正是译者对译语读者的重视，也是译者对译入语文化的责任感的体现。钱钟书的“升华”理论强调，译者应该引导读者阅读外国文学作品，或者让读者被外国文化所吸引，介绍外国作家。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 04:31, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过对严复和泰勒尔对翻译标准的描述的分析，我们可以看到，对翻译原则和标准的研究，体现了译者对译语读者的重视，也是译者对译入语文化责任感的体现。钱钟书的“化境”理论强调，译者应该引导读者阅读外国文学作品，或者让读者受到外国文化吸引，了解外国作家。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 10:37, 7 November 2020 (UTC)Li lili<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
“Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu:<br />
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“升华”不仅是翻译的标准，还体现了译者对目标读者的照顾。 钱先生说：“翻译应该忠于原著，这样才不会读起来像翻译的作品，因为在源语言的文化背景下，原著永远不会读起来像一部翻译作品。” 好的翻译作品可以激发读者对原著的好奇心，也能带给读者美妙的享受。 钱先生还评论了严复提出的三原则：--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 08:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“化境”不仅是翻译的标准，也体现了译者对目标读者的关怀。钱先生说 "译文要忠实于原作，不能让人读起来像翻译作品，因为原作在源语言文化的情况下，原著绝不会读起来像翻译过的文章。" 一个好的译本可以激发读者对原作的好奇心，也可以给读者以美的享受。此外，钱先生还对严复提出的三个原则进行了点评：--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 15:30, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101)<br />
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“翻译理论当中的信还应包括达和雅。达基于信，但雅并不非靠达才能实现。信是指用统一的风格传递原文信息。许多人认为，翻译中的雅需要靠辞藻的堆砌才能实现。但是很少有人意识到，为保持原文的风格，是需要舍弃对词语的修饰的。即使不忠实于原文，译文也可以清楚明了，但倘若读者读不懂译文，就算不上信。”（钱钟书，1986:1101）--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:01, 3 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译中，信应当包含达和雅。达可以充分实现信，但只有达，就不能实现雅。相同风格传达原文信息—这就是信…很多人已经逐渐意识到：翻译不该为了雅，而堆砌辞藻，美化译文。但很少有人认识到：翻译得舍弃这些修饰词来译出原文精神。译文即使不忠于原文，也能明白易懂，但忠于原文，读者反而读不懂了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:27, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work.<br />
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同时，奈达认为准确的翻译取决于一般读者在多大的程度上能够正确的理解原文，也就是说，目标读者是否在阅读译文的时候会有和阅读原文一样的感受。“功能对等”的目的就是让读者能达到交流需求。为了使目标得以实现，我们有必要改变原文的形式和考虑读者对译文的接受程度。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:50, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同时，奈达认为翻译的准确性取决于一般读者在多大程度上能够正确地理解源文本，也就是说，目标语读者在阅读翻译作品时是否会有着相似或者是一样的感受。“功能对等”的目的是为了满足读者交流的需要。为了达到这个目标，我们可以根据读者对翻译文本的可接受性对源文本的形式进行一定的修改。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 16:05, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture.<br />
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奈达的“功能对等”不仅需要对原文忠实，而且也要对目标语读者和原语读者负责。奈达描绘了与理论家在语义学和语用学这两个方面所进行的关于各种“意义研究的科学方法”的工作。奈达工作的核心是从一个单词具有固有的意义这样的旧观念转化为意义的功能定义，也就是一个单词可以从它的上下文获得含义，并且不同的文化会产生不同的响应。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:47, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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奈达的“功能对等”不仅要对原文有忠实姓还要对目标语堵着和原文读者负责。 在理论学家在语义学和语用学研究的工作中，奈达叙述了各种“意义研究科学方法”。奈达的核心论点是脱离词汇有固定的意义这个旧观念并转向意思的功能定义，也就是根据不同的文化和背景，一个词汇会有相应的不同意思。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 01:37, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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奈达的“功能对等”理论不仅要求应忠实于原文，还要求要对目的语读者和原文读者负责。基于理论家在语义学和语用学方面的相关工作，奈达提出了“意义研究科学法”。这一方法的核心是，摆脱了单词有固定含义的旧观念，转向了意义的功能定义，即通过上下文获得单词的含义，并且根据文化的不同单词的含义也会有所不同。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境).<br />
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从以上论述可以看出，无论是奈达的 "功能对等 "还是钱钟书的 "化境"，都必须考虑到读者的反应。因此，作为翻译的标准，这些理论避免了机械的文本对等和双语转换，促进了翻译实践的发展。<br />
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(3)两种理论的归化倾向：正如我们一开始所提到的，钱先生主张的 "化境"(化)理论有三种含义，即 "转化"、"归化"和 "化境"。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 15:24, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original.<br />
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由此可见，“归化”是连接原文转换和目标语升华实现的桥梁。在《七个补丁》一书中，他写道：“无论目标版本是‘面向欧洲’还是‘面向汉语’，翻译总是基于原语国家的语言系统到目的国的语言系统（2002:78）。虽然他没有明确指出翻译应该是“归化导向”还是“异化导向”，但他将翻译与原作的“转世”相比较，认为翻译是原作的“外化”。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 04:27, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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显而易见，“归化”是连接原文转化和在目标语中实现化境的桥梁。在《七个补丁》一书中，他写道：“无论目标版本是‘面向欧洲’还是‘面向中国’，翻译总是基于从源语国家到目的语国家的语言系统(2002: 78)。虽然他没有明确说明翻译应该是“归化”还是“异化”，但他把翻译比作原作的“转世”，认为翻译是原作的“变形”。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:27, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text.<br />
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此外，他赞赏林纾的翻译作品，并评论说，他宁愿阅读林纾的翻译，也不愿阅读哈格德的原文。 这样，钱钟书先生似乎更喜欢“中国化”风格的文字，这体现了“本土化”的倾向。 在“功能对等”理论中，Nida提倡使用目标语言的表达习惯来转换原始文本。 他认为语言是交流的手段，交流是最终目标，也是翻译的重要角色，因此他更加关注受体对目标文本的反应。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 14:43, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original.<br />
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在《七个补丁》一书中，他写道:“无论目标版本是‘面向欧洲’还是‘面向中国’，翻译总是基于从原国家到目标国家的语言系统(2002: 78)。虽然他没有明确说明翻译应该是“归化”还是“异化”，但他把翻译比作原作的“转世”，认为翻译是原作的“变形”。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 05:18, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他在《七个补丁》一书中写道：“无论目标版本是“欧洲版”还是“中国版”，翻译始终基于从源语国家到目标语国家的语言系统(2002：78)。 尽管他没有明确说明翻译是应“本土化”还是“异化”，但他将译文比作原著的“转世”，并认为译文是原著的一种“变形”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:11, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
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为了目的语读者能理解译文，译文必须符合目的语的文化传统与语言习惯。同时，译者要在保证译文忠实于原文的基础上使其自然且通顺。奈达的“归化”翻译趋向正是出于这种观点。请看下列例子：--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 07:51, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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为了使目标读者接受译文，译文符合目的语的文化传统和语言习惯十分重要。与此同时，译者必须在保证忠实原文的前提下，使译文自然流畅。以上可看出奈达的“归化”翻译倾向。请看下面的例子:--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 08:17, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
S: “white as snow”<br />
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T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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From the point of view of tr--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)aditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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源语言：“White as snow"<br />
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目标语：“白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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对于支持传统翻译标准的译者来说，以上的翻译是与原文信息相冲突的，但是对于从来没有见过雪的读者，他们完全不能理解“像雪一样白”的意义。通过归化的翻译策略，目标语读者能够达到与源语言读者同样的反应，实现更好的交流。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 13:39, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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源语言："White as snow"<br />
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目标语：“白如木棉花” 或 “白如鹭毛” 或 “白如蘑菇”<br />
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按照传统翻译标准，以上翻译与原文信息相悖，但是对于从来没有见过雪的读者，他们完全不能理解“像雪一样白”。通过归化的翻译策略，目标语读者能够产生与源语言读者相近的反应，实现更好的交流。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:55, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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源语言：“White as snow"<br />
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目标语：“白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
从传统翻译标准的角度来看，以上翻译与原文信息背道而驰，但是对于那些从没见过雪，不知道雪长什么样子的人来说，他们完全不能理解”像雪一样白“是什么意思。通过归化的翻译策略，目标语读者能够产生与源语言读者相近的反应，实现更好的交流。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”.<br />
2.2化境论与功能对等的区别<br />
（1）理论基础不同:钱钟书的化境论是建立在严复的翻译标准“信、达、雅”之上的，是对中国传统翻译理论的发展。钱钟书的化境论将翻译研究从美学范畴推向了艺术的极致。最终，化境论被纳入到中国翻译思想的发展历程中，即“案本求信-神似-化境。”--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 08:26, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
2.2化境论与功能对等的区别<br />
（1）理论基础不同:钱钟书的化境论建立在严复的翻译标准“信、达、雅”之上，是对中国传统翻译理论的发展。钱钟书的化境论将翻译研究从美学范畴推向了艺术的极致。最终，化境论成为了中国翻译思想的发展历程中的一部分，即“案本求信-神似-化境。”--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 10:39, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
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Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version.<br />
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这四种概念相互独立，又紧密相关。这些概念逐步发展，构成了一个完整的翻译体系，是传统翻译理论中的重要组成部分(Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20)。奈达的“功能对等理论”是基于其《圣经》翻译实践。在乔姆斯基的转换生成语法的指导下，奈达的功能对等理论要求译者由浅入深地分析文本结构，然后将原文的深层结构转化为译文的深层结构，最后调整译文使其呈表层结构。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:44, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这四个概念，既独立又相互关联。它们逐渐发展成为一个完整的翻译系统，而这个系统是我们传统翻译理论的重要组成部分(罗新章，2009:20)。奈达的“功能对等”理论是在其圣经翻译实践的基础上建立起来的。在乔姆斯基的转换生成语法指导下，奈达的功能对等要求译者从表层结构分析到深层结构;然后将其从原文的深层结构转化为译入语的深层结构，最后调整译入语的语言结构，得到译文的表层结构。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:10, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function.<br />
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从这一系列步骤中，我们可以看出翻译学的层次性和理论性。因此奈达提出了他的观点，即翻译可以称为一门科学。钱钟书则认为译作不仅可以超越原著，有时甚至比原著还要好得多；尽管奈达没有表明在原文和译文哪个要更好，但他更强调两种语言之间的对等和目标受众的反应，因此更重视翻译的交际功能。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:00, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过一系列步骤，我们可以看到翻译研究的层次性与理论性，因此奈达提出了他的观点，即翻译可以视为一门科学。钱钟书认为译作可以超越原作，有时甚至能比原作更好。而奈达并未表明原文与译文哪个更佳，他的重点更多放在两种语言的对等和受众者的响应方面，因此将研究的优先级放在了翻译的交际功能上。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 07:50, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154).<br />
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(2)不同的应用范围<br />
钱钟书先生提出“化境”（升华）是文学翻译的标准，因此它可能更适合文学体裁的翻译。他认为译者应该“突破”文化差异的障碍，使翻译”超脱“原作。然而，遇到有关政治，经济，法律，商业等应用文体的翻译，这似乎行不通。此外，一些学者认为钱先生的“升华”过分强调艺术的奥秘，已经变成了一个难以企及的模糊标准。（高华利, 2019: 154）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 16:07, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8)<br />
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他所描述的文学翻译的“最高理想”会不可避免地产生“信息错误”的问题，而这将限制“升华”的应用范围。 尽管一代又一代的学者和专家做出了卓有成效的努力去从各个方面阐明“升华”，但对很多翻译圈的人来说，“升华”还是无法从理论上解释和实践实现的，这就像“阁楼上的空中”。 （于成发，2003：8）--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:31, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他所描述的文学翻译的“最高理想”会不可避免地产生“信息错误”的问题，而这些问题将限制“化境”的应用范围。 尽管一代又一代的专家学者努力从各个方面阐明“化境”，并取得了成果，但对很多翻译圈的人来说，“化境”还是如同“空中阁楼一般”，仍旧无法从理论上解释并通过实践来实现。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:06, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他所描述的文学翻译的“最高境界”不可避免会产生“信息错误”的问题，而这些问题将限制“化境”的应用范围。尽管一代又一代的学者和专家尽其所能从各方面解释“化境”，但是对于很多翻译界的人来说，“化境”如“空中阁楼”一般，仍旧无法从理论上解释并通过实践实现。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 15:13, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible.<br />
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与此相反，奈达对于圣经中宗教文化的翻译带有统一和肃穆的色彩。为了传播上帝的意志，他向各行各业的人们传道；因此，奈达对于圣经的翻译不仅要达到贵族们的要求，还要满足缺乏宗教文化知识的普通公民的需要。“功能对等”理论的目标读者是来自各行各业的大众，其适用范围更趋于实践。奈达的翻译的对等理论来源于圣经的翻译实践。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:32, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
与此相反，奈达对于圣经的翻译带有统一和庄严的宗教文化色彩。他向各行各业的人传道是为了传播上帝的旨意；正因如此，奈达的翻译不仅要满足上流社会的需要，还要让那些缺乏宗教文化知识的普通大众对此有一定的了解。“功能对等”理论的目标读者是来自社会各阶层的群众，其适用范围也更加实际。奈达的功能对等理论起源于圣经的翻译实践。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 03:00, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
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众所周知，西方语言在文化和表达方面有许多共通之处，因此奈达的“对等”理论在两种欧洲语言之间相对容易实现。在英汉翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以很难实现完全的“对等”。奈达将翻译步骤严格地划分成四个部分，可视为一种实用性的翻译方法，用于指导一些科技文、公告和应用文的翻译。就文学体裁而言，像诗歌和散文翻译，译者的创造力可能更为重要，用机械的方法和步骤是很难传达原文的文学性的。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:06, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，西方语言在文化和表达方面有许多共通之处，因此奈达的“对等”理论在两种欧洲语言之间相对容易实现。而在英汉翻译中，汉语和英语属于不同语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以很难实现完全的“对等”。奈达将翻译严格地划分成四个步骤，这可视为一种用于指导一些科技文、公告和应用文翻译的实用性翻译方法。就文学体裁而言，像诗歌和散文翻译，译者的创造力可能更为重要，用机械的方法和步骤是很难传达原文的文学性的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:37, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，西方语言在文化和表达方面有许多共通之处，因此奈达的“对等”理论在两种欧洲语言之间相对容易实现。因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且两者文化差异较大，所以在英汉翻译中很难实现完全的“对等”。奈达将翻译严格地划分为四个步骤，可视为一种实用性的翻译方法，用于指导一些科技文、公告和应用文的翻译。就文学体裁而言，像诗歌和散文翻译，译者的创造力可能更为重要，用机械的方法和步骤是很难传达原文的文学性的。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 09:03, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
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According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer.<br />
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3.A 对“化境”和“功能对等”的批判性理解<br />
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3.1 “化境”一说法忠实原文吗？<br />
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根据传统的翻译理论，译者一直被认为是原文和译文的“仆人”。他必须要忠实原文，在表达出原作者的意思的同时也要考虑目标读者。徐俊（2003：321）在他的书《论翻译》中写道“传统翻译理论中经常强调三点:第一，译者在翻译中不应纳入自己的主观思想。第二，不应该在翻译中表现出译者个人的情感特点。第三，译者应在原文的基础上进行翻译，忠实于原文作者的思想。”--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 02:59, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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3.A 对“化境”和“功能对等”的批判性理解<br />
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3.1 “化境”就是忠实原文吗？<br />
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根据传统的翻译理论，译者总是被认为是原文和译文的“仆人”。在关注目标读者的同时，他必须忠实于原作者。许俊(2003: 321)在《论翻译》一书中写道:“传统的翻译理论往往强调三点:首先，译者在翻译中不应纳入自己的主观思想；其次，他们不应该在翻译中表达自己的个性；最后，译者应该在原文的基础上翻译文本，并忠实地遵循原作者的思想。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 05:28, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant.<br />
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从钱钟书“化境”理论的分析中可以明显看出，他更倾向于“归化”的翻译策略，强调译文可以超越原文。他本人欣赏林纾的翻译作品，因为他们共同的主张和相似的历史背景。从历史唯物主义的观点来看，“社会存在决定社会意识，社会意识对社会存在具有反作用。”例如，林纾生活在一个封闭的国家，当时的清朝非常傲慢，甚至是无知。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:30, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从钱钟书“化境”理论的分析中可以明显看出，他更倾向于“归化”的翻译策略，强调译文可以超越原文。他本人欣赏林纾的翻译作品，因为他们拥有共同的主张和相似的历史背景。从历史唯物主义的观点来看，“社会存在决定社会意识，社会意识对社会存在具有反作用。”例如，林纾生活在一个封闭的国家，当时的清朝非常傲慢，甚至可以说是无知。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:58, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one.<br />
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他的翻译风格自然受到了名族感情的影响。因此，他的翻译有“归化”的倾向，甚至有不忠实翻译的倾向。钱钟书生活在新中国成立后的文艺繁荣时期，当时毛主席提出了“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的方针，因此，我们的中国人民洋溢着崇高的精神和自豪的情感，一些译者的翻译作品更倾向于利用“归化”，使翻译作品比原作更优秀。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 10:23, 7 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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他的翻译风格自然受到了民族情结的影响。因此，他的翻译倾向于“归化”，甚至倾向于不忠实的翻译。钱钟书生活在新中国成立后的文艺繁荣时期，在该时期毛主席提出了“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的方针，这让中国人民洋溢出斗志昂扬的精气神和自豪的情绪；一些译者的翻译作品也更倾向于采用“归化”，使得翻译作品比原作更出彩。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:27, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
林纾的翻译风格自然受到了民族情结的影响。因此，他的翻译倾向于“归化”，甚至倾向于不忠实的翻译。钱钟书生活在新中国成立后的文艺繁荣时期，当时毛主席提出了“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的方针，这我们的中国人民洋溢着崇高的精神和自豪的情感。一些译者的译作更倾向于“归化”的翻译策略，使得译作比原作更出彩。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:46, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator.<br />
<br />
这种翻译策略对原文有些许“不忠”，不会像鲁迅所倡导的“异化”方法那样“真诚地模仿”原文。“升华”理论很难具体实施，因为它已经成为一个“无法实现”的目标。翻译是“汉化”还是“欧化”；是“忠实”还是“创新”，而译者在翻译中究竟是“有形”还是“无形”都是难以衡量的标准，因为这些因素不可避免地受到译者主观和历史客观性的影响。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 10:09, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种翻译策略对原文或有“不实”，或不像鲁迅所倡导的“异化”方法那样“真挚地模仿”原文。要具体应用“化境”理论还有点难度，因为它已成为一个“遥不可及”的目标。翻译应该是“汉化”还是“欧化”，是“忠实“还是”创新“；译者在译文中应该”现身“还是”隐形“，这些标准都难以衡量，因为这些都不可避免的受到译者主观和历史客观性的影响。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:24, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
<br />
“化境”是否能做到忠实于原文本呢？或许正如钱钟书先生所说：“ 译者在使用母语时往往比使用原作者的源语言更加灵活通顺，这种情况在翻译史中是很常见的。” 在某种程度上，我们认为这种“不忠”就是忠实于原文。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:47, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“化境”真的是忠实原文的一种翻译方法吗？也许就如钱钟书先生所说的那样：“相较于原作者的源语言，译者运用其母语的能力要更加灵活通顺。”而这就是翻译历史上经常出现的现象。我们可以认为这样的“不忠实”其实是特定意义下的“忠实”。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:50, 4 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
<br />
The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field.<br />
<br />
3.2 有关奈达“功能对等理论”的问题<br />
<br />
意义、对等和可译性问题是上个世纪60年代翻译研究不变的主题，而作为翻译研究的重要人物之一，美国的尤金·奈达提出了一种新的“科学”方法来解决这些问题。尤金·奈达的翻译理论是在他自己的实践工作中发展起来的，从上个世纪40年代起，他开始开展翻译工作和组织《圣经》的翻译工作，还常常对那些在该领域工作的没有经验的译者进行培训。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.2奈达的“功能对等”问题<br />
<br />
意义、对等和可译性问题是20世纪60年代翻译研究的一个固定主题，作为翻译研究最重要的人物之一，尤金·奈达使用了一种新的“科学”方法解决这些问题。他的翻译理论是从20世纪40年代在他自己的实际工作中发展起来的，当时他正在翻译《圣经》和组织《圣经》的翻译工作，经常培训在这个领域缺乏经验的译者。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 16:22, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects.<br />
对于奈达的“功能对等”理论，翻译界一直褒贬不一。有人认为该理论是翻译科学的代表，对翻译实践有很好的指导作用。 然而，也有一些学者不同意这一理论，例如彼得·纽马克就是它的批评者之一。 他认为奈达的对等理论过于重视读者，但有时牺牲了作者的原始思想。 同样令人质疑的是，“功能对等”能否适用于各种主题的原始文本。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 04:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
对于奈达的“功能对等”理论，翻译界褒贬不一。有人认为，该理论是翻译科学的代表，对翻译实践具有很好的指导作用。然而，也有一些学者不同意这一理论，例如彼得·纽马克就是其批评者之一。他认为奈达的对等理论过于重视读者，有时却忽视了作者真正的原创思想。当然，功能对等能否适用于各种主体的原文本也值得怀疑。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 08:30, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means.<br />
如果译者片面地追求“功能对等”，就会使读者难以充分理解原文的文化信息，不利于不同国家、不同文化之间的交流。上面的例子:如果我们呈现“洁白如雪”是“白如鹭毛”,读者可能理解原作者的意思,但他们仍然不知道“雪”这个词实际上意味着什么。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:43, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers.<br />
<br />
这种情境下，我们不能同时得到两种东西，即汉语中所说的“鱼和熊掌不可兼得”。然而，如果原文被按字面意思翻译成“白得像雪”，译者就会继续解释“雪”的实物是什么，它可能有哪些特点，以及为什么我们说它的颜色像白鹭的羽毛一样白。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 06:30, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries.<br />
<br />
这样，翻译作品的读者不仅能获得与原著的读者相同的反应，而且有利于他们学习理解新事物和新概念，从而逐步促进不同文化之间的交流，增加不同国家的共同利益。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这样不仅能使翻译作品的读者产生与原文读者相同的反应，也有利于他们学会理解新事物、新概念，从而不断促进不同文化的交流，提高各个国家的共同利益。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:24, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration.Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.结论<br />
<br />
钱钟书先生的“化境说”奈达的“功能对等”理论分别代表了中西方翻译研究上取得的巨大进步，二者都为翻译研究和实践提供了重要参考。他们的理论被比作一个需要更多调查和探索的宝库。此外，我们必须以批判性的眼光来学习他们的理论，为翻译研究新时代的建立而努力。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:50, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
他们的理论就像是一个需要更多发掘和探索的宝库。……，不断创新，为翻译研究的新时期而努力。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:47, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
'''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''<br />
<br />
A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18).<br />
<br />
译者的翻译观影响着译者的翻译行为。<br />
<br />
译者在翻译过程中起着至关重要的作用。译者的翻译观是译者对翻译的理解，体现在译者的翻译策略和价值取向上，这些翻译策略和价值取向因其所处的社会文化背景以及个人的经验和哲学思想而有所不同。而广义上的“翻译行为”则包括译者的语言翻译行为和社会跨译行为。狭义上，它仅指译者作为“纯”译者的翻译(周18)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 15:23, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
译者翻译对其翻译行为的影响<br />
<br />
译者在翻译过程中起着至关重要的作用。译者的翻译观是他们对翻译的理解，体现在他们的翻译策略和价值取向中，由于他们的社会和文化背景以及他们的个人经验和理念而彼此不同。广义上的“翻译行为”包括译者的语言翻译行为和跨学科翻译行为。 从狭义上讲，它仅意味着他们作为“纯粹”译者的翻译。（周18）--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 00:28, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”.<br />
<br />
本文中的“译者行为”是一个广义的问题，即译者的翻译行为受其社会文化背景、翻译动机、翻译观、翻译能力以及源语言可译性等因素的影响。（徐军199-254）具体而言，我们将讨论的翻译行为是“翻译什么（他们翻译了什么作品）”和“如何翻译（他们的翻译原则）”。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:16, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文的“译者行为”是一个广义的概念，即译者的翻译行为受其所处的社会文化背景、及其翻译动机、翻译观、对原文的语言可译性、翻译能力等因素的影响(Xu Jun 199-254)。具体来说，我们要讨论的翻译行为是“翻译什么(他们翻译了什么作品)”和“如何翻译(他们的翻译原则)”。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 04:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文的“译者行为”是一个广义的“译者行为”，即译者的翻译行为受其所处的社会文化语境、其翻译动机、译者的翻译观、译者对原文的语言可译性以及译者的翻译能力等因素的影响(徐俊199-254)。具体来说，我们要讨论的翻译行为是“翻译什么(他们翻译了什么作品)”和“如何翻译(他们的翻译原则)”。<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
<br />
So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
<br />
From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
<br />
根据勒菲弗尔的观点，意识形态和诗学共同决定翻译策略和特殊译法（39）。 译者的翻译观作为译者思想的一部分，对他们的翻译行为产生了很大的影响。<br />
那么翻译行为与译者的观点是如何联系起来的呢？<br />
从一开始，翻译的研究就受到了一定程度的限制，随后一些学者开始研究翻译与其他系统之间的关系，包括伊恩佐哈，巴西特，勒菲弗尔和韦努蒂。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 00:19, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
<br />
A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
<br />
According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
<br />
“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165).<br />
<br />
'''|.以前的一些研究'''<br />
<br />
A.伊文•佐哈尔的多元系统理论<br />
<br />
根据《翻译研究入门》：以色列学者伊塔马•伊文•佐哈尔借鉴了20世纪20年代俄国形式主义者以及20世纪30和40年代捷克结构主义者的观点，使得多元系统理论在20世纪70年代得以发展。对于形式主义者来说，一部文学作品不能孤立地而是要作为文学系统的一部分来研究。因此，文学是社会框架、文化框架、文学框架和历史框架的一部分。（芒迪 165）--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 15:30, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《翻译研究入门》中写道：<br />
<br />
”以色列学者伊塔马•伊文•佐哈尔借鉴了20世纪20年代俄国形式主义者以及20世纪30和40年代捷克结构主义者的观点，使得多元系统理论在20世纪70年代得以发展。形式主义的观点认为，一部文学作品不能孤立地而是要作为文学系统的一部分来研究......因此，文学是社会框架、文化框架、文学框架和历史框架的一部分......”（芒迪 ，第165页）--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
<br />
(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
<br />
(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
<br />
Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
<br />
1978年，Even-Zohar在“翻译文学在文学多元系统中的地位”中，第一次提出了一个新术语，即多元系统（Even-Zohar 22），强调翻译文学本身就是一个系统：<br />
<br />
（1）以译入语文化选择的方式进行翻译;<br />
<br />
（2）在翻译规范，行为和政策上受到其他共同系统的影响（Even-Zohar 22）。<br />
<br />
因此，翻译不是孤立的，而是与其他系统（例如译入语文化）相关联的。 文化选择的源语对应于有组织的系统，而不是个人任意做出的决定。 同时，翻译作品在不同文化中的不同地位，与该国文学的地位也有关。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 05:53, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1978年，埃文•佐哈尔在《翻译文学在文学多元系统中的地位》中首次提出了“多元系统”这一术语(埃文•佐哈尔22)， 强调翻译文学本身就是一个系统:<br />
<br />
(1) 该系统以目的语文化选择的方式进行翻译;<br />
(2)该系统还受到其他联合系统对翻译规范、行为和政策的影响(埃文•佐哈尔 22)。<br />
因此，翻译不是孤立的，而是与其他系统(例如目的语文化)相关联的。而文化所选择的源语则与有组织的系统相对应，而不是由个人做出的武断决定。同时，翻译作品在不同文化中的地位也不同，这与该国文学的地位有关。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 13:25, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
<br />
Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
<br />
C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
<br />
Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)'.<br />
后期，巴塞特和莱弗维尔都不局限于语言本身，而是转向关注翻译和文化的关系。文化是如何影响或限制翻译，或者说翻译者要考虑语境、历史和惯例等问题。<br />
<br />
莱弗维尔: 重写与操控<br />
而且，莱弗维尔特别关注影响接受者的具体因素和反文化的具体因素。比如力量、意识、机构和操控。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 01:35, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
<br />
Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology.<br />
<br />
参与这种权力地位的人，就是莱弗维尔认为的 "改写 "文学并支配大众消费的人。这种改写的动机可以是意识形态的（顺应或反抗主流意识形态），也可以是诗学的（顺应或反抗主流/偏好的诗学）"（Munday 194）。而翻译是最明显可识别的重写类型（Lefevere 9）。<br />
<br />
例如，译者的翻译观，反映了译者的意识形态，可以顺应或反抗社会主流意识形态。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 00:16, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
处于这种权力地位的人，就是莱弗维尔认为的 "改写 "文学并支配大众消费的人。这种改写的动机可以是意识形态的（顺应或反抗主流意识形态），也可以是诗学的（顺应或反抗主流/偏好的诗学）"（Munday 194）。而翻译是最明显可识别的重写类型（Lefevere 9）。<br />
例如，译者的翻译观，反映了译者的意识形态，可以顺应或反抗社会主流意识形态。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 04:43, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
<br />
Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader.<br />
<br />
对于Lefereve来说，文学体系中的翻译功能是由两种主要因素控制的，一种是文学体系内的专家，专家们对于主流诗学有部分话语权；另一种就是文学体系外的资助人，在一定程度上他们决定了意识形态。<br />
体系内的专家也包括了译者本身，译者决定诗学，有时也会影响译文的意识形态。(Monday 194).<br />
<br />
因此，译者角色必不可少，译者的意识形态对译文和译文读者也有着重要的影响。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 10:36, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
对于Lefereve来说，文学体系中的翻译功能被两个主要因素控制，第一个是文学体系内的专家，专家们对于主流诗学有部分话语权；第二个就是文学体系外的资助人，在一定程度上他们决定了意识形态。体系内的专家也包括了译者本身，译者决定诗学，有时也会影响译文的意识形态。(Monday 194).<br />
<br />
因此，译者角色至关重要，译者的意识形态对译文和译文读者也有着重要的影响。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:48, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
<br />
D.Venuti<br />
<br />
Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
<br />
对于勒菲弗尔来说，重点的考虑是意识形态。这里是指译者的意识形态，或者说是赞助人强加给译者的意识形态。而诗学要考虑译语文化中占主导地位的诗学。意识形态和诗学共同决定了翻译策略和解决具体问题的方法”（蒙迪197）。<br />
D、 韦努蒂<br />
韦努蒂则坚持认为，翻译研究的范围需要扩大，以考虑到社会文化框架的价值驱动性质。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:35, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
<br />
Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217).<br />
<br />
“规范可能首先是语言的或文学的，但它们也将包括各种各样的国内价值观、信仰和社会表征，它们为特定群体的利益提供意识形态力量。”而且它们总是被安置在社会机构中，在那里翻译被生产和纳入文化和政治议程”(29)。<br />
芒迪建议，韦努蒂所指的团体和社会机构将包括整个出版行业的各种参与者……每一个参与者在他们的时代和地方的主导文化和政治议程中都有一个特殊的位置和作用。译者本身就是这种文化的一部分，他们可以接受，也可以反抗(217)。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:31, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors.<br />
<br />
因此，译者作为文化的一部分，受到社会意识形态、赞助者意识形态和诗学的影响。然而，译者或多或少享有一定的自主权。例如，译者的翻译观，即对翻译的理解，既可以顺应文化，也可以反叛文化。其次，他们的翻译观影响着他们的具体翻译行为，如他们选择的翻译作品和他们的翻译原则。下面是三个例子来讨论译者的翻译观如何直接影响他们的翻译行为。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 12:42, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
因此，译者作为文化的一部分，受到社会意识形态、赞助者意识形态和诗学的影响。然而，译者或多或少享有一定的自主权。例如，译者的翻译观（即对翻译的理解）既可以顺应文化，也可以反叛文化。其次，他们的翻译观影响着他们的翻译行为，如他们的翻译作品和翻译原则。下面三个例子来讨论译者的翻译观是如何直接影响他们的翻译行为。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:46, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior.<br />
<br />
为了缩小社会意识形态的差异，本文将探讨中国近代（1949年以后）的三位译者。然而，由于他们处于不同的社会风气和社会阶段，他们无疑有着不同的世界观，这就导致了他们对翻译持有不同看法。但重点仍然是他们的观点对其翻译行为的影响。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
为了缩小社会意识形态的差异，本文将讨论中国近代（1949年以后）的三位译者。但是，由于他们出生于不同的气候和社会阶段，因此毫无疑问，他们彼此之间具有的独特世界观导致了他们对翻译的独特看法。但是重点仍将集中在他们的观点对他们的翻译行为施加的影响上。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 03:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
为了缩小社会意识形态的差异，此论文将讨论现代中国（1949年之后）的三位译者。然而，由于他们出生在不同的社会时期及时代背景下，因此毫无疑问，他们有不同于彼此的世界观，这也造成了他们对翻译的不同看法。但我们的焦点会聚焦于他们不同的翻译观点是如何对各自的翻译行为造成影响的。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:53, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
<br />
A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
<br />
2.当代中国的三个例子<br />
<br />
A.许渊冲（1921-）：翻译是译者的责任。<br />
许渊冲认为，中国译者有责任把外国杰作译成中文以及把中国的优秀作品译成外文。其目的在于把先进的思想介绍到中国，也在于给外国人带去优秀的中国文化，在这一过程中，世界上的文化会更丰富，文明也会更多样。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:39, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
二、当代中国的三个例子<br />
<br />
1.许渊冲（1921-）：翻译是译者的责任。<br />
许渊冲认为，中国译者有责任把国外著作译成中文以及把中国的优秀作品译成外文。其目的在于把先进的思想译介到中国，并输出优秀的中国文化。在这一过程中，世界上的文化更为繁荣，文明更具多样性。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 12:00, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
II、现代中国的三个例子<br />
<br />
1.许渊冲（1921-）：翻译是译者的责任。<br />
对于许渊冲来说，中国译者有责任将外文杰作译成中文以及将中文优秀文学作品译成外文。其目的在于把先进的思想译介到中国，并输出灿烂的中国文化。在这一过程中，世界文化将会更为繁荣，世界文明将更具多样性。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 06:43, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，徐渊冲进一步提出，两种文化的历史和演变是截然不同的，各有优缺点。如果他们能够相互学习，取长补短，便能够同时加以改善。 在这方面，翻译可以被视为两种不同文化之间的竞争。翻译甚至可以超越原作品。如果我们充分利用一种文化的优势来完善另一种文化，那么全人类的文化便会得到发展。 这是翻译者的最终目标（“超越” 47）。 基于这种观点，徐渊冲提出了“竞争论”和“优势论”。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 04:39, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，徐渊冲进一步提出，两种文化的历史和演变是互不相同的，它们各有优缺点。如果它们能够相互学习，取长补短，那么它们就可以得到提高。在这方面，翻译可以被视为两种不同文化之间的竞争。翻译甚至可以超越原作品。如果我们充分利用一种文化的优势来完善另一种文化，那么全人类的文化便会得到发展。这是翻译者的最终目标（“超越” 47）。基于这种观点，徐渊冲提出了“竞争论”和“优势论”。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 09:37, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，徐渊冲进一步提出，两种文化的历史和发展互不相同，它们各有优缺点。如果它们能够相互学习，取长补短，它们就可以进一步提高。在这方面，翻译可以被视为两种不同文化之间的竞争。翻译的质量甚至可以超越原作品。如果我们充分利用一种文化的优势来完善另一种文化，那么全人类的文化便会得到发展。这是译者的最终目标（“超越” 47）。基于这种观点，徐渊冲提出了“竞争论”和“优势论”。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 04:58, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
这种情况下，许渊冲进一步提出，两种文化的历史和演变是截然不同的，各有优缺点。如果他们能够相互学习，取长补短，便能共同进步。 在这方面，可将翻译理解为两种不同文化之间的竞赛。译文甚至可以超越原作品。如果我们充分利用一种文化的优势来完善另一种文化，那么全人类的文化便会得到发展。 这是译者的最终目标（“超越” 47）。 基于这种观点，许渊冲提出了“竞赛论”和“优势论”。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 05:19, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc.因此，为了交流各文化所长，许渊冲翻译的外文作品都是一些西方大师的作品，包括《包法利夫人》、《红与黑》、《约翰·克里司朵夫》等等。（他翻译的还有）中国古典巨著，尤其是经典汉诗《唐诗150首》、《唐宋词一百首》、选录了毛泽东的诗歌的《经典诗歌300首》，《西厢记》，《动地诗：中国现代革命家诗词选》等等。--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 02:10, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
<br />
Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
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From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
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江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
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江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
通过翻译原语言中的文化内涵和意识形态，他充分发挥了中文的优势，同时也让中文读者能有机会欣赏其他文化的经典之作。<br />
<br />
许渊冲对于翻译的观点也影响了他的翻译准则。以《约翰·克里斯多弗》第一句话为例<br />
<br />
Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
<br />
From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
<br />
江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
<br />
江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 04:54, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
<br />
法语中的“grondement”在英语中的意思为“咆哮”或是“低吼”。在段落中和接下来的语境中英语翻译的版本似乎都是比较合理的。然而，就通篇文章来看，许渊冲认为傅雷翻译的“浩荡”更加形象地描绘出了这条横跨欧洲的大河的力量。一些读者甚至把傅雷翻译的版本当作这一作品的经典开头，这也从侧面表明傅雷的译文的确比原始翻译版本好。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 15:03, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
法语单词“grondement”在英语中的意思是“咆哮”或“喃喃自语”。英文版译文在段落之间和以下内容中似乎是连贯的。但是，就整个作品来看，许渊冲认为傅雷在其译文中所使用的“浩荡”一词更具力量，能更加形象地描绘这条横贯欧洲的壮观河流，有些读者甚至将傅雷的译文当成了这一作品的“经典开篇句”，证明了其译文已经超越了原作。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:58, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty.<br />
其次，许渊冲也翻译过这个句子(如上),考虑到声音与“grondement”更为相似，所以用“浩荡”替换“滚滚”。并且“声震屋后”也是音乐家在作品中取得巨大成就的影响力的象征。(杨出版社35-38)。这里又出现了许渊冲的另一个翻译原则:“文学翻译是艺术(艺术20)”和“三方面美”，即“意美、声美、形美”，这发展了鲁迅和林语堂的美学理论。<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
<br />
Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
<br />
他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
<br />
他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
<br />
(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
<br />
Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?”<br />
<br />
这就是为什么许渊冲强调“滚滚”和“grondement”音相近了。另一个例子也是约翰·克里司朵夫说的，<br />
<br />
“Il marchait sur le monde.”<br />
<br />
他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
<br />
他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）（引用“创新创作”222）<br />
<br />
哪个译本同源文本最贴切呢？鲁迅的译本与源文本在形式上相似，傅雷的译本与源文本在风格上相似。这种情况下，许渊冲认为有一种解决办法——把问题改成：哪个译本更美，能使读者更为愉悦呢？--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 04:19, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
<br />
The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
<br />
<br />
他还引用了罗曼·罗兰的“ Qu'importe celui quicrée？"，表示译者应该提高翻译的艺术性，以使读者享受美的乐趣，而不是刻意保留作者的风格。因此，他对付磊的翻译持赞成意见。<br />
<br />
最后一个例子是孙中山写的《起义歌》最后一句的翻译，收录在《惊天动地的歌》中：--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 02:54, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
他还引用了罗曼·罗兰的“Qu' importe celui qui crée? Il'y a de réel que ce qu'on crée”，表示译者应该使译文更具有艺术性，给读者一种美的享受，而不是刻意地保持作者的风格。所以他赞成傅雷的翻译。<br />
<br />
最后一个例子是孙中山写的《起义歌》最后一句的翻译，收录在《震天歌》中：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:42, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
他还引用了罗曼·罗兰的“Qu' importe celui qui crée? Il'y a de réel que ce qu'on crée”，旨在说明译者应该使译文具有艺术性，给读者一种美的享受，而不是刻意保留作者的风格。所以他赞成傅雷的翻译。<br />
<br />
最后一个例子是孙中山写的《起义歌》中最后一句歌词的翻译，收录在《震天歌》中：--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 04:24, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
<br />
Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
<br />
Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
<br />
Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222).<br />
<br />
顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'') （起义歌）<br />
<br />
Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
<br />
Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation) （原译）<br />
<br />
Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)（许渊冲译）<br />
<br />
许渊冲认为原译本中把“顶天立地”翻译成“不可分割的精神”缺乏“天”和“地”的意象。 同样，读者无法享受原文的美，这是无法调和两种文化冲突。 因此，他翻译了如上的句子，保留了“天地”的意象，以使读者欣赏原始作品的美，换言之，成功调和了原文和目标文本之间的冲突（“再创造” 221-222） 。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 06:11, 9 November 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
<br />
B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China.<br />
<br />
许渊冲认为翻译是一种艺术，也是两种文化的碰撞，所以他选择翻译那些中西经典作品并且强调翻译要体现美感。翻译不仅要忠实于原文，还要能影响并感染读者，让他们产生比对原作品更深刻的印象。<br />
<br />
B.刘重德（1914-）：翻译外国著作是为服务于中国。--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
<br />
许渊冲认为,翻译既是一种艺术，也是两种文化的碰撞，所以他选择翻译那些中西方经典作品，并强调在翻译的同时，还要体现译文的美感。翻译不仅要忠实于原文，还要能够感染读者，让他们对译文产生比对原作品更深刻的印象。<br />
<br />
B.刘重德（1914-）：翻译是为外国著作服务于中国。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:23, 3 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
许渊冲认为翻译是一种艺术，是两种文化间的碰撞。所以在翻译选材时，他选择那些中西方经典作品，并强调翻译应当体现译文的美感。翻译不仅要忠实原文，还要有魅力感染读者，让他们对译作产生比对原作更深刻的印象。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:22, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
为了让西方名著在中国更加流行，刘重德决定投身于翻译事业。他认为通过将西方文学作品翻译成中文，可以使先进思想服务于中国的知识分子，再进一步提高全国人民的思想。它是第一个将简奥斯汀的《爱玛》翻译成中文的人。但是他对他所翻译的《爱玛》的第一版本感到不满意，最后在90年代他重新翻译了《爱玛》，并更改了曾经的错误翻译。这件事反映了他不断自我提升的精神和细致谨慎的学识。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:23, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
<br />
In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original.<br />
因此，刘仲德翻译的大部分作品是西方经典作品，如《汤姆叔叔的小屋》、《英国食鸦片者的自白》、《爱玛》、《达尔文》等，他很少将中文作品翻译成英文。为了向中国读者传达《诗经》的确切思想和原文风格及内容，刘仲德十分注重译文的“贴切性”。他说，译者应该永远记住他所从事的是别人写的文学作品，并尽最大努力把他的译作变成一部符合原文的思想、感情和风格的艺术作品。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:27, 15 November 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
<br />
Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122).<br />
<br />
因此，翻译将像原始作品一样动人且生动，读者也可以从美学上得到快感（“十” 122-123）。<br />
<br />
因此，他从严复的三个原则“信达雅（忠实，表现力和优雅）”发展为“信达切（忠实，表现力和亲密）”，作为一套翻译参考原则：“翻译风格必须 与您工作的原件相对应或至少相近...文学作品的思想内容，语言表达和文体特征构成一个统一的实体，译者应将三个要素作为一个整体加以再现”（“十” 122）。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 10:27, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，译文将像原作一样动人且生动，读者也可以从美学上获得愉悦（“十” 122-123）。 <br />
<br />
因此，他严复的“信、达、雅”三个原则发展为“信、达、近”，将其作为一套翻译参考原则：“你的翻译风格必须与原作保持一致，或者至少要接近原作的风格... 文学作品的思想内容、语言表达和文体特征是一个统一的整体，译者应将这三个要素作为一个整体进行再现”（“十” 122）。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:54, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
<br />
So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
<br />
Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
<br />
回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
<br />
和许渊冲不同，刘重德认为“文学翻译具有双重性。也就是说，“一方面，它是一门有自己规律和方法的科学，另一方面，它又是一门艺术”（''Ten'' 2)。<br />
<br />
那么，刘重德的翻译观点究竟是如何影响他的翻译原则呢？有以下两个示例。<br />
<br />
这是刘重德对《回乡偶书》一诗的翻译。<br />
<br />
回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(原诗)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(刘重德的译文)--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:15, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
<br />
这种翻译很好地使目标文本的样式和功能适应源文本，使人感觉就像是刘忠德本人自己创作的一样。我们可以欣赏到原始作品所表达的相同含义和情感。 目标文本与源文本保持相同的行数：每个句子有12个音节。 源文本的节奏模式也保持不变：第一行与第三行押韵，第二行与第四行押韵。 目标文本正是源文本的声音，形式和感觉的表达（江196-197）。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 09:19, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种翻译很好地使目标文本的样式和功能适应源文本，使人感觉就像是刘重德本人自己原创的一样。我们可以欣赏到原始作品所表达的相同的含义和情感。 目标文本与源文本保持相同的行数：每个句子有12个音节。 源文本的节奏模式也保持不变：第一行与第三行押韵，第二行与第四行押韵。 目标文本正是源文本的声音，形式和感觉的表达（江196-197）。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:36, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
<br />
(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
<br />
“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
<br />
以下两例来自刘重德对''Emma''的重译：<br />
<br />
（1）The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(前译)<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(刘重德)<br />
<br />
前译中的“神乎其技”与原文本中"much beyond it" 体现的平易文风不相符。中文的四字词确实可以表现复杂的含义，但它应该用于正式文体和学术文体中。在此句中，“神乎其技”体现的风格与原文毫不相称，应该用更简单的词代替，所以刘重德用“大大超过我的弹奏”替换了“神乎其技”。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:53, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
<br />
(Jiang 278-279)<br />
<br />
The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style.<br />
<br />
例子（2）<br />
<br />
“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(原文的翻译)<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(刘重德的翻译)<br />
<br />
（姜 278-279）<br />
<br />
就像上面提到的“神乎其技”一样，这里的“俗不可耐”也不符合ST的通俗风格，所以刘忠德把它改成了“庸俗”，以契合原著。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:08, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
<br />
C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
<br />
对于刘重德来说，翻译是一种科学，是一种中国人学习西方人长处的方式，因此他选择西方杰作来翻译，并强调译作的“切”，以此来切实地传达原文意思和风格。<br />
李继宏（1980-）：翻译终究是一种人类的素材生产活动。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 09:00, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
刘重德认为，翻译是一门科学，通过翻译，中国人可以学习西方人的长处。因此，他挑选西方杰出的文学作品来翻译，并强调译作的“切”，以此来切实地传达原文意思和风格。<br />
李继宏（1980-）：翻译终究是人类的一种素材生产活动。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:39, 7 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
刘重德认为翻译是一门科学，中国人可以通过翻译学习西方的长处，所以他挑选了西方文学名著来翻译。他强调翻译中的“切”，译文要尽可能传达原文的意思和风格。<br />
李继宏(1980-): 翻译终究是一种人类的产出活动。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 02:38, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
李继宏认为翻译算是人类物质生产活动的一种。他在一篇叫做“文学翻译应该与时俱进：翻译速度和薪酬”的文章中驳斥了另一位翻译家施康强的观点，他说新时代翻译工作的薪酬不同于旧时代，主要是因为翻译工具属于生产工具，而这种工具现在已经发展成电脑，数字数据，网络等等。所以，应该提高翻译速度。因此，如今，一名专业的译者毫无疑问可以通过每小时翻译1000字，一天工作八小时来过上体面的生活。每翻译1000字，他们可以拿到60元。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 12:48, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于李继宏而言，翻译毕竟是人类的物质生产活动之一。 在另一位译者史康强的观点下，《文学翻译应与时俱进：翻译的速度与报酬》中，他说新时期的翻译报酬与旧时代不同，主要是因为属于生产工具的翻译工具已经发展到今天的计算机，数字数据，Internet等。因此，翻译速度有望提高。 因此，当今的专业翻译人员每天翻译8小时，每小时翻译1000字，绝对可以过上体面的生活。 每1000个单词他们可以赚60元。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:25, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
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The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
这篇文章旨在反对史康强的观点，即令人震惊的薪酬翻译会影响翻译质量，但同时也在对大量的经济理论和活动，数字以及薪酬计算中揭示了李立宏的翻译观点。工资计算以支持他的观点中。 认为，他对出版商在翻译作品销售中获得的报酬越来越多表示青睐，并宣布自己翻译了195190个单词的“风筝赛跑者”（由Khaled Hosseini撰写），每天仅工作10天，每天15小时.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 12:42, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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本文旨在反对史康强提出的翻译薪酬过高会影响翻译质量这一观点，但同时也在对大量的经济理论和活动，数字以及薪酬计算中揭示了李立宏的翻译观点。他对出版商在翻译作品销售中获得的回报越来越多表示支持，并宣称他在10天中每天工作15小时翻译完了195190字的《追风筝的人》（由卡勒德·胡赛尼撰写）。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 14:44, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
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In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one.<br />
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在这篇文章他还说:“任何负责任的译者都不会为个人收入而翻译，”但他接着又说，“事实上，除了高收入之外，译者还从读者的来信中得到支持。” 尽管他这完全矛盾的话令人费解，但我们仍然可以推断，金钱如果不是译者最重要的动力，那也是他翻译的一个重要动力。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 11:54, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在这篇文章他还说:“任何有责任心的译者都不会为了赚钱而做翻译，”但他接着又说，“事实上，除了高收入之外，读者的来信也支撑着他的翻译事业。” 尽管他这自相矛盾的话令人迷惑，但我们仍然可以推断，尽管钱不是推动译者翻译事业最重要的动力，但也是一个重要动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 13:42, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
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The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
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To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
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李继宏翻译的作品有《小王子》、《老人与海》、《动物庄园》、《了不起的盖茨比》、《瓦尔登湖》、《月亮与六便士》、《傲慢与偏见》、《喧哗与愤怒》等外国名著。然而，这些作品在中国已经很受欢迎，价值不菲，市场上有几种译本。<br />
一开始，他翻译了卡勒德·胡塞尼(Khaled Hosseini)的作品《追风筝的人》(the Kite Runner)，如他所说：“翻译该作品一共只用了10天，每天15个小时”。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 11:07, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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李继宏翻译的作品有《小王子》、《老人与海》、《动物庄园》、《了不起的盖茨比》、《瓦尔登湖》、《月亮与六便士》、《傲慢与偏见》、《喧哗与骚动》等外国名著。然而，这些作品在中国已经很受欢迎，价值不菲，市场上有好几种译本。<br />
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起初，他翻译了卡勒德·胡塞尼(Khaled Hosseini)的作品《追风筝的人》，他说道：“翻译这部作品，我只用了10天，一天翻译15个小时”。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 14:14, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
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我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
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In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).”<br />
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在这个文本里面，"take somebody up on something" 表示 “接受某人所提出的提议或邀请”这查自《短语动词字典》（438）。根据上下文，这位乞讨老人是我未曾见面的 “母亲”的同事。他告诉我一个关于“我”母亲的故事，并承诺会告诉我更多关于她的细节：“老人笑了。‘我会记得并且这是个承诺。记得回来找我’（胡塞尼）--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
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It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
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我们可以推断出，这位老人给了叙述者一个了解他母亲更多信息的机会。因此，“offer”的意思是“邀请”，而不是“办公室 (office)”。此外，“offer”这个词似乎是被译者误读成了“office”。也许是译者忙着尽快翻译，而没有仔细检查他的译文是否正确。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:48, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由此推断，这位老人让叙述者可以更好地了解他母亲。因此，“offer”的意思是“邀请”，而不是“办公室 (office)”。此外，“offer”一词似乎是被译者误读成“office”。也许是译者忙着尽快翻译，所以没有仔细检查其译文是否正确。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 06:10, 7 November 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
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由此推断，这位老人让叙述者有机会更多地了解他的母亲。因此，“offer”的意思是“邀请”，而不是“办公室 (office)”。此外，“offer”一词似乎是被译者误读成“office”。也许是译者忙着尽快翻译，所以没有仔细检查其译文是否正确。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 03:07, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
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(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
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“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
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The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
说话人是医院的工作人员，他让刚从手术中苏醒过来的病人“放屁”。“gas”一词在新牛津英汉词典中是物理学中“气体”，“瓦斯”的意思，“pass”指“通过”，“fart”作为名词意思是“放屁”（从肛门排气）（632）。总之“排便”与源语中的本来意思不相符。因此翻译可以被纠正为“你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。”这也是一个小而简单的错误。译者对待翻译应该更加谨慎一些。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 06:16, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
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This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
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(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
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“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).”<br />
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你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
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“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
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The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST.<br />
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今年暑假我又读了另一本李继红翻译的书：毛姆的《月亮与六便士》，在其中也发现了一些奇怪的翻译以及忽视的地方。这里举两个例子：你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (李，54)。”毛姆的第二句话很简单，意思是即使“我”现在老了，我也能比我十八岁时学得更快。例如，在中文中，它可以翻译为“我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.”，而李的翻译是“如果我是十八岁的话，我可以学得更快”，这与目的语有着完全不同的含义。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 01:24, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
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(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
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因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
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According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone.<br />
因为他们觉得自己是这个国家的自由民，这个国家包括他们在内，这个国家就是伟大的“Cockaigne”（安乐乡）。<br />
根据《大英百科全书》，“Cockaigne“也拼作“Cockayne”，这是一个极度奢华舒适的想象之地，物质享受和快乐总是近在咫尺。在中世纪的欧洲传说中，关于“Cockaigne“的提及尤为突出。这些故事描述了流淌着酒的河流，用蛋糕和大麦糖建造的房屋，铺满糕点的街道，以及向每个人免费赠送物品的商店。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 10:17, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据《大英百科全书》，“Cockaigne ，也可以拼作“Cockayne”，这是一个极度奢华舒适的想象之地，物质享受和快乐总是近在咫尺。”在中世纪的欧洲传说中，特别提到了“Cockaigne”。这些故事里描绘了流着酒的河，用蛋糕和大麦糖建造的房屋，铺满糕点的街道，以及向每个人免费赠送物品的商店。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 03:39, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included.<br />
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烤鹅徘徊着邀请人们吃掉自己，黄油百灵像甘露一样从天上落下。” 李积宏不知道这个词的丰富含义，没有任何解释就将其翻译成“天堂之国”。 实际上，在本书中，李继宏为“莎士比亚”，“巴尔扎克”和“生丁”等词添加了206个解释性注释，但其中不包括“鸡尾酒”。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 09:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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烤鹅徘徊着邀请人们吃掉自己，黄油百灵像甘露一样从天上落下。”李积宏不知道这个词的丰富含义，没有任何解释就将其翻译成“天堂之国”。事实上,在这本书中,李继宏为“莎士比亚”，“巴尔扎克”和“生丁”等词添加了206个解释性注释，但其中不包括“鸡尾酒”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 11:38, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation.<br />
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李继红的翻译因其对作品的精心介绍和注释而广受欢迎，正如他所说，这可以帮助读者更容易地理解这部作品。一些著名人士也推荐他的翻译，因为他的翻译比其他人更容易理解。然而，在我看来，可以理解并不是翻译的本质。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 02:35, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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李继红的翻译因其对作品进行充分介绍和注释而广受欢迎，正如他所说，充分的介绍跟注释可以帮助读者更容易地理解这部作品。一些著名人士也十分推荐他的翻译，因为他的翻译比其他人更为通俗易懂。然而，在我看来，通俗易懂并不是翻译的本质。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 02:43, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
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From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
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III.Conclusion<br />
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This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
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从许渊冲和刘重德的翻译中我们知道，翻译的原则是多方面的，如前者的“意、音、形三美”和后者的“信、达、切”，但更强调对原文的“信”。<br />
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III.Conclusion <br />
这就是翻译观是如何影响译者行为的，具体通过三位译者的翻译实例说明了他们对翻译作品的选择和翻译原则。<br />
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三、结论<br />
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这就是翻译观怎样影响译者行为的，翻译作品的选择和翻译原则具体通过三位译者的翻译实例得以表现。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 07:45, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between two cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work.<br />
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许渊冲认为翻译是一门艺术，是两种文化之间的较量，因此他侧重翻译西方和中国经典作品，并强调翻译的美感；而刘重德认为翻译是一门科学，是中国人学习西方人长处的一种方式，因此他偏重于翻译西方名著，强调翻译中的 “贴近性”，以传达原著的贴近意义和风格。其实，于两者而言，翻译是译者的一种责任，应认真对待，反观李继宏，翻译于他只是一种生产活动，一种赚钱或者获得人气、名气和优越感的工具。因此他注重经济效益和速度，译文多有瑕疵，译者的个性得到极大彰显，甚至掩盖了原作的风格和意义。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:17, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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许渊冲认为翻译是一门艺术，是两种文化之间的竞争，因此他侧重翻译西方和中国经典作品，并强调翻译的美感；而刘重德认为翻译是一门科学，是中国人学习西方人长处的一种方式，因此他偏重于翻译西方名著，强调翻译中的 “切合性”，以传达切合原著的意义和风格。其实，于两者而言，翻译是译者的一种责任，应认真对待，反观李继宏，翻译于他只是一种生产活动，一种赚钱或者获得人气、名气和优越感的工具。因此他注重经济效益和速度，译文多有瑕疵，译者的个性得到极大彰显，甚至掩盖了原作的风格和意义。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
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For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
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--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 02:40, 9 November 2020 (UTC)==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
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傅雷曾说过：“翻译需要基于艺术学识：没有触感的灵魂，没有真诚的共情，没有适当欣赏，没有相应的社会经验，没有足够的常识，译者既不能透彻地理解原文，也无法捕捉到原文的本质。”因为一名译者的翻译观会对其翻译影响深远，所以他首先要认真对待“翻译”，然后再勤奋努力，尤其是当翻译工作以原文为重时。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是一种个人活动，而是对原文作者、原语文化、读者、译语文化乃至译者本身的一种责任体现。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 02:40, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
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'''Work Cited'''（文献不需要翻译）<br />
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胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
<br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
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刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
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毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
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许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
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许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
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---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
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杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
<br />
Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
<br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
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Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
<br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
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Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
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Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
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Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
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Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
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Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
Contemporary Translation Studies<br />
'''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''<br />
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'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
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Edwin genzler's Contemporary Translation Theory and Jamie Mundi's Introduction to Translation Theory: Theory And Practice are regarded as rare masterpieces in the history of translation. After the introduction of the two great works, this paper compares the formal equivalence theory and functional equivalence theory of Eugene Nida and the translation principles of Alexandre Fraser tetler and Yan Fu to elaborate the basic principles of translation. By comparing Eugene Nida's theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, this paper tries to find out its advantages and disadvantages and give some examples to help readers grasp Nida's translation thoughts and guide his translation practice better. At the same time, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Alexander Fraser Tatler's translation principles and comparing them with Yan Fu's translation theories, it is helpful for readers to understand the differences between Chinese and western translation and perform better in cross-cultural context.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:51, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则<br />
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==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
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'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation.<br />
<br />
摘要：爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》二书被认为是翻译学科的杰作。本文在对其做完简要介绍后将从中选取著名的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则来界定翻译的基本原则。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
摘要：爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》这两本书被视作翻译学科中的杰作。本文将对其进行简要的介绍，然后从中选取著名的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则来界定翻译的基本原则。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 01:28, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
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After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
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在分析了奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论之后，读者能更好的结合实例去说明其优缺点，以此来理解奈达的理念是如何更好的指导他进行翻译实践的。同时，通过分析泰特勒翻译原则的优缺点以及对他和严复翻译原则的对比，读者能更好理解东西文化差异对翻译的影响。通过这种方式，译者能更好的在跨文化场景中进行翻译实践。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 17:24, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
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'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
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关键词：艾德温·根茨勒；《当代翻译理论》；杰里米·芒迪；《翻译学导论：理论与实践》；尤金·奈达；形式对等；功能对等；亚历山大·弗雷泽泰勒；严复；翻译原则<br />
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'''Introduction:''<br />
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In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theor<br />
<br />
引言：<br />
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这篇文章介绍了作者对《当代翻译理论》和《翻译学导论：理论与实践》这两本著作的理解。在对这两本著作进行简要的介绍之后，文章开始对四个重要的翻译理论的进行重点探讨。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 13:25, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Headline text ==<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
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This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation.<br />
本文将分为三个部分。 首先，在对《当代翻译理论》这一伟大著作进行简明扼要的介绍之后着重分析奈达的两个著名的翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等理论。 通过对其定义的阐述，可以更容易地找出这两个概念的优缺点。在此之后，本文将继续简要介绍乔姆斯基的翻译研究。然后本文将在奈达和乔姆斯基的翻译观点中探寻二者的异同之处。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
本文将分为三部分。 首先，在简明扼要地介绍了《当代翻译理论》这一伟大著作之后，本文会着重分析奈达的两个著名翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等理论。 通过对其定义的阐述，人们可以更容易发现这两个概念的优缺点。在此之后，本文将继续简要地介绍乔姆斯基的翻译研究。然后本文将在奈达和乔姆斯基的翻译观点中探寻二者的异同。<br />
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==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation.<br />
<br />
本文将分为三个部分。首先，在简要介绍了伟大的著作《当代翻译理论》之后，重点分析了奈达的两种著名的翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等。通过给出它们的定义，我们更容易发现这两个概念的优点和缺点。然后，本文将对乔姆斯基的翻译研究进行简要介绍。然后在翻译中找出奈达和乔姆斯基观点的共性和区别。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:39, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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该论文将分为三个部分展开。首先，对巨著《当代翻译理论》进行简要介绍之后，此论文将着重分析奈达的两大著名翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等。通过给出这两大概念的定义，我们更易于发现它们的优缺点。其次，该论文将简单介绍乔姆斯基的翻译研究。最后找出奈达和乔姆斯基的翻译观之间的同和异。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 01:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
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'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
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Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111).<br />
最近，有幸读了艾德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》。这本书非常有名，它的第二版取得了很大的成功。这本书的出版对全球的翻译学术界有着重大的意义。“从20世纪中叶开始，翻译理论取得了飞速发展。艾德温·根茨勒在这本书里分析了对当今的翻译研究来说，什么是有益的，什么是无益的。”（李 2014：111）--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 07:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
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He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42).<br />
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他还详细介绍了几种主要的翻译学派：北美翻译研讨会，翻译的“科学”，早期的翻译研究，多元系统翻译和解构。 在这本书中还介绍了该学科不同部分的情况。“根茨勒用他发散的思维观点，从美国翻译研讨会计划，到从解构主义和后殖民翻译理论及以后的多元系统研究来追溯文学翻译研究的发展”--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:03, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他还详细介绍了几种主要的翻译学派：北美翻译培训学派，翻译科学学派，早期翻译研究派，多元体系学派和解构主义学派。本书介绍了该学科不同学派中的情况。 “根茨勒阐述了他发人深省的观点，从多元系统研究的角度，追溯了从美国翻译培训学派至解构主义学派以及后殖民翻译理论中文学翻译的发展”(Xu and Wang 2000:42)。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 08:27, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
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This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation.<br />
<br />
这本书不仅为我们提供了能深刻地将翻译理论化的道路，而且对于翻译实践也行之有效。在本书结尾，他也谈到了翻译的未来趋势，表达了对翻译未来的积极态度。作者将大量复杂的理论素材转化为易于理解的语言，让即使没有读过任何一本关于翻译的书的人也能轻松阅读本书。除此之外，因为本书的每一章节都是分开的，所以你可以单独阅读每一章，而不依赖于你对其他章节的理解。通过这种方法，我们更易于找到自己感兴趣阅读的翻译主题和有价值的信息。根茨勒的书为我们提供了翻译学派迄今为止所取得的成就的精确分析，并给出了他对翻译未来的见解。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:13, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
这本书不仅为我们提供了能将翻译进一步理论化的道路，而且它也是一次有效的翻译实践。在本书结尾，他也谈到了翻译的未来趋势，表达了他对翻译的未来持有的积极态度。作者将大量复杂的理论素材转化为易于理解的语言，让即使没有读过任何一本关于翻译的书的人也能轻松阅读本书。除此之外，因为本书的每一章节都是分开的，所以你可以单独地阅读每一章，而不需要在理解其他的章节的基础上。通过这种方法，我们更易于找到自己感兴趣阅读的翻译主题和有价值的信息。根茨勒的书为我们精确分析了翻译学派迄今为止所取得的成就并给出了他对于翻译的未来的见解。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 07:20, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
<br />
In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation.<br />
<br />
“这本书是翻译教材的续本，涵盖了此领域最重要的理论，例如‘相同美感经历、动态对等、相应的文学功能，以及德里达的结构理论‘。尽管有不同的重点，但每种理论都是在思考初始存在和了解目的社会的概念框架中形成的。如今，‘所有的翻译理论对于原文和译文的区分都很生硬。‘“<br />
<br />
在第二章，这本书介绍了美国翻译工作坊。这一章主要介绍了A.里查德的新批判主义和翻译，艾滋拉庞德的细节翻译理论，弗雷德里克翻译和劳伦斯韦努蒂的反思翻译。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:05, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“这本书是翻译教材的续本，涵盖了翻译领域最重要的一些理论，比如“相同审美感受力，动态对等，相应文学功能，和德里达的解构理论”。尽管它们的关注点不同，但每种理论都是通过建立思考初始存在性和了解目标社区的概念框架而不断完善的。如今，“所有翻译理论均刻板地将源文本和译文区别开来”。<br />
<br />
在第二章中，本书介绍了美国翻译培训派。本章主要介绍了I. A. 理查兹的新批评理论和翻译，埃兹拉·庞德的细节翻译理论，威尔的翻译的矛盾理论，劳伦斯·韦努蒂对翻译的反思。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44).<br />
<br />
在研讨会里，“它强调翻译是一种边缘活动，不是一种适合研究的领域”。（根茨勒，2001年：第五页）但是，随着时间的流逝，许多大学开设了翻译课程和研讨会，促进了翻译的发展及认可度。翻译研讨的作品不断涌现，但与翻译理论相关的书籍仍然较少”。在这种研讨会上，个人意见可能会起作用，但是仍缺乏一致的理论来支持翻译的发展。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:46, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在研讨会里，“它强调翻译是一种边缘活动，不是一个适合研究的领域”。（根茨勒，2001年：第五页）但是，时过境迁，许多大学开设了翻译课程和研讨会，促进了翻译的发展及认可度。许多关于翻译研讨的作品涌现出来，但关于翻译理论的书籍较为缺乏。"在这种研讨会上，个人意见可能会起作用，但是仍缺乏一致的理论来支持翻译的发展。"--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 02:34, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48).<br />
<br />
当时迫切需要一个翻译分类理论，翻译“科学”就因此而诞生。本书主要介绍了奈达的形式对等和动态对等，以及乔姆斯基的句法结构和生成转换语法。在这本书中，我将说明我对形式等价和动态等价这两个概念的理解。埃德温•根茨勒在其著作《当代翻译理论》中阐述了动态对等的概念，他认为翻译就是用接受者的语言再现与源语信息最接近、最自然的对等，首先在意义上，其次在风格上。一般来说，译语接受者和译文之间的关系要与源语接受者和原文之间的关系对等。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:10, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
因此，它迫切需要一个翻译分类理论，而翻译“科学”也在这一理论的孕育下诞生。本书主要介绍了尤金•奈达(Eugene Nida)的“形式对等”和“动态对等”，以及诺姆•乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）的句法结构和生成转换语法。在这本书中，我将说明我对“形式对等”和“动态对等”这两个概念的理解。埃德温•根茨勒（Edwin Gentzler）在其著作《当代翻译理论》中阐述了动态对等的概念，他认为翻译就是用最接近、最自然的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息。一般来说，译语接受者和译文之间的关系要与源语接受者和原文之间的关系对等。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:03, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
<br />
奈达的动态对等注重目的语与接受者以及源语言与学习者的感受，他认为这两种感觉应该相似，具体来说就是：“动态对等更注重读者与信息之间的关系，这意味着目标语的读者在读到目标语时反应应该与源语言读者一样”（刘 2012:242）。“目标语中不应该出现消息遗漏或者翻译腔”（朱 2002:203）。如今动态对等的优势便体现在此。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 10:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
在动态对等中，奈达注重目标语与接收者以及源语言与习得者之间情感的一致性。他认为这两种情感应该是相同的。具体而言，“动态对等更注重读者与信息之间的关系，这意味着目标语读者对目标语文本的反应应该与源语言读者的反应一样。”(刘 2012：242)。“目标语中应该避免存在任何异化特征与翻译腔。”（朱 2002:203）。接下来将会列举动态对等的优势。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:11, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays.<br />
<br />
“一方面，动态对等和意译有点像，它强调的是翻译应达到原文一样的效果，而不应受到原文内容和格式的限制。” (Li 2014:112).“它侧重于翻译原文内容的正确方式”(Shakernia 2013:2)另一方面，“它注重读者的反应，并从目标读者的角度分析翻译过程。”(Nida 1995:225)从这方面来看，翻译并不是一项单一的活动，它增加了更多的社会元素从而使翻译更加明确和具体。此外，由于动态对等理论中的分类翻译原则，这一理论更适用于科技类文章的翻译。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:20, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
“一方面，动态对等和意译有点相似，它强调译文实现和原文同样的效果，而不受限于原文内容和格式。” (Li 2014:112).“它侧重于翻译原文内容的正确方式”(Shakernia 2013:2)另一方面，“它注重读者反应，并从目标读者角度来分析翻译过程。”(Nida 1995:225)从这方面来看，翻译并不是一项单一的活动，通过增加更多社会元素,翻译变得更加明确更加具体。此外，由于动态对等理论中的分类翻译原则，这一理论更适用于科技类文章的翻译。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 10:52, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence provides us a detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
<br />
However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them.<br />
<br />
动态对等理论为我们在翻译过程中提供了具体的翻译规则，这就让我们在翻译时有法可依，有理可据。这些文章应该是比较正规和正式的。<br />
然而，虽然动态对等理论享誉良多，我们也应对其进行一定的限制。首先，“它只是一种语言转换，忽略了语言承载的文化，导致了文化驯化的现象”（刘2012:245）。事实上，文化差异是客观存在的，谁也无法避免。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 09:29, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
动态对等为我们在翻译过程中提供了一个详细的翻译规则，以便在翻译过程中找到合理的翻译原则。这些文章应该更加正规和正式。<br />
<br />
然而，尽管动态对等理论得到了广泛的赞誉，但仍存在一些局限性。首先，“它只是一种语言转换，忽略了语言所承载的文化信息，导致了文化归化”（刘2012:245）。事实上，文化差异是客观存在的，不可能被避免，任何人都无法避免。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world.<br />
如果要保持动态对等的翻译，势必会对文化交流产生负面影响。例如,“在中华文化中‘东风’是一个积极的形象，在西方社会认为西风是良好品德”(Shakerni 2013:2)因此,奇怪的是雪莱的西风的歌唱是翻译成“歌唱东风”,因为它会阻碍中国读者对西方世界的了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 11:33, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
如果要坚持动态对等翻译，这势必会对文化交流产生负面影响。例如，“东风”在中国文化中是一个积极的形象，而西方社会则认为西风代表着良好的道德”（Shakerni 2013:2），因此，将雪莱的《西风颂》翻译成《东风颂》就非常奇怪，因为这会阻碍中国读者对西方世界的了解。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:06, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language.<br />
<br />
此外，由于目标读者在性别、年龄、学历、生活经历等方面的差异，判断目标读者是否具有相似的效果是不确定和不现实的。严格地说，读者的反应是一个变量，不能被视作等同于标准效应。最后，文本中的动态对等信息做得很好，就像圣经一样，但是却很难实现文学翻译，文本语言不同于一般语言。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:28, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
更重要的是，由于目标读者的性别、年龄、教育背景、生活经历等不同，判断他们是否具有相似的效应是不确定的，也是不现实的。严格来说，读者的反应是一个变量，无法将其视为等同于标准效果。最后，文本中的动态对等信息做得很好，就像《圣经》一样，但很难实现文学翻译，文本语言与一般语言不同。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 00:19, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
<br />
动态对等理论过分强调听众的反应，这有时会牺牲其他因素，如信息的准确性、原语言历史背景的独特性等，而这些因素对翻译对等也至关重要。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 03:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content.<br />
<br />
其次，动态对等理论会展现出形式对等。“形式对等是简单的，以源语言为导向的。就像逐字直译一样”(Shakernia 2013:2)。形式对等强调信息本身，既包括形式也包括内容。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 03:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
“One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3).<br />
<br />
“我们关心的是，接受者语言中的信息应该尽可能接近源语言中的不同元素”(Shakernia 2013:3)。正式对等词的使用在译文中可能会产生严重的影响，因为译文不容易被目标读者理解。例如，“在翻译问候他人的神圣之吻这句话时，这两种不同的对等可以有明显不同的翻译”(Shakernia 2013:3)。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 04:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holy kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others.<br />
<br />
在讲求形式对等的翻译中，我们要把这句话译为“用圣洁的亲吻和别人打招呼”，可这样的译文似乎有些奇怪，因为读者不明白何为“圣洁的亲吻”。因此，我们需要对此进行解释——在《旧约》中，“圣洁的亲吻”是人们常用的问好方式。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:03, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
<br />
在形式对等的翻译中，我们要把这句话译为向他人圣吻问安。但这对读者来说似乎有些奇怪，因为他们不知道圣吻是什么意思。所以我们需要对圣吻进行解释，即在《旧约》中，圣吻通常是人们常用的问好方式。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:08, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different.<br />
<br />
但是，在动态对等中，我们无需考虑结构的对应关系，唯一需要注意的是译语受众的反应。 我们可以将它翻译成“与他人热情地握手”。 从上面的示例中，不难发现这两种对等的侧重点非常不同，因此两者的翻译也会有所不同。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 07:17, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，在动态对等中，我们不需要考虑结构的对应性。我们只需要注意语言受众的反应。我们可以把它翻译成“热情地与他人握手”。从上面的例子中，很明显可以发现这两个对等的重点是非常不同的，因此翻译可能会有所不同。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:42, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223).<br />
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在此，将试着弄清形式对等的优缺点。形式对等最突出的优点之一是，在这种翻译中，"形式对等更加注重源语结构，强调了翻译的准确性"。(Nida 1995:223)。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 05:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在此，将试图找出形式对等的优缺点。形式对等最显著的优势之一是，在该翻译中，“形式对等以源语言结构为导向，这对语言的准确性和正确性产生强烈的影响”(Nida 1995:223)。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:38, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language.<br />
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因为形式对等强调对源文本内容和形式的完整记述，所以译文保有与源文本一致的结构。形式对等的另一个优点就是强调准确性。 因为在这个翻译理论中，译者需要在目的语中找到和源语言对应的表达。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 06:09, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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由于形式对等强调原文内容和形式的完整性，因而译文与原文结构一致。形式对等的另一个优点就是强调准确性。因为在这个翻译理论中，目标语言将尝试在源语言中找到对应的表达。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 07:41, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于形式对等强调原文内容和形式的完整性，因此它具有与原文一致的结构。形式对等的另一个优点是它强调准确性。因为在这个的翻译理论中，译者需在目的语中找到与源语一个对应的表达。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 03:28, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence<br />
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例如，在把“Please fetch me a glass of water”这个句子译成中文的时候，我们会尽量找到每个词对应的中文词汇。我们会尝试找到每个词，如“请”，“拿来”，“我”等。在汉语中我们可以找到对应的音译为“qing gei wo yi bei shui”。除此之外，让我们看看形式对等有哪些缺点。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 12:35, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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例如，当我们把” Please fetch me a glass of water”这句话翻译成中文时，我们会尽量找到每个词在中文中所对应的词汇。我们会尝试找到每个词，例如“请”，“拿来”，“我”等等。然后我们就可以找到其在中文中所对应的词汇，将其音译为“请给我一杯水”。除此之外，让我们再来看看形式对应的缺点。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 14:17, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!”<br />
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形式对等一个很明显的缺点就是有时候会忽视原文的意图。因为形式对等也被称之为直译，而作者的意图就有可能被忽视掉了。举例来说，我们经常会听到中国人问，“你吃了吗？实际上这是中国打招呼的一种习惯，那么我们就不能把它翻译成英语的“Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”， 而是要译成“Hello！”或者“Hi！”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:22, 3 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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形式对等的一个明显的缺点是有时会忽略原文的意图。因为形式对等也被称之为直译，这样可能会忽略作者的意图。例如，我们经常听到中国人说：“你吃了吗？实际上这是中国打招呼的一种习惯，那么我们就不能把它翻译成英语的“Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”， 而是要译成“Hello！”或者“Hi！"--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 10:15, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224).<br />
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在这两种理论中，奈达把动态对等放在第一位。 人们将动态对等视为对现代翻译提出的核心贡献。 “奈达重视读者的反应，主张用接受语言的表达习惯，即归化来代替原始文本中的外国文化表现”（奈达，1995：224）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 13:16, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在这两种理论中，奈达将动态对等置于首位。人们将动态对等理论视为他在现代翻译领域的主要贡献。“奈达关注读者反应，并主张将接受语中的习惯表达来替代原文中外国文化的表达，这一过程也称之为归化。（奈达，1995：224）。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 17:38, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) .<br />
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到目前为止，“奈达在翻译研究中取得了很大的成就，他简化了乔姆斯基的理论，只采用了模型的后两部分来验证他的科学” (Gentzler 2001： 52)。“他了解以实践为导向的方法的性质，试图科学地验证他的方法，并将其应用于整个翻译” (Panou，2013： 1)。 --[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:32, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
迄今为止，“奈达的翻译研究取得了很大成就。他简化了乔姆斯基的理论，只采用了模型的后两部分来验证其科学性”（根茨勒 2001: 52)。“他了解以实践为导向的方法本质，试图用科学的方式验证他的方法，并将其作为一个整体应用于翻译。”（帕诺 2003: 1)。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 14:15, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5).<br />
本章还讨论了诺姆·乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)对语言学和翻译的贡献。在乔姆斯基看来，语言学是一门科学的研究，我们可以把许多语言学的原则应用到翻译中，因此，翻译也可以说是一门科学的研究。诺姆·乔姆斯基的贡献之一是他提出的“转换生成语法”。“这个理论探讨了人们为什么会说话以及人们如何学习新句子。它是一种关于语言能力的理论。乔姆斯基认为基础和转换构成语法。”(周2019:5)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:00, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在本章中还讨论了诺姆·乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)对语言学和翻译的贡献。在乔姆斯基看来，语言学是一门科学的研究，我们可以把许多语言学的原则应用到翻译中，因此，翻译也可以说是一门科学的研究。诺姆·乔姆斯基的贡献之一是他提出的“转换生成语法”。“这个理论探讨了人们为什么能够说话以及人们如何学习新句子。它是一种关于语言能力的理论。乔姆斯基认为基础部分和转换过程构成了语法。”--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 12:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241).<br />
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基础形成深层结构，深层结构进而转化成表层结构。词义归属于深层结构。除此之外，“他认为语言是人类独特的自然构成，我们应该更加关注语言能力而不是语言行为”（Zhou 2019: 6）。“TG语法试图揭示特定语法和普遍语法的统一性，探索普遍规则，以期揭示人类的认知系统和人类的本质”（Zhu 2018: 241）。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 14:09, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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基础形成深层结构，深层结构转换为表层结构。词义属于深层结构。此外，“他认为语言是人类独特的自然构成。应该更多地关注语言能力而不是语言行为”（Zhou 2019：6）。 “ TG语法试图揭示特定语法和普遍语法的统一性，探索普遍规则，以期揭示人类的认知系统和人类的本质。”--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 09:05, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformational rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
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乔姆斯基和奈达都认为，无论语言以何种形式呈现，都是深刻，连贯且统一的。 但是，他们的意见之间存在一些差异。 “乔姆斯基不会仅仅基于两种语言之间的相关性就得出结论，也不会假设一种语言的特定语法能系统地适用于另一种语言”（Li 2011：395）。 奈达坚信，从所有翻译问题中分离出来的深层结构和转换规则在各种语言中都是相似的。 总而言之，这两位伟大的人物都为翻译做出了巨大的贡献，他们的理论至今仍被广泛使用。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:51, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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乔姆斯基和奈达都认为，无论语言以何种形式呈现，它都是深刻、连贯且统一的。但是，他们的观点有些许不同。“乔姆斯基不会仅基于两种语言的相关性得出结论，亦不会认定适合一种特殊语言的语法同样完全适用于另一种语言。（Li，2011年：395页）奈达则认为所有翻译问题中体现的深层结构和转换规则在所有语言中均相似。总而言之，这两位伟大的人物都为翻译做出了巨大的贡献，他们的理论至今仍被广泛使用。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 03:30, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
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As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54).<br />
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分析：翻译研究概论：理论与应用<br />
“翻译研究概论：理论与应用”是第二本书。这本书出版了四次，非常受欢迎。 《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》仍是翻译研究领域相关理论和概念的权威指南。 第四版已经过全面修订，并继续为理论界提供均衡而详细的指南。 “每种理论都适用于多种语言，如孟加拉语，中文，英语，法语，德语，意大利语，葡萄牙语，旁遮普语，葡萄牙语和西班牙语”--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 10:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''分析'' 翻译研究概论：理论与应用''''' <br />
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至于第二本书《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》。这本书出版了四次，非常受欢迎。 《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》仍是翻译研究领域相关理论和概念的权威指南。 第四版已经过全面修订，并继续为理论界提供均衡而详细的指南。 “每种理论都适用于多种语言，如孟加拉语、中文、英语、法语、德语、意大利语、葡萄牙语、旁遮普语、葡萄牙语和西班牙语”--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:14, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research.<br />
这本书从翻译的定义入手，从20世纪以前的翻译理论介绍到了现代翻译理论。书中着重讨论了多个重要翻译理论，如系统翻译理论、多元系统翻译理论、翻译功能理论等。我之所以如此喜欢这本书，是有三个原因的。首先，这本书内容丰富，编排巧妙，便于读者阅读。它用一个介绍性的列表来清晰地呈现关键术语,想法和主要文本,并详细说明书中所讨论的模式，问题和说明性案例研究。这个介绍性的列表应用到了章节中并评估了章节的主要样式，而且提出进一步阅读的建议，简短评估本章的总结以及一系列讨论和研究要点，以激发进一步的思考和研究。<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies.<br />
我尤其喜欢这本书中的翻译案例研究，这也正是这本书独一无二的特征。在翻译案例分析中，这一章节将列举翻译问题方面的相关例子，以供读者们思考。然后这本书也提供我们讨论案例研究的机会，以此反思我们自己的思想。我认为，将书本知识联系现实，不失为一个好方法。这对我们记下书中知识也更有帮助，更实用。并且，运用我们自己的知识去解决现实中真正的难题，这也对我们真正理解翻译研究的本质核心也助益多多。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 23:44, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information.<br />
第二，引用了大量图表，并在书的目录之后的特殊页面上列出了图表的名称，以方便参考。这样，读者可以更轻松地吸收图表中包含的许多信息。同时，读者可以很清楚地将知识与图表中的信息相关联。这也是一种以有序方式整理大量信息的好方法，以使读者能够快速吸收信息。<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:41, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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其次，有大量的图表被引用，图表的名称被列在书的目录页后的专门页面上，便于查阅。这样，读者更容易吸收图表中包含的大量信息。同时，读者也可以清楚地将这些知识与图表中的信息联系起来。这是对大量信息进行有序整理的一种好方法，便于读者快速地吸收信息。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 04:54, 10 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
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第三，在最后的注释和索引之前，书中囊括了一个与翻译研究相关的网站的附录。这些网站包括两个发布会议、最新出版物和研究信息的网站，六个国际翻译期刊网站和四个通常包含有用链接的翻译组织网站。这样，读者能够更容易地在网站上搜索信息，进行进一步的阅读和学习。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 10:29, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第三，在最后注释和索引之前，该书包括与翻译研究相关的网站附录。其中包括两个公布会议信息、最近的出版物和研究的网站、六个国际翻译期刊网站和四个经常包含有用链接的翻译组织网站。这样，读者就更容易在网上搜索信息，以便进一步阅读和学习。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:12, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第三，在最后注释和索引之前，该书收录了有关翻译研究的网站。其中包括两个公布会议信息、最近的出版物和研究的网站、六个国际翻译期刊网站和四个经常包含有用链接的翻译组织网站。这样，方便读者在网上检索信息，以便进一步阅读和学习。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:00, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18).<br />
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现在，让我们继续讨论这本书的内容。在第二章中，这本书列举了关于“逐字翻译”和“意义”翻译的争论，这是翻译理论中占主导地位的争论。“忠实翻译”是试图在两者间寻求一个折中点。许多伟大的翻译家都反对逐字翻译，他们提倡有意义的翻译”（Munday 2013:18）。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 07:29, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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现在，让我们继续讨论这本书的内容。在第二章中，这本书列举了关于“逐字翻译”和“意义”翻译这两种在翻译理论中占主导地位的争论。“忠实翻译”是试图在两者间寻求一个折中点。许多伟大的翻译家都反对逐字翻译，他们提倡有意义的翻译”（Munday 2013:18）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 13:19, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
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For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''.<br />
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例如，西塞罗强烈反对逐字翻译，他说：“我认为没有必要逐字逐句地翻译，但我保留了语言的一般风格和力量”（Munday 2013:19）。“随着圣经和其他宗教、哲学文本的翻译，直译和意译的问题已经持续了一千多年”（Munday 2013:22）。至于《圣经》的翻译，必须提到马丁·路德，他对《新约》和后来《旧约》的翻译产生了重大影响。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:32, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，西塞罗强烈反对逐字翻译，说“我认为没有必要逐字呈现，但我保留了语言的一般风格和力量” (芒迪，2013： 19)。“自由和文字翻译问题与”圣经“和其他宗教和哲学文本的翻译一起存在了 1000 多年” (Munday 2013： 22)。至于“圣经”的翻译，必须提到马丁 · 路德的主要影响是他对“新约”和后来的“旧约”的翻译。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard.<br />
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马丁·路德（Martin Luther）呼吁对翻译的本质进行根本性变革。“在那个年代，欧洲人只能阅读到《圣经》的拉丁文译本。这就意味着大多数人无法阅读到母语版本的《圣经》。”(Stolt 2014:373). 斯托尔特（Stolt）尤为关注德国读者。此处，他支持“在翻译中使用纯粹、直白的德语，也支持在翻译中构建新的语言”。因此，斯托尔特在他自己翻译的《圣经》译本中使用了非文学翻译方法。(Stolt 2014:373). 斯托尔特虽然使用的是一种方言，但是这种方言在社会上使用甚广。他意在促使在翻译中使用德语，开创这样一种新的标准，不过他花费了漫长的时间。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:48, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
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“His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules.<br />
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“他的出发点是让读者与听众保持交流，但当时圣经手稿译本的听众是由学者组成，而非讲德国本土方言的普通民众。”(Stolt 2014:374). 由于马丁·路德致力于德语的《圣经》翻译，德国人现在就能顺畅地读《圣经》。稍后，本书将谈及德莱顿、多莱特、泰特勒的翻译原则。书中将侧重讲泰特勒的翻译原则，因为多莱特提出的是翻译五原则而泰特勒提出了翻译三原则。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 06:28, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
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They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language.<br />
第一，译者应该完全复写出原作的思想。第二，译者的风格和笔调应与原文的性质相同。第三，译文应和原文同样流畅。（芒迪 2013:26）这里我们可以看到，泰特勒追求的是源语与目的语的平衡。译者在翻译时必须能够运用恰当的笔调和技巧。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:24, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首先，翻译需要完全传递原作的思想。第二，译者的风格和笔调必须和原作一致。第三，译文莺歌原文一样流畅。”（Munday 2013:26）我们从这里可以看到，泰特勒追求的是源语与目的语之间的平衡。译者在翻译为目的语时，需运用适当的笔法和技巧。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 02:20, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首先，译文应该完全表达出原文所体现的思想。第二，译文的写作风格和写作手法必须和原文保持一致。第三，译文的语言应该和原文一样流畅。”（Munday 2013:26）. 我们从这里可以看到，泰特勒追求的是源语与目的语之间的平衡。译者使用目的语翻译时，必须运用精确的笔法和技巧。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 06:31, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language.<br />
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例如，“两个句子表达相同的含义，但是它们的写作风格不同”（习 2009:41）。一个句子是“星期一早上，公园通常人满为患”，另一个是“星期一早上，公园吸引了很多人”。显然，第一句语气消极，而第二句语气积极。这两句都传达相同的含义，但语气和风格不一。要成为一名优秀的译者，你需要熟练地将源语的风格引入到目的语中。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 08:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，“有两个句子表达相同的意思，但它们的写作风格不同”(习 2009:41)。一个是在星期一早上，公园里通常挤满了人。另一个是周一早上，公园吸引了很多人。很明显，第一句表达消极的情绪，而第二句是表达积极的情绪。这两个句子表达的意思相同，但语气和风格却不同。要成为一名优秀的译者，你需要善于将源语言的相同风格引入目标语言。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 10:33, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies.<br />
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他的翻译原则优点如下：首先，“他摒弃了传统翻译二分法，试图不用有争议的术语例如直译、意译以更好、更清晰地呈现其翻译原则（別和黄 2007:164）。在此，在其翻译原则中，我们看不到直译及意译这种在翻译学中会引起歧义的词。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:32, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他的翻译原则优势在于：首先，“他摒弃了传统的翻译二分法，尽量避免使用直译、意译等有争议的术语，以更好地呈现其翻译原则”（白和黄 2007：164）。因此，我们在其翻译原则中看不到直译、意译这种在翻译学中会引起歧义的词。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:08, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
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Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original.<br />
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其次，“他阐明并扩大了人们关于译者即画家的隐喻的理解。 在他看来，他主张译者的工作与画家截然不同”（Bie和Huang，2007：166）。 尽管译者使用的颜色与原始颜色不同，但他必须为“图片”赋予相同的功能和效果。译者无法复制原始样式，但必须使用自己的样式来翻译完美的原作。他研究模仿的内容越多，他的副本就越无法体现原著的轻松和精神。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:26, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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其次，“他阐述并拓展了人们对译者即画家这一隐喻的理解。在他看来，他认为译者的工作和画家截然不同。”（(Bie and Huang 2007: 166）。尽管译者没有使用和之前一致的色彩，他必须让他的“绘画”具有原来的力量和效果。译者无法复制原作的风格，但是在翻译完美的原作时必须融入自己的风格。他越是研究仿作，他的仿作就越不能重现原作的从容和精神气。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 06:23, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
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Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286).<br />
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现在，让我们继续讨论他的翻译原则的缺点。泰勒的翻译思想主要是建立在他准确的经验和主观的观察基础上的。有些人甚至说这本书看起来就像一本讲述翻译艺术的教科书。同时，从他的翻译理论中可以看出，他是在模仿其他译者的翻译理论，尤其是德莱顿的翻译理论”(Firdaus 2012:285)。例如，他的第一原则是“翻译要完整地记录原文的思想，这与坎贝尔人准确地再现原文的意思几乎是一样的”(Firdaus 2012:286)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 03:26, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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现在，让我们继续谈谈他翻译原则的缺点。 泰特勒的翻译思想主要基于他的确切经验和主观观察。 “甚至有人说这本书看起来就像是一本针对翻译艺术的教科书。 同时，从他的翻译理论中，我们可以知道他是在模仿其他译者的理论，尤其是德莱顿。”（Firdaus 2012：285）。 例如，他的第一条原则“翻译应完整的复写原文的思想，这与坎贝尔准确地再现原始含义几乎相同”（Firdaus 2012：286）。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 06:19, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu.<br />
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泰特勒指出，“这三个原则有一个必要的顺序。 顺序安排适当，自然，并根据其对翻译的重要性进行安排的，不能随便更改。”（Firdaus 2012：287）。 这样，我们可以得出结论，他的想法是，在需要牺牲某种原则的情况下，翻译者应注意翻译原则顺序的重要性。 译者不能以牺牲原文翻译的忠实性为代价来获得优美流畅的译文。 泰特勒的翻译对后来的翻译研究产生了很大的影响，对后来的译者，例如我们中国的伟大译者严复，也产生了很大的影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:36, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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泰特勒指出，这三个原则有一个必要的顺序。 顺序安排需要适当、自然、并根据其对不能随便更改的翻译的重要性进行安排”（Firdaus 2012：287）。 这样，我们可以得出结论，他的想法是，在需要牺牲某种原则的情况下，翻译者应注意翻译原则顺序的重要性。 译者不能以牺牲原文翻译的忠实性为代价来获得优美流畅的翻译。 泰特勒的翻译对后来的翻译研究产生了很大的影响，对后来的译者，例如我们的中国伟大译者严复，也产生了很大的影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:56, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
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这里我们将列出严复的翻译理论，然后我们可以对严复的翻译原则和泰勒的翻译原则作一个简单的比较。“严复是中国伟大的学者和翻译家，他将19世纪末达尔文的自然选择学说等西方思想引入中国，并因此声名鹊起。”（王2008:70）正如史春兰、赵薇在《论严复的“信达雅”和泰勒的翻译三原则——以比较翻译为例》中提出的观点一样，严复在其译著《天演论》的序言中提出了翻译的三大难点：信、达、雅。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:00, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
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It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories.<br />
“信”意味着对原文或者原意的一种全方面完整的表达或者转换。“信”要求巧妙地表达出原文意思。“达”要求译文清楚，在语法和逻辑上没有错误。译文要灵活地表达原文的内容。“雅”意味着译文和原文在风格上有相似性。也就是说，译文的措辞要和原文尽可能相似。仔细分析就会发现，这两种翻译理论很明显有着许多相似的地方。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:05, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“信”意指全面透彻地传达原文本、原思想。“信”强调用正确方式表达出源信息的内容。“达”要求译文必须表意清晰，没有任何语法错误，没有混淆逻辑，没有混淆时态。“达”还要求译文必须自如地传达源信息的内容。“雅”指目的译文必须在风格上与原文本类似。(2005:96)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 03:02, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
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Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98<br />
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首先，“泰特勒的第一条原则和第二条原则与翻译应忠于源语言的内容和语气的说法相同<br />
，这与严复的第一条原则相似，都强调原文的完整和完整地传达”（Shi and Zhao 2005：<br />
97）其次，这两种翻译理论都集中强调语言的思想和内容的传达上。并且翻译应该可供人们阅<br />
读。“这两个理论都强调了源文本的完整抄本的传达”（Shi and Zhao ，2005：98）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:15, 10 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors.<br />
<br />
这两种翻译理论之间的差异是显而易见的。第一，“两者思维方式不同。严复并未对其翻译理论做出明确而详细的阐释。相反，这依赖于他人对其翻译理论的解释（Xi 2009:41）。正如一句话，“一言不发，万事大吉”。要更好地理解严复的翻译理论，就必须联系与反思各位先知的的伟大思想。<br />
<br />
这两种翻译理论之间有许多差异，这是清晰明了的。第一，“思维方式不同。严复并未对其翻译理论做出明确详细的阐述， 反而是他人对其翻译理论进行解释”（Xi 2009:41）正如常言道：“一切尽在不言中”。要更好地理解严复的翻译理论，就必须联系与反思祖先的伟大思想。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:46, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text.<br />
<br />
众所周知，“传统的中国思维方式是感性的，这往往会使该理论变得模糊和被接受。然而，西方十分重视理性思维，这使理论变得更加具体。”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98)。西方的思维方式强调理性思维，强调对事物和人的理性理解。此外，“它专注于对事物和人的形式理解”（Shi and Zhao 2005:98)。因此，泰特勒的三种翻译原则都尊重原始文本的客体。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 08:08, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
众所周知，“传统的中国思维方式是感性的，这往往会使该理论变得模糊和被接受。然而，西方十分重视理性思维，这使理论变得更加具体。”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98)。西方的思维方式强调理性思维和对事物和人的理性理解。此外，“它专注于对事物和人的形式理解”（Shi and Zhao 2005:98)。因此，泰特勒的三种翻译原则都尊重原始文本的客体。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:18, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
<br />
Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99).<br />
<br />
它反复强调原文的重要性，以原文为起点。除此之外，它也详细地给出了字面的解释。 通过这种方式，在分析中西方的思想差异之后，可以说，严复没有为他的翻译理论做出字面的解释。因此，他的翻译原理是心照不宣的。<br />
<br />
第二，“它们的重要性截然不同。由于提出信达雅三种原则，它们的重要性没有清晰地分类。”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99).--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:01, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance.<br />
<br />
严复翻译标准的最大特点之一是语义含混。但事实上，“严复偏重于意译，为达，即所以为信也”（席，2009:41）。因为在翻译的过程中，传达原文的形式和风格时，除了追求原文的“达”，其次求“信”亦大难矣（席，2009:42）。因此，我们可以得出一个结论：求信乃译事之根本，其次求“达”，最后求“雅”。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:31, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
严复翻译标准的一个重要的特征是语义模糊。但事实上，“严复偏重于意译，为达，即所以为信也。”（席，2009:41）“因为在翻译的过程中，传达原文的形式和风格时，除了追求原文的‘达’，其次‘信’亦大难矣。”（席，2009:42）因此，我们可以得出结论，在他的三个原则中，求“信”乃译事之根本，其次求“达”，最后求“雅”。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:19, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text.<br />
<br />
我们应当遵循“原意”的一般原则，只有这样，我们才能有合理的逻辑去对信达雅的重要性排序。尽管泰特勒认为他所提出的三原则的顺序是恰当的，自然的并且不能更改的，但他仍然建议，为了忠实的传递原文内容，必要时我们可以牺牲掉其流利度和优美性。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:26, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们应当遵循“原意”的一般原则，只有这样我们才能够有合理的逻辑对“信，达，雅”按照重要性进行排序。“然而泰特勒认为他所提出的三个原则是恰当的，自然的并且不能被更改的”（Wang 2008:71).泰特勒建议，为了实现忠于原文的翻译，我们可以牺牲掉对于原作优美性和流畅性的追求。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:51, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
“If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
<br />
Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73).<br />
<br />
“如果我们必须放弃他提出的某个原则，他建议我们放弃最不重要的一个，即第三个原则”（王，2008:71）。换言之，这是对原有“风格和效能”的首次牺牲。此外，原画的风格和意境必须被传达出来，这样才是忠实的画面感。 <br />
<br />
第三，“这两种翻译理论在价值取向方面是不同的。造成这种差异的原因是东西方注重实践和理论的学术传统的不同”（王，2008:73）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 02:15, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style.<br />
<br />
众所周知，中国传统翻译更注重实践而非理论。翻译思想应指导翻译实践，具有参考价值。严复的“信达雅”起初是用于描述翻译中的困难，而不是作为翻译标准。他从自己的实践中总结，关心的是实践而非理论。然而，西方译者把实践和理论放在同一层次上。泰特勒的三原则是三个层面的困难，从内容忠实到鲜明的风格。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:08, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
众所周知，中国的传统翻译重实践而轻理论，认为翻译思想应指导实践并具备参考价值。严复的“信达雅”原本是用于描述翻译的困难，而不是作为翻译标准。他从自己的实践经验中进行总结，关心的是实践而非理论。然而，西方译者把实践和理论置于同等地位。泰特勒的三原则对三个层次的困难作了详细描述，包括从内容的忠实到不同的风格。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:34, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode.<br />
<br />
所反映的逻辑形式清晰而明显，与隐含的“信、达、雅”的翻译原则有明显的不同。 “西方翻译理论侧重于详细的分析，合理的抽象和理论演绎，并注重语言表达中逻辑的组织、层次和清晰度”（Wang 2008：73）。 在传统哲学的影响下，西方翻译理论在整个过程中具有强烈的主体客体感。 以“达”为例，严复的“达”和泰特勒的第三条原则“翻译应还原译文原始结构”具有大致相同的含义，但显然它们的思维方式是不同的。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:36, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
所反映的逻辑形式清晰而明显，与隐含的“信、达、雅”三个翻译原则有明显的不同。 “西方翻译理论侧重于详细的分析，合理的抽象和理论演绎，并注重语言表达中逻辑的组织，层次和清晰度”（Wang 2008：73）。 在传统哲学的影响下，西方翻译理论在整个过程中具有强烈的主观客体感。 以“达”为例，严复的“达”和泰特勒的第三条原则“翻译应还原译文的原始结构”具有大致相同的含义，但显然它们的思维方式是不同的。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:48, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
“The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism.<br />
<br />
“中国人的思维模式是直觉和理解，而英国人的思维模式是逻辑和理性，这对每种语言都产生了深刻的影响”(Chen 2012:126)。在这个意义上，理解与理性思考的区别以及对原文的尊重程度就能得到最好的体现。最后，“这两种翻译理论的动机是不同的。严复的标准是有目的的，旨在引起精英的注意”(Wang 2008:73)。严复翻译的西方文学作品主要是西方资本主义时期的伟大名著。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 04:43, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“中国人采用直觉和理解的思维方式，而英国人则遵循逻辑和理性的思维方式，这对每种语言都产生了深远的影响”(陈2012:126)。在这种程度上，可以最好地反映出理解与理性思维之间的差异以及对原始文本的尊重程度。最后，“这两种翻译理论的动机是不同的。严复的标准是有目的的，旨在引起精英的注意”(王2008:73)。 严复从翻译过来的西方文学作品，主要是西方资本主义时期的伟大名著。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 14:02, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
“He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42).<br />
<br />
“他充分理解这种思维方式对于当时的中国知识分子来说是有困难的，所以他需要让翻译原则更容易被中国知识分子所吸收”(Chen 2012:127)。为此，他选择了这种传播翻译思想的方式，使他的翻译原则具有目的性。泰特勒只是想让整个翻译系统更加系统化，涵盖内容、形式和文本三个方面。“他提出翻译原则的目的只是想让人们了解他的翻译原则，并提出一个合理的翻译原则供译者遵循”(Xi 2009:42)。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 04:50, 10 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
<br />
Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).”<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''.<br />
<br />
在《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》中，作者列出了每个翻译研讨会对翻译的贡献和成就的介绍（刘、邓，2010：54）。这两本书在安排上的差异在于，在《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》一书中增加了一个案例研究，以扩大读者对本书所列翻译研究的影响。此外，本书还增加了案例研究的讨论，总的来说，进一步的阅读、讨论以及研究要点，是当代翻译研究所缺乏的。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 13:56, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》中，作者列出了每个翻译研讨会对翻译的贡献和成就的介绍”（Liu和Deng，2010：54）。 在《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》一书中增加了一个案例研究，以扩大读者对本书所列翻译研究的影响。 这是两本书的差别。除此之外，本书还增加了案例研究的讨论，总结，进一步的阅读和讨论以及研究要点，这是当代翻译研究所缺乏的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 14:50, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
<br />
'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
<br />
Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111).<br />
这些对《翻译研究导论:理论与应用》这本书的补充部分帮助读者拓展个人研究，也帮助读者把理论知识与翻译实践联系起来。<br />
'''2.从文本内容看'''<br />
两本书都列举了各自翻译培训班的主要贡献，但是他们的关注点和方法不同。在《现代翻译理论》中，作家将“分析各自翻译培训班的优缺点，并且研究这些翻译培训班之间的相互关系，还至少描述了各自翻译理论对世界的重要性并且对各翻译理论的假定提出了问题。”(李 2014:111)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 14:07, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《翻译研究导论：理论与应用》的补充部分帮助读者拓展个人研究，更好结合理论知识与翻译实践。<br />
<br />
2. 从内容上看：<br />
这两本书都列举了各自翻译工作坊的主要贡献，但它们的侧重点和方法有所不同。在《当代翻译理论》中，作者先“分析各翻译工作坊的优劣势，然后研究工作坊之间的相互关系，再描述各翻译理论对世界的重要性，最后针对这些理论成立的前提发问。”(李 2014:111)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:40, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book.<br />
<br />
在《翻译研究介绍:理论与应用》一书中，作者首先简要介绍了章节目录，然后对各翻译研讨会的介绍进行了详细阐述。为了使这本书更加准确，作者还在书中列出了总结、案例研究、研究讨论、深入阅读和讨论以及研究要点，让读者对这本书有一个更加全面的了解。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 05:48, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'',<br />
<br />
除此之外，这两本书还采取了将理论和实践合二为一的方法。在这两本书里，每本书都以理论和实践为内容。对于一些重要的部分，作者们在书中都提出了他们的问题。例如，在《现代翻译理论中》…--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 01:42, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic.<br />
<br />
作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了疑问：”“他是在谈论直觉，揣测作者的意愿，还是在做什么?”(Gentzler 2001:20)<br />
继这个问题之后，作者就庞德的翻译思想提出了自己的观点，强调译者既应该在传统之内，也应该在任何制度化逻辑之外。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 07:43, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了疑问，“他是在说直觉，猜测作者的原意，还是别的什么?”(Gentzler 2001:20)<br />
在这个问题之后，作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了自己的看法，强调译者既应该在传统之内，也应该在任何制度化逻辑之外。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 10:21, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了疑问，“他是在谈论直觉，揣测作者的意图，还是在做什么别的?”(Gentzler 2001:20)<br />
在这个问题之后，作者就庞德的翻译思想提出了自己的看法，强调译者既应在传统之内，也应在任何制度化逻辑之外。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:35, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches.<br />
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在“翻译研究导论：理论与应用”提问题这一点上更为明显。 在每一章的末尾，作者将在讨论和研究要点中提出几个问题。 这些问题中的一些可以在教科书中找到答案，而另一些则需要读者进行其他研究。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:49, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在“翻译研究导论：理论与应用”提出问题这一点上尤为显著。在章节末，作者会在讨论部分和研究要点上给出他的几个问题。这些问题中的一些可以在课本中找到答案，而另一些则需要读者做一些额外的研究。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 07:50, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion:'''<br />
<br />
All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books.<br />
<br />
结论<br />
总之，本文通过对这两本书的详细介绍和对翻译理论的详细分析，希望有助于读者更好地理解这两本书。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 00:10, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
结论<br />
<br />
总而言之，本文对这两本书做了详细介绍并对翻译理论进行详尽分析，目的在于希望能够有助于读者更好地理解这两本书。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:12, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation.<br />
<br />
通过对奈达翻译理论中的两种理论的深入分析，以及对泰特勒翻译三原则与严复翻译原则的比较，这更有利于读者理解翻译的基本规则。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 04:30, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
对奈达翻译理论中的两种理论进行深入分析，并将泰特勒翻译三原则与严复翻译原则进行比较，更有利于读者理解翻译的基本规则。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 05:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text.<br />
<br />
<br />
而且，在分析了两种主要的翻译理论之后，很明显可以得出一个结论：要想成为一名优秀的译者，不仅应该熟练地适应两种不同的语言，而且还需要扎实的翻译实践经验。译者需要通过传达原始文本的内容对原始文本进行完整的叙述，而且应该模仿原始文本的风格和情感。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 16:26, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201026_trans&diff=11623220201026 trans2020-12-20T05:15:30Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhou Shuyao 周书尧 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication'''<br />
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As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
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汉英交流中文化词汇的翻译<br />
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众所周知，翻译在跨文化交流中发挥着重要的作用。一位好的译者能帮助促进两种不同文化间的交流。在全球化进程下，跨文化交流变得越发频繁。但是不同文化之间,尤其是东西方文化间存在很大差异。因为文化差异的存在，译者很难翻译到位。具有文化色彩的词属于文化差异之一。因此，了解文化词汇如何适当翻译十分有必要，这样能更好帮助译者翻译，从而使两种不同文化进行更好的交流。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:58, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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汉英交流中文化负载词的翻译<br />
<br />
众所周知，翻译在跨文化交流中发挥着重要作用。一位好的译者能促进两种不同文化间的交流。在全球化进程下，跨文化交流变得越发频繁。但是不同文化之间,尤其是东西方文化间存在很大差异。因为文化差异的存在，译者很难翻译到位。具有文化色彩的词属于文化差异之一。因此，了解如何正确翻译文化负载词十分有必要，这样能更好帮助译者翻译，从而促使两种不同文化更好进行交流。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 12:57, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
'''1 The Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Before discussing what are culture-loaded words, we should know what is culture first. “Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. As culture is so inclusive, it permeates virtually every aspect of human life and influences predominantly people’s behavior, including linguistic behavior.<br />
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1.文化负载词的定义<br />
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在谈论什么是文化负载词之前，我们应该先知道什么是文化。“从广义上来讲，文化意味着人类的整个生活方式，包括信仰、习俗、目标、制度、技术、语言等具有人类群体特征的模式。由于文化包罗万象，所以它在无形中渗入了人类生活的各个方面，明显地影响了人类行为，包括语言行为。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 10:44, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
1、文化负载词的定义<br />
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我们在探讨文化负载词之前，首先要了解何为文化。“从广义上来说，文化意味着一个民族的整个生活方式，包括信仰、风俗、目标、体系、技术以及具有人类群体生活特征的语言。由于文化具有很强的包容性，它贯穿于人类生活的方方面面，深刻影响着人们的行为，其中包括语言行为。”--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 11:21, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
1、文化负载词的定义<br />
<br />
在探讨什么是文化负载词之前，我们首先要知道什么是文化。“广义的文化指的是一个民族整个的生活方式，包括信仰模式、风俗、目标、机构、技术以及体现人类社群生活特征的语言。正因文化具有很强的包容性，它实际上渗透在人类生活的方方面面，显著地影响着人们的行为，包括语言行为。”--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 03:05, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can mostly be found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.” (Dai Weidong 2002:127) Culture is learned by human beings. A child is born without any certain kind of culture. A child gets its culture through learning. For example, a Chinese kid will speak, act and think like a Chinese if it grows up in China. An American kid will speak, act and think like an American if it is raised in the United States. Meanwhile, if a Chinese kid is raised by an American family in the USA, he will think, act and speak like American people do and vice versa.<br />
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从狭义上讲，文化可以指当地或特定的实践、信仰或习俗，通常可以在民间文化、企业文化或饮食文化等方面中体现。”(戴炜栋 2002: 127) 文化是由人类习得的。孩子出生时不会具备任何特定文化，而是通过学习获取。例如，如果中国孩子在中国长大，他就会像中国人一样说话、行动和思考。在自己国家长大的美国孩子也是如此。同时，如果一个中国孩子由美国家庭在美国抚养长大，那他的思考、行为和谈吐都会和美国人一样，反之亦然。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 07:24, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Culture is owned by all the social members. The special behavior and habit of a single person is not culture because it is not owned by every member of the society. Culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmission, culture will also develop. “Generally speaking, there are two types of culture: material and spiritual. While material culture, as the term itself suggests, is concrete, substantial and observable. Most of spiritual culture, the products of mind (ideologies, beliefs, values and concepts of time and space, for example), is abstract, ambiguous, and hidden.<br />
文化属于所有的社会成员。一个人的特殊行为和习惯不是文化，因为它不属于社会的每一个成员。文化可以代代相传。在传播过程中，文化也会得到发展。“一般来说，有两种类型的文化:物质文化和精神文化。而物质文化，正如这个词本身所暗示的，是具体的、实质性的和可观察的。精神文化是心灵的产物(如意识形态、信仰、价值观和时空概念)，大部分是抽象的、模糊的、隐藏的。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 12:47, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
In contrast with nature in the sense of what is born and grows, culture refers to what has been grown and brought up with, in other words, what can be nurtured. Culture, especially material culture, is reproduced and preserved through the maintaining of beliefs, traditions, education and other institutional mechanisms, meanwhile, it changes slowly with the development of the society.” (Dai Weidong 2002:178-201）。<br />
与自然界相比，文化指的是已经成长和长大的东西，而自然指的是天生的东西，也就是说，文化是可以用来培育的东西。文化，尤其是物质文化，通过维持信仰，传统，教育以及其他制度机制得以再生与保留，与此同时，文化缓慢地改变着社会的发展。（戴炜栋 2002;178-201）--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 09:12, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
自然界是有关出生和成长，而与此对应的文化是指已经成长和长大的东西。换言之，什么可以培育文化，特别是物质文化，是通过保持信仰、传统、教育等制度机制得以复制和保存的，同时，它也随着社会的发展而缓慢变化。”（戴炜栋2002:178-201）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:54, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Culture-loaded words can make a distinction between two different cultures.<br />
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“语言是最基础的文化系统之一，有着记载，描述，表达和传播文化的作用。文字作为语言的基本单位，能最直观地反映文化。文化负载词指的是具有文化意义的字词，习语。这些文字能反映某一国家的独特性。这种独特性成长于悠长的历史进程。”（Liao Qiyi 2002:232) 文化负载词能够区分两种不同的文化。 By Chen Jiaxin<br />
--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 11:58, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“语言是文化最基本的系统之一，具有储存、描述、表达和传播文化的功能。作为语言的基本单位，词语当然是文化的最直接反映。文化负载词指的是某一种文化中特有的词、词组和成语。这些词反映了某些民族特性。而这种特性是在长期的历史进程中形成的”。（廖七一 2002:232）文化负载词可以区分两种不同的文化。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 10:11, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical periods, different culture-loaded words occur. Different countries differ from each other because every country has its uniqueness that makes it special. Ordinarily speaking, a literary work, which shows a lot of national characteristics, contains plenty of culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words make it difficult for translators to translate.<br />
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文化负载词也能反映出一个国家在某段时期内的社会背景，经济基础及文化状况。不同的历史时期会出现不同的文化负载词。不同国家各具差异是因为每个国家都有其独特之处便也就显得与众不同。一般来说，一部带有民族特色的文学作品会包含大量的文化负载词，而这会使得译者在翻译时无从下手。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 08:08, 31 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
文化负载词同样能够反映出一个国家在某段时期的社会背景，经济基础以及文化状况。在不同的历史时期，出现的文化负载词也不尽相同。之所以不同国家间存在差异，是因为每个国家都有让其变得特别的独到之处。一般来说，一部文学作品，若是带有鲜明的民族特色，通常会包含大量的文化负载词，而这其中的文化负载词会使得译者在翻译过程中困难重重。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 12:12, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
'''2 Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232)As we all know, Chinese culture and western culture have different origins. Chinese culture came from the Chinese mainland. There exist two big rivers, the Yellow River and the Huanghe River, across China. So Chinese people fed themselves by fishing, hunting and farming. The vast territory provided Chinese people enough resources to support themselves.<br />
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每个国家都有自己独特的文化渊源。“各国各有其文化重心，因此，各国文化词汇都是依托其文化重心而发展。文化词汇最终变得越来越细化，越来越复杂。”(廖七一 2002:232) 众所周知，中西文化各有其渊源。中华文化发祥于中国大陆，而黄河和长江这两条大江贯穿其中。中国人民依托这两条江，打渔、狩猎、耕种，自力更生，自食其力。正是有了中国大陆这片广阔土地，中国人民才能依靠其充足的资源，自给自足，繁衍生息。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 07:04, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
The lofty mountains and high ranges, on the one hand, protected ancient China from the invasion of other countries, while on the other hand, also prevented China from communicating with other countries. Therefore, Chinese people is more conservative and emphasize harmony. <br />
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“There is a great difference of the physio geographic condition between China and the western countries, especially the relationship between sea and land. If we say that Chinese civilization came from the land, western civilization came from the sea.”(Huang Yongyuan and Zhang Jing 2011:237)<br />
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巍峨的群山一方面保护古中国免受别国入侵，另一方面却阻碍了中国与其他国家沟通往来。因此，中国人更为保守，更强调和谐。<br />
“中国和西方国家在地理环境上存在显著差异，尤其是海陆关系。如果说中国文明源于陆地，西方文明则兴于海洋。”（黄永源，张静 2011:237）--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:22, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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巍巍群山一方面保护古代中国免受他国侵扰，另一方面却阻碍了中国与其他国家交流来往。因此，中国人更为保守，强调和谐。 “中国和西方国家地理环境差异显著，尤其是海陆关系。如果说中国文明源于陆地，西方文明则兴于海洋。”（黄永源，张静 2011:237）--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 13:44, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
Europe is surrounded by the sea on the west, south and north, and borders on Asia in the east. The whole Europe continent is close to the sea, and the maritime climate is very significant. As the cradle of Western culture, the ancient Greece, was more connected with the sea. Greece was transportation center of the eastern Mediterranean. It had many ports and mountains but had a barren land. This kind of condition forced the ancient Greeks to operate maritime trade very early to support themselves. Therefore, people from western countries are easy to accept foreign cultures.<br />
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欧洲的西部，南部和北部群海环绕，东部与亚洲接壤。整个欧洲大陆与海洋紧密联系，海洋性气候明显。作为西方文化的发源地，古希腊与海洋的联系极为紧密。希腊作为地中海东部的交通运输中心，港口众多，但群山连绵，土地贫瘠。在这种情况下，古希腊人为谋求生计，很早便开始了海上贸易。因此，西方国家的人们对异地文化的接受度很高。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 11:42, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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欧洲西、南、北面为海洋所绕，东面与亚洲接壤。整个欧洲大陆都近海，因此海洋性气候非常显著。西方文明的摇篮——古希腊，与海洋的关系更加紧密。希腊是地中海东部的交通中心，港口众多，山脉连绵，不过土地贫瘠。在这种条件下，古希腊人为了养活自己，很早就开始从事海洋贸易。因此，西方国家的人民更容易接受异域文化。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
China’s national spirit is different from that of the western countries. For example, China’s definition of “dragon” is so far away from that of the western countries. “The dragon, in Chinese myths and legends, is a kind of god . It is a symbol of the Chinese nation. The Chinese all call themselves "the descendants of the dragon"; it is also a symbol of the ancient imperial power, and the emperors of all ages considered themselves to be the true dragon. Each feature of the dragon represents an advantage.<br />
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中国的民族精神和西方国家不同。比如中国对“龙”的定义就和西方大相径庭。在中国的神话传说中，龙是一种神仙。龙是中华民族的象征。中国人都称呼自己为“龙的传人”。此外，龙也是古代帝王权力的象征，各朝各代的皇帝都认为自己就是龙的化身。总之，龙的特点是正面的。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 15:21, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国的民族精神与西方国家的不同。比如中国对“龙”的定义就和西方的大相径庭。在中国的神话传说中，龙是一种神仙，是中华民族的象征。中国人都称自己为“龙的传人”。此外，龙也是古代王权的象征，各朝各代的皇帝都视自己为真龙。总之，龙的每一个特点都是正面的。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 05:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
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The wide forehead represents intelligence, the sword-like eyebrows represent courage, the tiger eyes represent majesty, the lion nose represents prosperity, the horse teeth represent diligence and kindness, the crocodile mouth represents swallowing, the shrimp mustache represents free water absorption , the cattle ears represent the leadership, the antlers represent health and longevity, the fish and clam represent defense, the camel head represents drought resisting, the eagle claws represent the ability to fly, and the snake neck represents the ability of accomplishing a task with ease.<br />
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宽阔的额头代表智慧，剑状的眉毛代表勇气，虎眼代表威严，狮鼻代表繁荣，马齿代表勤奋和仁慈，鳄鱼嘴代表吞咽，虾胡子代表自由吸水，牛耳朵代表领导力，鹿角代表健康长寿，鱼类和蛤代表防御能力，骆驼头代表抗旱能力，鹰爪代表飞行能力，蛇颈代表轻松完成任务的能力。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:52, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The Chinese dragon can be said to be a favorite to Chinese people. In the Western world, the dragon is called Drakon in Greek, Dragon in English, and Draco is in Latin. The dragon is a derogatory term in the West and a symbol of evil. In Western mythology, the dragon is the demon that makes people fear. The Bible illustrates dragon as a demon, and the devil Satan, who is opposite to God, is called the "great dragon"; the Old Dragon is the Devil, or Satan. In a biological perspective, dragon is a kind of particularly ferocious animal. In many cases, western literature describes the dragon as a monster to be eradicated by the hero.”(Huang Yongyuan and Zhangjing 2011:238)<br />
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中国龙可以说是中国人的最爱。在西方世界，龙在希腊语中叫Drakon，在英语中叫dragon，在拉丁语中叫Draco。龙在西方是贬义词，是邪恶的象征。在西方神话中，龙是让人恐惧的恶魔。《圣经》把龙说成是恶魔，与神相对的恶魔撒旦则称为“巨龙”；古龙是魔鬼，或撒旦。从生物学的角度来看，龙是一种特别凶猛的动物。在许多情况下，西方文学把龙描写成了一种需要英雄铲除的怪物。”(黄永元、张静，2011:238)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:06, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国龙可以说是中国人的最爱。 在西方世界，龙在希腊语中被称为Drakon，在英语中被称为Dragon，在拉丁语中被称为Draco。 龙在西方是贬义词，是邪恶的象征。 在西方神话中，龙是使人恐惧的恶魔。《圣经》将龙描述为恶魔，与上帝对抗的魔鬼撒旦被称为‘巨龙’。 魔鬼或撒旦也被称为古龙。 从生物学的角度来看，龙是一种特别凶猛的动物。 在许多情况下，西方文学将龙描述为要被英雄消灭的怪兽。”（黄永元和张静2011：238）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Apart from the examples above, there are still many example containing different meanings in different countries because of cultural differences. For example, the color “red” represents happiness, auspiciousness and success. This is because the color red came from the sun. Ancient Chinese people worshiped the sun. Thus, when getting married, Chinese bride’s wedding dress is red. People will hang red lanterns and paste red couplets in Spring festival. However, in western countries, although they have words like, “red-letter day” and “the red carpet”, which contain positive meanings, the color “red” is a kind of taboo.<br />
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除了上面的例子，由于文化差异，还有许多在不同国家所表示的意思不同的词语。例如，（在中国）红色代表幸福，吉祥和成功，这是因为红色来源于太阳。古代中国人崇拜太阳。因此，在结婚的时候，新娘的婚服是红色的，在春节的时候，人们会挂上红灯笼、贴上红对联。然而，在西方国家，虽然也有像 “大喜日子（red-letter day）” 和 “红地毯（the red carpet）”这种代表积极含义的词语，但红色代表着一种禁忌。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 06:45, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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除了上面的例子，还有许多词语由于文化差异，在不同的国家所表示的意思不同。（在中国）红色代表幸福，吉祥和成功。这是因为红色来源于太阳，而中国古代人崇拜太阳。因此，在结婚的时候，中国新娘的礼服是红色的。春节时，人们会挂上红灯笼，贴上红对联。然而在西方，虽然他们也有像“大喜日子”“红地毯”之类的积极的词语，但红色是一种禁忌。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:50, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
In English, the color “red” is the association of fire and blood. It represents the radical and violent revolutions. So many English phrases containing red have negative meaning, like red-headed, red-light district, red-handed, red ruin, red ink, in the red etc. Similarly, the color “white” contains different meanings in the East and the West. In western countries, white means innocence, honesty, kindness and so on. When getting married, the bride will white wedding dress.<br />
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在英语中，“红色”与火和血液相关，代表激进暴力革命。所以，很多含有“红色”的英语句子都有消极意义，比如 red-headed(生气的)，red-light district(红灯区)，red-handed(血淋淋的，当场抓获)，red ruin(火灾)，red ink(财政赤字)，in the red(负债亏空)等。同样，“白色”在东西方国家的意义也不尽相同。在西方国家，白色意味着纯洁，诚实，善良等。新娘结婚时就会穿白色婚纱。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:58, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在英语中，“红色”与火和血液有关，它代表着激进的暴力革命。因此，许多包含“红色”的英文词组都含有消极意义，如red-headed（急躁的），red-light district（红灯区，即城镇中的妓院区），red-handed（手染血的，正在作案的），red ruin（火灾），red ink（赤字），in the red（亏损）等。与此相似的是，“白色”在东、西方国家的意义也不尽相同。它在西方国家意味着纯洁、诚实、善良等。结婚时，新娘会穿白色婚纱。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 13:33, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
Although the color white contains the meaning of purity and innocence, like “白衣天使”(white angel) which represents doctors and nurses in Chinese, white is a kind of taboo color in China. The color white represents death and ill omen. When a family member died, they will hang white cloth inside and outside the house. We can also realize the different meanings of the same word in different countries. For instance, the word “狗”(dog) contains a negative meaning. However, in western countries, dog always contains a positive meaning, like a lucky dog.<br />
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尽管白色有纯洁、无辜之意，例如“白衣天使”四字在汉语中就代表医护人员，但白色在中国是一种禁忌色，它代表着死亡以及疾病的征兆。如果有人去世，其家人会在房子内外挂上白布。由此我们也可以意识到，同一词汇在不同的国家有着不同的意思。例如，汉字“狗”带有贬义。然而在西方国家，狗通常是褒义词，如“a lucky dog”意为“幸运儿”。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:47, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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尽管白色含有纯洁和天真之意，如汉语中形容医护人员的词语“白衣天使”，但在中国，白色是很忌讳的，它通常表示死亡和不祥之兆。当亲人离世，其家人会在屋里屋外悬挂白布。在不同国家，同一词语的含义也不尽相同。如汉字“狗”带有贬义。但在西方国家，狗是褒义词，如“a lucky dog”（幸运儿）。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:04, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
'''3 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene A and Charles Taber R 1969:13) “Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and translation compensation.<br />
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3.文化负载词的翻译方法<br />
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在全球化的巨大进步下，不同文化之间有更多的交流机会。 根据尤金·奈达（Eugene Nida）的说法，“翻译是指在译语中用最切近而又自然的对等语再现原语的信息，首先在语义上，其次在文体上。” （尤金·奈达和查尔斯·泰伯（Charles Taber R）1969：13）“通常来说，翻译文化负载词的方法有三种，即异化，归化和翻译补偿。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 04:40, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.文化负载词的翻译方法<br />
在全球化的巨大影响之下，不同的文化之间的交流变得更加频繁。根据尤金·奈达来说“翻译包括以接受者的语言来再现源语言消息的最接近的自然等价物，首先是在含义方面，其次是在风格方面。” （Nida Eugene A和Charles Taber R 1969：13）“通常来说，翻译文化单词的方法有三种，即异化，归化和翻译补偿。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:06, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation. In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and translation compensation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br />
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文化负载词的翻译属于文化翻译的微观方面。在全球化的背景下，探索翻译方法的根本立场是要保留文化负载词所承载的独特文化意义，这就决定了我们应该将外化和翻译补偿作为翻译文化负载词的主要翻译方法。"(王翔 2017:75)<br />
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翻译文化负载词属于文化翻译的微观方面。在全球化背景下，保留文化负载词所承载的独特文化意义，是我们在探究翻译方法时的基本立场，所以我们翻译文化负载词时，应该把异化和翻译补偿作为主要翻译方法。"--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:34, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
'''3.1 Foreignization'''<br />
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Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.<br />
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异化<br />
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韦努蒂（1995：20）认为异化方法是“对目标语言文化价值施加种族压力，以记录外文的语言和文化差异，将读者带到国外文化中去”。他说，这是“非常可取的”，目的是“制止以民族为中心的暴力翻译行为”。 换句话说，异化方法可以限制英语世界的“暴力”驯化文化价值。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:04, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms ‘resistancy’ (1995: 305-6), is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture.<br />
Foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language’s culture because respecting the source language culture is starting point. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language’s cultural background and is more faithful to the source language’s culture.<br />
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异化翻译，又被韦努蒂称为“抵抗”翻译，即采用不流畅、疏离目的语的翻译手法，突出翻译作品中外国文本的外来身份并保护原文本不受译入语文化意识形态的控制，从而显现出译者的存在。<br />
异化可以保留源语言文化的独特性，因为尊重源语言文化才是出发点。与归化相比，异化更加考虑源语言的文化背景，并且更加忠实于源语言的文化。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:34, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text. However, foreignization is not a perfect translation approach. If the translation doesn’t pay enough attention, the foreignization approach will be abused easily. If the translator misuse the foreignization approach, the target text will be awkward and hard to understand.<br />
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异化能保存源文文本的特有风格。然而，异化也不是万能的，一不小心就容易使用不当。而一旦没有用好异化，译文就会变得晦涩难懂。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:42, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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异化能够保留原文本的异域特色。然而，异化也不是万能的，译者稍不注意就会误用，导致原文本晦涩难懂。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 08:08, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管异化能够保留原文的异国特色，但是它不算是一个完美的翻译发法。如果稍不注意，异化就会被译者滥用。甚者，出现误用的话，译文就会变得晦涩难懂。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 08:21, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
The food culture contains great national characteristics. It shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Many examples of using foreignization approach can be found in the translation of traditional Chinese food. Firstly, the translation of traditional Chinese food can be related to Chinese allusions. Let’s take the translation of Yuanxiao or Tang-yuan(glue pudding) as an example.<br />
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中国美食文化具有极强的民族特色，它展现了中国的创造精神和独特的风格。中国文化里有许多与美食文化相关的词汇，它们大多数在翻译中都会采用异化的翻译方法。首先，传统中国美食的翻译和中国典故有极大的联系。就拿元宵或者汤圆来举例。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 08:13, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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饮食文化具有很强的民族特色。体现了中华民族的创造精神和独特风格。在中国文化中，与饮食文化有关的词汇非常丰富。在中国传统食品的翻译中，运用异化翻译方法的例子很多。首先，中国传统食物的翻译会与中国典故有关。让我们以“汤圆”的翻译为例。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:56, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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饮食文化极具民族特色。它展示了中华民族的创新精神和独特风格。在中国文化中，有许多与饮食文化相关的词汇。在中国传统食物的翻译中，可以找到许多使用异化法来翻译的例子。首先，中国传统食物的翻译可能与中国典故有关。让我们以元宵或汤圆的翻译为例。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:12, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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饮食文化极具民族特色。它展示了中华民族的创新精神和独特风格。中国文化中关于美食的词汇极其丰富。我们在传统食物翻译中可以找到很多异化翻译的例子。首先，这些翻译都与中国典故有关。让我们先以元宵（或者汤圆）举例。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:51, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called Yuanxiao during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month. The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named Yuanxiao to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns.<br />
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据说,在汉朝一位名叫元宵的侍女，非常想念她的父母，以至于她每天以泪洗面。为了帮助她，一位名叫东方朔的大臣向皇帝撒谎，说火神接到玉皇大帝的命令将会在农历正月十五烧掉长安（汉朝中国的首都）。避免这个灾难的解决方法是：让这个名叫元宵的女士制作火神最喜欢的事物汤圆，并且要求长安所有人挂灯笼。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:01, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
据说汉代有个叫元霄的侍女，非常想念自己的父母，每天都哭得泪流满面。有一位叫东方朔的大臣为了帮助她，于是向汉朝皇帝撒谎说，火神奉玉帝之命，将于正月十五焚烧长安（汉朝首都）。避免这场灾难的解决办法就是让那个叫元霄的侍女做火神最爱吃的汤圆，并让长安所有的人都挂灯笼。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 07:48, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
据说在汉代有位叫做元宵的侍女因为过度思念父母而终日以泪洗面。一位名为东方朔的大臣为了帮助她而向皇上撒谎道，火神奉玉皇大帝的旨意，将于正月十五于长安（汉朝的首都）纵火。解决办法就是让这位叫做元宵的侍女做汤圆-火神最喜欢的食物- 并且要全长安的老百姓都悬挂灯笼。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 09:00, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named Yuanxiao met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.” ( Xu Xianling and Li Xiangzhaung 2005:230) Therefore, if we translate the Chinese food “元宵” into Yuanxiao by the foreignization approach instead of translating into the glue pudding, the special Chinese culture in the food can be preserved well.<br />
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汉武帝批准了这个计划。最后，这个名叫元霄的女孩见到了自己的父母。于是，元宵节（中文叫做元霄节，"节 "在中文中是节日的意思）的传统习俗就这样形成了。" ( 徐先玲、李祥召 2005:230) 因此，如果我们采用异化的翻译方法将食物 "元宵 "翻译成元霄，而不是译为布丁，就可以很好地保留食物中原有的中国特色文化。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:13, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:13, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
Secondly, the translation of Chinese food can be related to Chinese customs. Chinese people eat special traditional food in special Chinese festivals. For instance, people will eat double-ninth cake on the Double Ninth Festival. The Double Ninth Festival is on the 9th day of the 9th lunar month. The translation of double-ninth cake can keep the traditional Chinese culture well. Thirdly，the translation of traditional Chinese food can be related with Chinese people’s appreciation of beauty.<br />
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其次，中餐名的翻译与中国的风俗习惯有关。中国人在特殊的中国节日吃特殊的传统食物。例如，人们会在重阳节吃重阳糕。重阳节在农历九月初九。重阳糕的翻译能很好地保留中国传统文化。第三，中国传统美食的翻译与中国人的审美情趣有关。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:25, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第二，中餐名的翻译与风俗习惯息息相关。中国人在重要的节日里会吃特定的传统食物。例如，在农历九月初九也就是重阳节吃重阳糕。重阳糕的名称的翻译很好地保留了中国传统文化。第三，中国传统美食的翻译还与中国人的审美情趣有关。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:45, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106) By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. What’s more, the translation of some Chinese cuisine can be related to the traditional Chinese medical science.<br />
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例如，“中国菜'鸟语花香'可以翻译成'唱歌的鸟和香花（（鱼和鸟形虾）'，'青龙过海'可以翻译成'绿色的龙穿越大海'（ 葱汤）'”。 （张家臣2014：106）通过使用异化方法，这种翻译可以保留这些美食的美丽形象，解释性说明也可以防止外国人感到困惑。 而且，某些中餐的翻译可能与传统中医科学有关。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 08:48, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，“中国菜'鸟语花香'可以翻译成'唱歌的鸟和芬芳的花（（鱼和鸟形虾）'，'青龙过海'可以翻译成'青色的龙穿越大海'（ 葱汤）'”。 （张家臣2014：106）异化保留了这些美食的优美意象，通过解释说明菜名，外国人也不会感到困惑。 此外，某些中餐的翻译可能与传统中医科学有关。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 11:37, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
For example, “‘八珍食品’ can be translated into ‘Eight Delicacies (Stimulate your baby’s appetite and better his or her growth) and ‘当归生姜羊肉汤’ can be translated into ‘ Angelica Ginger Lamb Soup(Replenish your blood and warm your spleen and stomach)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106) Translating in this way can pass the traditional Chinese medical culture to readers.<br />
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例如，“”八珍食品可以翻译成“八大美食(刺激宝宝的食欲，促进他或她的成长)和”当归生姜羊肉汤可以翻译成‘当归生姜羊汤(补血暖脾胃)’(张家臣2014:106)这样的翻译可以把中医文化传递给读者。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:56, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，“八珍食品“可以翻译成“八宝”(调动孩子的胃口，促进他的成长)，另外，”当归生姜羊肉汤“也可以直译成‘当归生姜羊汤”(补血暖脾胃)(张家臣 2014:106)。这样的翻译方式可以把中医文化传达给读者。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 04:51, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language’s culture to the target readers, it requires the translator’s great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation before translating.<br />
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'''3.2 Translation compensation'''<br />
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George Steiner divides the process of translation into four parts and “By ensuring the translation is possible, compensation is the last step in the whole procedure”.(2001: 176) It should be acknowledged that translation compensation occurs and accompanies translation activity as early as cultural difference exists. It possesses a history as long as translation activity does.<br />
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异化在帮助译者更好地向读者传递源语文化的同时，要求译者精通两种文化。因此，译者在译前必须做好充足的准备。<br />
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3.2 翻译补偿<br />
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乔治·斯坦纳把翻译过程分成四个部分，“为确保翻译的合理性，补偿成为翻译的最后一步”。（2001：176）早在文化差异产生之初，翻译补偿就伴随着翻译活动应运而生。只要有翻译活动，就会有翻译补偿。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 10:58, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然异化法对于将源语言文化传递给读者颇具成效，但是此法也要求译者具有丰富的双语文化知识。因此，在翻译之前，译者需要做好充足的准备。<br />
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3.2翻译补偿法<br />
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乔治·斯坦纳将翻译的过程分为四个部分。“要确保翻译的可行性，补偿法是整个过程的最后一步”（2001：176）。应该认识到，补偿法出现在翻译活动中，并且伴随着翻译活动，与文化差异的存在一样早。与和翻译活动一样，它确实有着久远的历史。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:15, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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Scholar Mona Baker holds the view that compensation is a translation skill, which can be applied when “target language is impossible to directly make up for the losses in meaning, language style or emotional force”.(1992: 33) Due to the translation difficulties caused by cultural default and cultural differences, translators have to employ different compensation strategies to make sure their translation outcome can be totally understood by the TL readers. Hervey and Higgins divided translation compensation mainly into four kinds, namely compensation in kind, compensation by splitting, compensation by merging and compensation in place.<br />
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学者莫纳 贝克认为翻译补偿是一种翻译技巧，当目的语无法直接表达出源语言的意义、语言风格和情感状态时，则需要使用这种方法。（1992:33）文化缺失和文化差异会导致翻译出现困难，译者需要采用不同的方法来确保目的语读者能完全理解自身翻译的文本。赫维和希金斯将翻译补偿分为四种形式，分别是：类比补偿、换位补偿、融合补偿、分解补偿。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 04:42, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
The translation compensation approach can be often used to translate the name of Chinese teas. China is the birthplace of tea culture. The record about tea appeared in the era of Shennong about 4700 years ago. Since ancient times, the tradition of providing to guests has been preserved. There are various kinds of teas in China like Longjing tea from Hangzhou , Oolong tea from Fujian etc. Chinese tea culture are also involved in Chinese Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism and so on. Chinese tea culture is a treasure in traditional Chinese culture.<br />
翻译补偿法常用于中国茶名的翻译。中国是茶文化的发源地。关于茶的记载出现在距今约4700年前的神农时代。自古以来，中国一直保留着邀请客人品茶的传统。中国的茶叶种类繁多，如杭州的龙井茶、福建的乌龙茶等。中国茶文化还涉及中国儒家、佛教、道教等。中国茶文化是中国传统文化中的瑰宝。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 07:44, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译补偿法常用于翻译中国茶名。中国是茶文化的发源地。关于茶的最早文字记载来自距今约4700年前的神农时代。自古以来，中国一直保留着以茶待客的传统。中国的茶叶种类繁多，有杭州的龙井茶、福建的乌龙茶等。中国茶文化还涉及中国儒家、佛教、道教等文化。茶文化是中国传统文化的瑰宝。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 15:46, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Chinese and English belong to different language systems. There are great differences between the two languages. Due to the different social environment , life style and vocabulary, sometimes it is impossible for translators to achieve complete equivalence. Chinese people’s ways to name teas are various. Sometimes, the Chinese character “茶” (tea in English) doesn’t even exit in the name of a tea. For example, some teas exhibited in the China Tea Museum in Hangzhou, like “羊岩勾青”(Yangyan Gouqing), “庐山云雾”(Lushan Yunwu), the names of these teas don’t contain the character of tea.<br />
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中文与英文从属于不同的语系，两种语言间差异巨大。由于社会环境、生活方式与语言词汇等方面的不同，有时译者不可能实现翻译上的完全对等。中国人对茶的称呼五花八门，有时茶名中甚至不包括“茶”这个字。比如说，在杭州的中国茶叶博物馆中展有“羊岩勾青”和“庐山云雾”两种茶，这两种茶的名字就不含“茶”这个字。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 11:38, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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汉语和英语属于不同的语言体系。两种语言之间存在着很大的差异。由于社会环境、生活方式和词汇的不同，有时译者在翻译过程不可能做到完全对等。中国人给茶叶起名字的方式不拘一格，"茶 "字 甚至不出现在茶名中。以杭州中国茶叶博物馆展出的茶叶为例，像 "羊岩勾青"、"庐山云雾"，这些茶叶的名字中都不包含茶字。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:50, 2 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:50, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
If translators show the English names of these teas to the target readers without explanation, readers may feel confused. Sometimes, the names of some teas are the same as the names of other stuff. For example, “ ‘茉莉花茶’ is translated into Jasmine Tea. This kind of translation mixes the tea name with the flower name. Actually, ‘茉莉花茶’ is a kind of green tea which has the aroma of jasmine. Some kind of ‘茉莉花茶’ contains jasmine flower, some don’t. Similarly, ‘竹叶青’ is translated into Bamboo Leaf Green and ‘玉露’ is translated into Jade Dew.<br />
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如果译者在不加解释的情况下向目标读者展示这些茶的英文名称，读者可能会感到困惑。一些情况下，某些茶的名字和其他事物的名字是一样的。例如，“茉莉花茶”被翻译成“Jasmine Tea”。这种翻译把茶名和花名混在一起。实际上，茉莉花茶是一种有茉莉花香的绿茶。有些茉莉花茶含有茉莉花，而有些却没有。同样，“竹叶青”被翻译成“Bamboo Leaf Green”，“玉露”被翻译成“Jade Dew”。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 15:37, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如果译者不对这些茶的英文名称加以解释，读者可能会感到疑惑。一些情况下，某些茶的名字其实取自别的事物。例如，“茉莉花茶”被翻译成“Jasmine Tea”。这种翻译把茶名和花名混在一起。实际上，茉莉花茶是一种有茉莉花香的绿茶。有些茉莉花茶含有茉莉花，而有些却没有。同样，“竹叶青”被翻译成“Bamboo Leaf Green”、“玉露”被翻译成“Jade Dew”也是不准确的。--Ouyang Ling<br />
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如果译者翻译茶名而不加以解释，读者可能会感到困惑。某些情况下，茶名和其他事物的名称相同。例如，“茉莉花茶”的翻译是“Jasmine Tea”，这种翻译结合了茶和花名。实际上，茉莉花茶是一种含茉莉花香的绿茶，有些茉莉花茶含有茉莉花，有些则没有。同样，“竹叶青”被翻译成“Bamboo Leaf Green”，“玉露”被翻译成“Jade Dew”，这都可能造成读者的困惑。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 12:12, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
Although the translation of these names of teas used the literal translation approach and realized the verbal equivalence, translators neglected the features of the teas. This kind of translation will mislead the target reader to think of ‘竹叶青’ as the tea made of bamboo leaves and ‘玉露’ as the tea made of jade and dew, which is totally impossible”. (Cui Shan 2019:125) The translation of tea names is also a part of intercultural communication. It can directly influence the transmission of Chinese culture in the world and can also influence the business result.<br />
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即使茶名的翻译采用直译法，实现了言语对等，但是译者忽视了茶的特点，这种翻译会误导目标读者把“竹叶青”看作是竹叶制成的茶，把“玉露”看作是美玉和露珠制成的茶，这是完全不可能的。(崔山 2019: 125)茶名的翻译也是跨文化交际的一部分，它能够直接影响中国文化在世界的传播，也可以影响商业结果。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 13:43, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然上述茶名的翻译采用了直译法，实现了言语对等，但是译者忽视了茶的特点，这种翻译会误导目标读者将“竹叶青”看作竹叶沏成的茶，把“玉露”视作美玉和露珠沏成的茶，实属无稽之谈。（崔山2019:125）茶名的翻译也是跨文化交际的一部分，它能够直接影响中国文化在世界的传播，也可能影响茶的销售情况。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 15:46, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
If a translator doesn’t pay enough attention to the cultural differences, it may lead to bad consequences. For example, a Chinese tea called “龙虎斗” was translated into “The Fighting Between Dragon and Tiger ”.Although the translation kept the verbal meaning of the tea, it violated the western taboo. This is because dragon is referred as a kind of evil and fierce beast. A reader without the knowledge of Chinese culture will have the image of two fierce beasts fighting and killing each other when reading the translation of the tea.<br />
翻译人员如果不够关注文化差异，就可能会导致一些不良后果。例如，一种名为“龙虎斗”的中国茶被翻译为“The Fighting Between Dragon and Tiger ”。这种翻译尽管保留了茶的字面意义，但它却违反了西方的禁忌。因为龙在西方被认为是一种邪恶且凶猛的野兽。所以当不了解中国文化的读者看到这个翻译时想到的是两只凶猛的野兽互相搏斗残杀的画面。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 11:41, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如果译者对文化差异不够重视，可能会导致不良后果。例如，将一种名为“龙虎斗”的中国茶译为“The Fighting Between Dragon and Tiger”，虽然该翻译保留了这种茶的字面意义，但却违反了西方的禁忌。这是因为人们把龙视为一种邪恶而凶猛的野兽，一个不懂中国文化的读者在阅读茶的翻译时，会联想到两个凶猛的野兽互相残杀的形象。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 02:36, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The target reader will feel uncomfortable to read the name of the tea, let alone buy and drink it. “珠茶” is a kind of special tea from Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province. It is round and bullet-shaped. So it was translated into “gun power”. This kind of translation can easily make people think about the violent images of war. Therefore, when being sold to India, Indian purchasers strongly asked the seller to change the translation of the tea name.<br />
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目标读者一看到这个茶名，就会感到不舒服，更不用说去买茶来喝了。“珠茶”是一种特殊的茶，产于浙江绍兴。这种茶圆圆的，形似弹丸，所以它被翻译成了“gun power”.这种翻译能轻易地使人们联想到战争中可怕的画面。因此，当这种茶在印度销售时，当地顾客强烈要求卖家换掉茶名的译法。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:08, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对目的语读者来说，这个茶的译名光是读起来就让人很不舒服了，更不用说会买来喝了。“珠茶”是浙江绍兴的名茶，茶叶呈圆形，形似子弹。所以有人将其翻译成"gun power"(字面意思是“火炮的威力”).这样的翻译很容易让人想起战争中的暴力场面。因此，当“珠茶”在印度售卖的时候，当地顾客强烈要求卖家更换“珠茶”的译名。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 03:17, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
Due to cultural differences, sometimes literal translation cannot express the true meaning of the tea name well. During this circumstance, translator should compensate the important information under the verbal meaning of the tea name. This kind of purpose can be achieved through the explanation of connotation under the tea name. Let’s take the tea names we have mentioned in the last paragraph as an example.<br />
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由于文化差异，有时直译不能较好地表达出茶名的真正含义。在这种情况下，译者应当补充字面意思下的重要信息。这种目的可以通过解释茶名的隐含意义来实现。让我们以上一段提到的茶名为例。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:49, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于文化差异，有时直译不能很好地表达茶名的真谛。在这种情况下，译者应该对茶名的字面意义的重要信息进行补充。这可以通过阐释茶名的隐含意义来实现。让我们以上一段提到的茶名为例。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:22, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
According to the background information of the tea “玉露”, “ the shape of the tea is round and its color is white like jade. So it’s better to translate ‘玉露’ into ‘Jade-green Tea’ instead of ‘Jade Dew’”. (Cui Shan 2019:126) This kind of translation can show the color and type of the tea. It is more acceptable and less confusing for the target readers.<br />
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根据“玉露”茶的背景信息，“这种茶叶的形状是圆的，并且其颜色洁白如玉石，所以最好是把玉露茶翻译为 ‘Jade-green Tea’ 而不是 ‘Jade Dew’”。(Cui Shan 2019:126)这样翻译可以展示出茶的颜色和种类。这也让受众读者们更容易理解和接受，也减少了混淆茶类的几率。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:17, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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根据“玉露”茶的背景信息，“这种茶的形状是圆的，且其颜色洁白如玉，所以最好是把玉露茶翻译为 ‘Jade-green Tea’ 而不是 ‘Jade Dew’”。(Cui Shan 2019:126)这样翻译可以展示出茶的颜色和种类。这也让受众读者们更容易接受且不至于太困惑。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 13:12, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Similarly, “‘茉莉花茶’ can be translated into ‘Jasmine Scented Tea’ instead of ‘Jasmine Tea’ and ‘竹叶青’ can be translated into ‘Bamboo-Leaf-Shaped Green Tea’ instead of ‘Bamboo Leaf ’”. (Cui Shan, 2019:126) “Jasmine Scented Tea” can show the true features of the tea and distinguish the tea from jasmine flower. And “Bamboo-Leaf-Shaped Green Tea” can tell the target readers the type and features of the tea and stop misleading readers to think of it as the tea made of bamboo leaves.<br />
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同样,“茉莉花茶”可以翻译成“Jasmine Scented Tea”,而不是“Jasmine Tea”;“竹叶青”可以翻译成“Bamboo-Leaf-Shaped”,而不是“Bamboo Leaf”。(崔山2019:126)“Jasmine Scented Tea”译文可以体现茶的真实特征，并将茶与茉莉花区分开来。而“Bamboo-Leaf-Shaped Green Tea”译文可以告诉目标读者茶叶的类型和特点，而避免读者误认为竹叶青是竹叶制成的。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:09, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同样,“茉莉花茶”可以翻译成“Jasmine Scented Tea”（茉莉花香茶）,而不是“Jasmine Tea”（茉莉花茶）;“竹叶青”可以翻译成“Bamboo-Leaf-ShapedGreen Tea”（竹叶状绿茶）,而不是“Bamboo Leaf”（竹叶茶）。(崔山2019:126) “茉莉花香茶”的译文体现该茶的真实特征，将茶与茉莉花区分开来。而“竹叶状绿茶”的译文可以告诉目标读者茶叶的类型和特点，而避免读者误认为竹叶青是竹叶制成的。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 05:10, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
'''4 Untranslatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. For example, “纸老虎” is translated into “Paper Tiger” in English.<br />
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‘4种文化相关词的不可译性’<br />
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卡特福德认为，不可译性是由于目的语缺乏词汇或句法替代物造成的。不同的语言在语音、语法、语义、语用等方面都存在差异，在翻译文化相关词时，译者很难完美地翻译这些词背后的文化。例如，“纸老虎”在英语中被翻译成“纸老虎”。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:16, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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4.文化负载词的不可译性<br />
卡特福德认为不可译性是由目标语中缺少词法或句法替代物造成的。不同的语言在语音、语法、语义、语用等方面都不相同。当翻译文化负载词时，译者要想完美地译出词语背后的文化含义是很难的。例如：“纸老虎”就被直译成英语“Paper Tiger”。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 12:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
But if people don’t have a knowledge of Chinese culture, when they read the phrase “paper tiger”, they will think of it as a kind of artistic work. Similarly, “八股文” is translated into “Eight-part Essay”. When people read this kind of translation, they will only think of it as a kind of article containing eight parts. They cannot understand the moral imprisonment this kind of writing style brought to Chinese people.<br />
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但是，如果人们不了解中国文化，当他们读到“纸老虎”这个词时，他们会认为它是一种艺术作品。同样，“八股文”也被翻译成“八章文”。当人们读到这种翻译时，他们只会把它看作是一篇包含八个部分的文章。他们无法理解这种写作风格给中国人带来的道德禁锢。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 04:09, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但是，如果人们不了解中国文化，当他们读到“纸老虎”这个词时，他们会认为它是一种艺术作品。同样，“八股文”也被翻译成“八段话的文章”。当人们读到这种翻译时，他们只会把它看作是一篇包含八个部分的文章。他们无法理解这种写作风格给中国人带来的道德禁锢。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 04:19, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
When the famous sinologist David Hawkes was translating the famous Chinese novel ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', he translated a servant girl in the novel called “紫鹃” into “Nightingale” instead of “cuckoo”. This is because the word “cuckoo” in western countries can be used to refer the woman who cheated in a relationship. In the novel, “紫鹃” is a quite innocent girl.<br />
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在翻译中国著名小说《红楼梦》时，著名汉学家大卫·霍克斯把书中一个名为“紫娟”的女仆翻译成“夜莺(nightingale)”而不是“杜鹃(cuckoo)”。他这样做的原因是，在西方国家，“杜鹃(cuckoo)”通常指在感情中背信弃义的女方，而《红楼梦》中的“紫娟”是个天真烂漫的女孩儿。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 08:39, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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著名汉学家大卫·霍克斯在翻译中国著名小说《红楼梦》时，把书中一个名为“紫娟”的女仆翻译成“夜莺(nightingale)”而不是“杜鹃(cuckoo)”。他之所以如此翻译是因为在西方国家，“杜鹃(cuckoo)”通常指在感情中背信弃义的女方，而《红楼梦》中的“紫娟”却是个天真无邪的女孩儿。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 11:52, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
So the word “cuckoo”, although is literally equivalent to “紫鹃”, it was still not chosen by David Hawkes to be the girl’s name. In English, “nightingale” refers to a small brown bird, the male of which has a beautiful song. It can also refer people who can sing beautifully. Although the translator avoided cultural conflict by translating “紫鹃” into “Nightingale”, “nightingale” still cannot show the innocence of that girl.<br />
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因此，“杜鹃（cuckoo）”一词虽然在字面上相当于“紫鹃”，但大卫·霍克斯并未将其作为那个女孩的名字。在英语中，“夜莺（nightingale）”指的是一种棕色的小鸟，其雄鸟的鸣唱婉转动人，所以它也可以指那些歌声动听的人。尽管译者通过将“紫鹃”译为“夜莺”来避免了文化冲突，但“夜莺（nightingale）”仍然无法体现出那个女孩的天真无邪。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 10:08, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，“杜鹃（cuckoo）”一词虽然在字面上相当于“紫鹃”，但大卫·霍克斯并未将那个女孩的名字译为“杜鹃”。在英语中，“夜莺（nightingale）”指的是一种棕色的小鸟，其雄鸟的鸣唱婉转动人，所以它也可以指代歌声动听的人。尽管译者通过将“紫鹃”译为“夜莺”来避免了文化冲突，但“夜莺（nightingale）”仍然无法体现出那个女孩的天真无邪。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:12, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
Sometimes, translators will borrow words from other cultures to help themselves translate better. For example, translators translate “a beauty in ancient China named Xi Shi into ‘Chinese Cleopatra’. However, Cleopatra is more like the first and the only female emperor in Chinese history Wu Zetian in Chinese people’s mind to western people.<br />
有时,翻译者会借用其他文化中的词汇来帮助自己更好地翻译。 例如,翻译家将"中国古代的美女西施翻译成'中国的埃及艳后'。 然而,在西方人的心目中,埃及艳后更像中国历史上第一位也是唯一一位女皇帝——武则天。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 04:13, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
有时，译者会借用其他文化的词汇来帮助自己更好地翻译。例如，译者把“中国古代一位名叫西施的美人”翻译成“中国埃及艳后”。但是，对于西方人来说，埃及艳后更像是中国历史上第一位也是唯一一位女性皇帝武则天。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 04:18, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
In Chinese phrase ‘蝙蝠迎宾’， the word ‘蝙蝠’ is translated into ‘bird’ in English instead of ‘bat’. This is because bat represents vampires in western culture. This kind of translation avoided the violation of western taboo. But it also doesn’t translate the inner ‘happiness’ behind the phrase in Chinese culture.”(Chen Junming 2013:29)<br />
中文短语“蝙蝠迎宾”中的“蝙蝠”，在英语翻译时会被翻译成“鸟（bird）”，而不是“蝙蝠（bat）”，因为蝙蝠在西方文化中代表着吸血鬼。这种翻译避免了与西方禁忌的冲突。但这种翻译也没有把中文短语的“喜悦”之情翻译出来。<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words. Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers.<br />
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卡特福德认为引起文化不可译的原因是目标语文化中缺少与源语文化对应的相关情境特征。文化不可译来源于文化差异。尽管将文化负载词完美地翻译成目标语是很难的，译者仍然需要努力去找到文化负载词的翻译。译者也可以在译句和译词之后增加一些解释，以此来让目标读者理解源语中的意思和文化。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 02:53, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
'''5 The Interpreter’s Translation of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Unlike translators, interpreters have much shorter time to translate. Sometimes, it is a great challenge for interpreters to translate in such a short time. As we have discussed above, culture-loaded words make it hard for translators to translate. So during the interpreting, it may be even harder for interpreters to translate utterances with culture-loaded words. An interpreter’s translation can be divided into three steps, namely comprehension, de-verbalization and reformulation. If an interpreter wants to interpret successfully, he should understand what the speaker has said.<br />
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5 文化负载词的口译<br />
与笔译者不同的是，可供口译员翻译的时间很少。通常，在短时间内进行口译对口译员是个不小的挑战。正如上面讨论的，文化负载词给笔译工作带来了难度。那么，在口译工作中，口语中的文化负载词更难翻译。口译员的翻译可分为三步，即理解，脱离语言以及外壳信息重构。如若口译员要成功翻译，他应要理解说话者的意思。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 15:20, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
5.文化负载词的口译<br />
与笔译者不同的是，口译员的翻译的时间更少。有时，在短时间内进行翻译对口译员来说是个很大的挑战。正如之前讨论过的，文化负载词让笔译翻译变难了。所以在口译时，口译者可能更难翻译出文化负载词的言外之意。口译员的翻译可以分为三步，即理解，脱离语言以及外壳信息重构。如若口译员要成功翻译，他应要理解说话者的意思。--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 07:56, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The interpreter will keep the content of what the speaker just said in his mind. During step two, the interpreter will forget the structure of these linguistic signs which formed what the speaker said and only remembers the ideas these linguistics signs wanted to express. During the last step, the interpreter uses another language to form new utterances to express the speaker’s ideas. The interpreter has to try to express all the information the speaker mentioned as possible and the interpreter also needs to try to make the translated language easy to be understood by target hearers.<br />
口译员将把讲话者刚才所说的内容记在脑海中。在第二步，口译员会忘记这些构成讲话者话语含义的语言符号的结构，而只记住了这些语言符号所想要表达的内容。 在最后一步，口译员使用另一种语言去表达讲话者的想法。口译员必须在尽可能表达出说话者提到的所有信息的同时，设法使翻译语易于被目标听众所理解。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 11:55, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
The striking feature of interpreting is its timeliness. Since the interpreter’s memory is limited, interpretation is more about translating the overall meaning of the discourse. Sometimes interpreters have to identify the key information of someone’s utterances and discard the unimportant information. The approach we have discussed above can also be used to interpret. For example, the interpreter can use literal translation approach to translate.<br />
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口译的显著特点是它的时效性。由于口译者的记忆是有限的，口译更多的是对语篇的整体意义进行翻译。有时口译员必须识别出某人话语中的关键信息，而放弃不重要的信息。我们上面讨论的方法也可以用来进行口译。例如，口译员可以使用直译方法来翻译。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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口译的显著特点是时效性。译者的记忆力是有限的，所以口译更多的是翻译语篇的整体意义。有时口译员必须识别出话语中的关键信息，放弃不重要的信息。我们上面讨论的方法也可以用于口译。例如，口译员可以用直译方法来进行翻译。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 04:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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口译的显著特点是时效性。由于口译工作者的记忆力是有限的，所以口译更多的是翻译语篇的大意。有时口译员必须识别出说话人话语中的关键信息并舍弃不重要的信息。我们上面讨论的方法也可以用于口译。例如，口译员可以用直译方法来进行翻译。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 04:36, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
By using the literal translation approach, “ ‘莫道今年春将尽，明年春色倍欢人。我期待着明年中国和世界都会变得更好’，can be translated into ‘Do not regret that the spring is departing, come next year as it will be twice as enchanting. I really hope to see that next year in China and in the whole world people will be better off.’”(Guo Huiqing 2018:94)<br />
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通过使用直译法，“ '莫道今年春将尽,明年春色倍欢人.我期待着明年中国和世界都会变得更好',可以翻译为‘不要为春天的离去而遗憾，来年它将会加倍迷人’我真心希望看到，明年中国乃至全世界人民的生活会更好。”--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:35, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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依据直译法，我们可以将“ '莫道今年春将尽,明年春色倍欢人.我期待着明年中国和世界都会变得更好' 翻译成 ’不要因为春天的离去而遗憾，来年它将更加迷人。我衷心希望看到中国乃至世界人民明年生活更加美好。”--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:34, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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依据直译法，我们可以将“ '莫道今年春将尽,明年春色倍欢人.我期待着明年中国和世界都会变得更好' 翻译成 ’不要因春天的离去而遗憾，来年它将更迷人。我非常希望，明年中国和世界人民都会变得更好。”--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 12:00, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
It’s worth mentioning that interpreters have to translate in a limited time. So when confronting some special expression that is hard to find the equivalent in the target language. They will try to explain the meaning of these expression. For example, the interpreter can translate “ ‘山重水复疑无路，柳暗花明又一村’ into ‘After encountering all kinds of difficulties and experiencing all kinds of hardships, at the end of the day we will see light at the end of tunnel’”.(Guo Huiqing 2018:95)<br />
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值得一提的是，口译员必须在有限的时间内进行翻译。 因此，当遇到一些很难在目标语中找到等效的表达式的特殊的表达式时，他们将尝试意译。 例如，口译员可以将“山重水复疑无路，柳暗花明又一村”翻译成“遇到各种困难并经历各种苦难之后，我们终将在隧道尽头看到光明。”--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 14:18, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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值得一提的是，口译员必须在有限的时间内进行翻译。 因此，在目标语言中很难找到等效的表达时，他们会尝试解释这些表达的含义。 例如，口译员可以将“'山重水复疑无路，柳暗花明又一村”翻译成“遇到各种困难并经历各种艰辛之后，最终我们会看到隧道尽头的光明”（郭慧清2018：95）--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 04:36, 2 November 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
值得一提的是，口译员必须在限定的时间内完成翻译。 因此，在目标语言中很难找到等效的表达时，他们会试着去解释这些表达的含义。 例如，口译员可以将“'山重水复疑无路，柳暗花明又一村”翻译成“经历了各种困难和艰辛之后，最终我们会看到隧道尽头的光明”--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 08:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
This expression is from ancient Chinese poet Tao Yuanming’s poem. This sentence just express the scenery of the countryside. But combing the poem with the utterances the speaker has said, the interpreter translates the sentence into the translation above. This kind of explanation approach can be often used in interpreting.<br />
<br />
这句话出自中国古代诗人陶渊明的诗。它只描述了乡村风光，但译者用诗人的说话方式来梳理这首诗，就把这句话翻译成了上述译文。这种翻译方法在口译中很常用。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 11:28, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这个表达出自中国古代诗人陶渊明的诗。虽然这句话只是描述了乡村的风景。但是，当把这首诗和说话人所说的话结合起来，译者就把这句话翻译成上述译文。这种翻译方法在口译中经常使用。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:40, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这句话出自中国古代诗人陶渊明的诗，它只描述了乡村风光。但译者结合发言人的话来理解这首诗，将这句话翻译成了上述译文。这种翻译方法在口译中经常使用。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 11:03, 31 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
Translation and interpreting share a lot in common like the approaches to translate. But interpreting has the feature of timeliness while translation doesn’t. This feature brings more challenges for interpreters to translate. It requires interpreter to have to quick response and a better sensibility to cultural differences.<br />
<br />
笔译和口译有许多的相同点，比如翻译的方式。但是口译有时限，而笔译没有，这一差别给口译译员的翻译带来了更大的挑战，需要有快速的反应能力以及更好的文化差异分辨能力。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 07:52, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
笔译和口译有许多共同点，比如翻译方法。但是口译有即时性，而笔译没有。这个特性给口译员的翻译带来了更多的挑战，这要求口译员对文化差异有快速的反应能力和更高的敏感性。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:34, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
'''6 Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
“Since the knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in the language of the people, it is extremely difficult to separate the two. On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.” (Dai Weidong 2002:130)<br />
<br />
6.结论<br />
文化包含两个部分，一是知识，二是信念。人们所创造的文化通常是暗含在语言中，并通过语言传递。 我们很难将文化与语言分离。 一方面，语言渗透了一个人的思考方式和世界观，语言成为塑造一个人的重要组成部分，同时语言也包含并传递文化现实。另一方面，语言也会促进文化交流，语言的变化同时也反映在文化的变化，语言是文化的产物。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 04:38, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6.结论<br />
<br />
文化由知识与信仰组成，通常暗含在人类语言当中，并通过语言传递，因此我们很难将文化与语言分离。一方面，语言作为人类不可分割的一部分，渗透进人类思考和看待世界的方式，同时也包含并传递文化现实。另一方面，语言作为文化的产物，有助于文化传承，而语言使用的变化也能反映文化的变化。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:07, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
Language and culture are interdependent during the process of evolution. Language belongs to culture. Translators, who translate the information from one language to another, have the responsibility to promote the communication between different countries. A good translator can help the transmission of cultures. The cultural differences among different countries lead to different culture-loaded words in different countries. The reason why we call a culture-loaded word a culture-loaded word is because it contains the special meaning of a culture.<br />
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在进化过程中，语言和文化是相互依存的。语言属于文化。翻译人员将信息从一种语言翻译成另一种语言，有责任促进不同国家之间的交流。一个好的翻译可以帮助文化的传承。由于不同国家的文化差异，导致不同国家的文化负载词不同。我们之所以称文化负载词为文化负载词，是因为它包含了一种文化的特殊含义。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:09, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言和文化在进化过程中相互依存。语言属于文化。译者将信息从一种语言传递到另一种语言时，有责任促进不同国家间的沟通交流。一个好的译者能促进文化传播。不同国家间的文化差异使得其文化负载词也大不相同。文化负载词因囊括了文化的特殊含义而得名。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:20, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
It is exactly this kind of uniqueness which makes a culture different from other cultures. Although culture-loaded words make it hard for translators to translate well, translators still have to find strategies to overcome this kind of difficulty. As long as cultural differences exist, culture-loaded words will still be there. As a bridge between two language or even two cultures, translators still have to work hard to discover better approaches to translate culture-loaded words well. If translators can translate better, the cultural communication between two countries will be better.<br />
<br />
这正是使得一种文化不同于另一种文化的独特性。尽管词汇承载文化意义会给译者带来准确翻译的难度，译者还是要采用合适的翻译策略去克服这种困难。只要文化差异存在，词汇承载文化意义就不可避免。译者作为两种语言甚至两种文化的桥梁，必须要努力挖掘更好的翻译方法来准确译出承载文化意义的词汇。如果译者能翻译得更准确，两国之间的文化交流也会更顺利。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 04:57, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
正是由于这种独特性，才使得一种文化与其他文化区别开来，尽管文化负载词会使译者很难翻译准确，但他们仍然必须寻找合适的翻译策略来克服这种困难。只要文化差异存在，文化负载词就不可避免。译者作为两种语言甚至两种文化的桥梁，必须要努力挖掘更好的翻译方法来翻译文化负载词，如果译者能翻译得更准确，那么两国之间的文化交流也会更顺利。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 07:11, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
'''A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories'''<br />
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<br />
'''(1)Introduction'''<br />
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'''1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”.<br />
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<br />
功能对等理论与目的论的比较研究及对两种理论的思考<br />
（1）简介<br />
1.1 功能对等理论<br />
1964年，美国著名语言学家、《圣经》翻译家尤金·奈达在《翻译的科学探索》一书中首次提出了“动态对等”的概念。奈达认为，“动态对等”是指“与源语言信息最接近的自然对等（谭载喜，1984:10）”。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:02, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
功能对等理论与目的论的比较研究及对两种理论的思考<br />
（1）简介<br />
1.1 功能对等理论<br />
1964年，美国著名语言学家、《圣经》翻译家尤金·奈达，在《翻译的科学探索》一书中首次提出了“动态对等”的概念。奈达认为，“动态对等”是指“与源语言信息最接近的自然对等（谭载喜，1984:10）”。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 08:00, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”.<br />
<br />
奈达的这样说的意思是呼吁译者在向目的语读者表达原文所传达的信息的同时，也要注重原文的形式和风格。后来，他意识到“动态对等”这个名称可能会使一些翻译学习者感到困惑，认为他只注重翻译原文的内容和意义，而忽略了原文的形式和风格，于是他将“动态对等”的名称改为“功能对等”。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:04, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text.<br />
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奈达认为，译文接受者对译文的反应一般应等同于原语接受者对原文的反应，因此当译者不能同时保留原文的形式和内容时，应以原文内容为准更改源文本的格式。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 03:12, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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奈达认为，读者对译文的反应应与源语读者对原文的反应大致相同，因此当译者不能同时保留源语的形式和内容时，应优先考虑原文内容，改变源文本形式。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:53, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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奈达认为,译文读者对译文的反应应与源语读者对原文的反应相同。所以当译者无法兼顾原文的形式与内容时,他（她）应优先考虑原文的内容,改变源文本的形式。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 02:09, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence.<br />
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针对译者如何以及在多大程度上改变原文的形式等问题，奈达指出，在翻译中，动态对等有四个方面，分别是词汇对等、句法对等、文本对等和文体对等。如果一个译者能够用自然的目的语来传达原文的语言形式、内容和风格，并使译文读者对译文的反应与源语言对原文的反应一样，那么他的翻译就可以说达到了最大的对等。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 03:06, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
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'''1.2. Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
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从另一方面来说，如果一个原文本的翻译仅仅只是传达了文本大概的内容，那我们只能说这个翻译只实现了原文本与目标文本最小的对等。<br />
1.2.目的论<br />
目的论最先是汉斯弗米尔在1978年在他的书《普通翻译理论框架》中提出来的。根据目的论，翻译就是“为目标目的和目标环境中的目标地址设定目标文本”（刘俊平，2009:377）。以此定义为基础， 弗米尔汉斯总结得出目的论的三个原则，分别为目的原则、连贯原则和忠诚原则。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 12:08, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从另一方面来说，如果一个文本的翻译仅仅传达了原文本的大概内容，那我们只能说这个翻译只实现了原文本与目标文本最小的对等。<br />
<br />
1.2.目的论<br />
目的论最先是汉斯弗米尔在1978年在其书《普通翻译理论框架》中提出来的。根据目的论，翻译就是“为目标目的和目标环境中的目标地址设定目标文本”（刘俊平，2009:377）。以此定义为基础， 弗米尔汉斯总结得出目的论的三个原则，分别为目的原则、连贯原则和忠诚原则。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 09:29, 31 October 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
首先，目的规则或目的原则是翻译中要遵循的主要原则。 它认为，目标文本要达到的目的决定了翻译的整个过程，包括翻译者在翻译技巧和策略上的选择，并且所有翻译活动均由其目的决定。 一般来说，目的规则具有三类目的：第一个是译者的基本目的；第二个是译者的基本目的。 第二是翻译的交际目的； 第三是特定翻译策略或手段的目的。 但在大多数情况下，“目的”是指翻译的交际目的。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 09:25, 31 October 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
首先，目的性规则，也称目的原则，是翻译中所要遵循的基本原则。 它认为，目标文本要达到的目的决定了整个翻译过程，这其中包括翻译者在翻译技巧和策略上的选择，并且翻译活动均由其目的决定。 一般来说，目的规则下分了三类目的：一是译者的基本目的； 二是翻译的交际目的； 三是特定翻译策略或手段的目的。 但是在大多数情况下，“目的”是指翻译的交际目的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:19, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
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Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”.其次，连贯原则，也称为语篇内连贯，是指译文必须对接受者来说是可理解和可读的，并且在目标文化和目标文本的交际环境中是有意义的。<br />
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第三，忠实原则，即原文和译文之间应该有语篇间的连贯。语篇间的连贯类似于通常所说的“连贯”信”或“忠于原文”。--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 02:54, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
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传统翻译理论认为，“信”是翻译最基础的标准，任何翻译都应该遵循这个标准。但是，目的论认为目的语形式和文本与源语相符的程度取决于翻译的目的和译者对源语文本的理解。<br />
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Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
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汉斯弗米尔的目的论指出，在目的论的三条准则中，目的准则是最重要的，连贯准则次之，忠实准则最次。这表明目的论认为翻译目的决定翻译手段。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:44, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
'''II.Similarities and Differences'''<br />
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'''2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories'''<br />
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'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
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Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language.<br />
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'''II.相同点与不同点'''<br />
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'''2.1. 两种理论的相同点'''<br />
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'''2.1.1. 同样重视目标受众的身份'''<br />
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功能对等理论以受众为导向,正如奈达对翻译的定义那样，翻译就是目标语用最自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息。功能对等理论强调，翻译的首要目的是使译文给目标语读者带来与源语中读者相似或相同的反应。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:17, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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II 相似与不同之处<br />
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2.1 两种理论的相似之处<br />
2.1.1. 同样高度重视目标受众的身份<br />
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功能对等理论是以受众为导向的。正如奈达对翻译的定义阐述的那样“翻译是以最贴近源语的自然对等方式重塑受众语言，首先要考虑其含义，再次是翻译风格“，功能对等理论强调翻译的首要目标是译文要还原受众在源语中获得的相似或相同的反应。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 03:32, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
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While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means.<br />
另外，为了给读者带来相似或相同的反应，奈达甚至还提出，如果有必要，应该根据不同接受者的需要制作不同的目标文本。这两点都反映了在功能对等理论中，目标接受者非常重要。<br />
而目的论也把读者的需求放在了很高的位置。在目的论的三条原则中，最重要的一条就是目的论原则，它包括三个目的，即译者的基本目的、翻译的交际目的和具体翻译策略或手段的目的。<br />
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[[File:Example.jpg]]==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
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然而，把这三个目的都考虑进来，译者首先要知道目标文本的功能是什么，目标读者又是谁，如此，译者便能立即明白翻译的目的，并且译成一个同源文本相对应且合适的目标文本。从另一方面讲，这意味着在目的论中，目标读者的需求间接地决定了翻译的目的，因此译者需要首先考虑目标读者的需求。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 12:39, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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然而，同时考虑这三个目标，译者首先要知道目标文本为何而译，为谁而译。如此，译者便能立即明白翻译的目的，并作出相对应的合适翻译。从另一方面讲，这意味着在目的论中，目标读者的需求间接地决定了翻译的目的，因此译者需要首先考虑目标读者的需求。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:57, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
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Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
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在功能对等理论下，翻译应实现功能对等，为目标读者带来大致相同的体验，并使他们作为源语言文化中的接受者给予回应。为此，翻译人员实际上是在尝试通过缩短源文本接收者与目标文本接收者之间的距离来实现原始文本的交流功能，另一方面，这意味着翻译是一种在原始语言文化和目标语言文化之间的交流过程。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:19, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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在功能对等理论下，翻译应实现功能对等，为目标语读者带来同源文本给源语读者带来的大致相同的体验，并使他们同源语言文化的读者一样作出同样的回应。为此，翻译人员实际上是在尝试通过缩短源文本读者与目标文本读者之间的距离来实现原始文本的交际功能，另一方面，这意味着翻译是一种源语言文化和目标语文化之间的交际过程。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 12:50, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
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在目的论三个准则的目的准则中，交际目的是目标文本最重要的目的。 目的论认为翻译是一种有目的的交际活动，翻译过程由目标文本的预期功能或目的所决定。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 04:16, 2 November 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
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在目的论中，在目的规则下的三个目的中，交际目的被视为目标文本的最重要目的。 目的论认为翻译是一种有目的的交际活动，翻译的过程取决于目标文本的预期功能或目的。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 14:18, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
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'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
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From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response.<br />
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'''2.2 两种理论的差异'''<br />
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'''2.2.1 源语言和目的语言的地位差异'''<br />
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功能对等理论认为，好的翻译不仅要传达与源文相似的信息，还要清晰地反映源文的意义和目的，在目标读者身上产生类似的效果，使他们对译文作出同样的反应。--Ouyang Ling<br />
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'''2.2 两种理论之间的差异'''<br />
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'''2.2.1 原语和目的语之间的地位差异'''<br />
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功能对等理论认为，好的翻译不仅要传达与原文相似的信息，还要清晰地反映原文的意义和目的，使目的语读者获取与原文读者类似或相同的效果，使他们对译文作出同样的反应。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 10:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
从这点看，我们可以轻易明白功能对等理论是以原文为中心的，在某种程度上这反映了功能对等依然将原语言放在一个很高的地位。在词句的选择上，目标语言逊于原语言，翻译作品的句子结构依然取决于原文。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从这点我们可以很容易看出，功能对等理论以原文为中心，这在某种程度上也反映了功能对等理论仍然把原语言放在突出位置。在词汇选择方面，目标语言的地位次于原语言，目标文本的句子结构仍然取决于原文。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 15:47, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”.<br />
在另一方面，目的论摒弃了传统的以文本为中心的翻译理论，聚焦于目的语文本的功能和目的。从目的论的角度出发，成功的翻译并不是把原文本置于神圣不可及的地位。维米尔在目的论中进一步提出了“颠覆源语言”的观点。他指出，“原文的语言和文体特征不再是衡量翻译的唯一标准”。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 11:13, 30 October 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
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在另一方面，目的论摒弃了传统的以文本为中心的翻译理论，聚焦于目的语文本的功能和目的。从目的论的角度出发，成功的翻译并不是把原文本置于神圣不可企及的地位。维米尔在目的论中进一步提出了“颠覆源语言”的观点。他写道，“原文的语言和文体特征不再是衡量翻译的唯一标准”。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:16, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
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所有这些反映出，源文本在目的语理论中的地位与其在功能对等理论中的地位相比，处于较低的地位。 此外，从目的论的三个规则中，我们可以很容易地知道，最重要的一个是目的论规则，然后是目标文本的连贯性，即文本内部的连贯性，最后是目标文本对原文的忠诚度。 文本，即文本间的连贯性。 因此，我们可以看到目的语言中源语言的状态实际上低于目标语言，这与功能对等理论中的情况有所不同。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 02:15, 30 October 2020 <br />
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所有这些都反映出，相比于在功能对等理论中的地位，源文本在目的论中的地位相对较低。此外，在目的论的三原则中，我们很容易可以发现，最重要的原则是目的论原则，目标文本的连贯性原则即文本内部的连贯性次之，最后是目标文本对原文的忠实度也就是文本间的连贯性。因此，我们可以看到在目的论中源语言的地位实际上是低于目标语言的，而这与功能对等理论中的情况则有所不同。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 08:36, 31 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
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Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text.<br />
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'''2.2.2. 不同的翻译原则'''<br />
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奈达认为翻译的目标是对等。他的翻译标准是，译文既要在内容和文体上忠实于原文，同时在目的语读者看来又是通顺的。正如奈达所提出的，“翻译就是在目的语中用最贴切、最自然的对等语再现源语的信息，首先是语义对等，其次是文体对等”，功能对等理论的翻译标准包括“对等”， 也就是语义和文体的对等，即忠实于原文的语义和文体。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 01:03, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''2.2.2. 不同的翻译原则'''<br />
奈达认为翻译的目标是对等。他的翻译标准是，译文既要在内容和文体上忠实于原文，同时又要在目的语读者看来是通顺的。正如奈达所提出的，“翻译就是在目的语中用最贴切、最自然的对等语再现源语的信息，首先要达到语义对等，其次要达到文体对等”，功能对等理论的翻译标准包括“对等”， 也就是语义和文体的对等，即忠实于原文的语义和文体。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:59, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
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In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers.<br />
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此外，在“对等”之前，还有“自然”一词，这意味着目标文本应流利并符合目标文化的习惯，即传统翻译理论中的有“表现力”。<br />
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然而，在斯科普斯理论中，“忠实”不再被视为主要的翻译标准。 斯科普斯理论根据翻译的预期目的判断翻译是否成功，这反映了目标读者的要求。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 14:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，在“对等”之前，还有“自然”一词，意味着目标文本应流畅并符合目标文化的习惯，即传统翻译理论中的“表现力”。<br />
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然而，在斯科普斯理论中，“忠实”不再被视为翻译的主要标准。斯科普斯理论根据翻译的预期目的来判断翻译是否是成功的，而预期目的又反映了目标读者的需求。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 14:46, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
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然而，由于读者的需求不同，所以目的论提倡翻译标准的多样化。唯有要求译文和原文具有相同的交际功能时，对等性才成为翻译过程的标准。否则，译文将可能在风格和形式上与原文有极大差异。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 13:59, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，由于读者需求不同，因此目的论提倡翻译标准多样化。唯有要求译文和原文具有相同的交际功能时，对等才成为翻译过程的标准。否则，译文将可能在风格和形式上与原文有极大差异。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 03:27, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
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In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation.<br />
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'''2.2.3.不同的翻译技巧和翻译策略在翻译过程中的运用'''<br />
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在功能对等理论中，根据其对翻译的定义，翻译过程中使用的翻译技巧和策略都是为了一个共同的目标，那就是给目的语读者带来大致相同或相同的反应。为了达到这一目的，功能对等理论下经常使用一些翻译技巧，包括直译、意译、归化和借用翻译。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 07:36, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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'''2.2.3. 翻译过程中用到的不同的翻译技巧和翻译策略'''<br />
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在翻译对等理论中，正如其所定义地那样，应用于翻译过程中的翻译技巧和策略都是为了带给目标读者几乎相同或完全相同的反应。为了实现这一目的，在功能对等理论的指导下，一些翻译技巧常被应用于翻译中，如文学翻译，意译，归化翻译以及借译。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:20, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms.<br />
而在众多翻译技巧中，功能对等理论最推崇的两个是归化和借译。这里我会列举出一个短语的两个翻译版本，以此来简要解释为什么这两种翻译技巧在翻译过程中最为常用。我们都知道“grow like mushrooms”是一个表示快速生长或者数量迅速增长的短语。这个短语生动地描写出了伦敦绵绵细雨后蘑菇猛长的景象。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:56, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在所有的翻译技巧中，归化和借用翻译是功能对等理论最推崇的两种翻译策略。在这里，我将列举一个短语的翻译来简要说明为什么在翻译过程中经常使用这两种翻译技巧。我们都知道，“grow like mushrooms”这一短语，意思是迅速增长或数量增加。它生动地描绘了在伦敦连绵不断的降雨之后，蘑菇爆炸式增长的场景。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 07:43, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
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不过中国也有类似的短语“雨后春笋”，描述了这样一幅场景：春雨之后，森林里的竹子一夜长出来很多。所以，在做英汉翻译时，译者为了让中国读者和英国读者有同样的反应，经常使用归化翻译，把“to grow like mushrooms”翻译为“雨后春笋”。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 15:25, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
不过中国也有一个类似的短语“雨后春笋”，用这个词来描述春雨过后，一夜之间森林里竹子大量地涌现出来的场景。因此，在做英汉翻译时，为了让中国读者和英国读者有同样的反应，译者经常使用归化翻译，把“to grow like mushrooms”翻译为“雨后春笋”。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:47, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes.Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers.<br />
但是，目的论是不同的. 在目的语理论中，最后证明了手段的合理性，这意味着所有翻译技巧和策略均取决于目标文本的目的，用途以及所服务的读者. 因此，通常会采用不同的翻译策略来满足不同的翻译目的，翻译人员可以自由选择要使用的翻译技巧，无论是直译还是自由翻译，归化或异化，音译或借用翻译，甚至简化翻译和归约翻译 考虑到作者的写作意图，原文主题，译者的目的和读者的需求.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 10:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，目的论不同。在目的论中，目的决定手段，这意味着所有的翻译技巧和策略都是由译文的目的和用途以及它所服务的读者决定的。因此，它通常采用不同的翻译策略来满足不同的翻译目的。译者可以根据作者的写作意图、原文的主题、译者的目的和读者的需求，自由选择他想使用的翻译技巧，无论是直译还是意译，归化还是异化，音译还是借译，甚至简化翻译还是减译。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 11:04, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Shi Diwen 石迪文 ==<br />
<br />
Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved.<br />
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这里，我想首先比较功能对等理论和目的论在处理具有文化特色的内容方面的差异。正如我前面所写,功能对等理论强调源语读者和目的语读者以及自然文本对目的与读者的相同反应,所以其更愿意使用存在在目的语中的词汇,短语和文化形象来取代原文的表达,这也解释了为什么归化和借译经常为其所用,因为这两种方法实现功能对等。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 12:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept.<br />
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然而，据目的论，译者的自由度更高，可根据文章目的灵活选用翻译技巧。例如，在做文化类翻译时，译员应仔细考量源语和目的语的文化差异，并全面理解原文的目的和作用。如果译文的目的是为了传播原作作者的语言特色，写作意图或者源语文化特征，那么译者可采用异化或直译的翻译策略，并在译文中加以注释，以便目的语读者更好理解外来概念。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 07:35, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但是，在目的论中，译者享有较高的自由度。他可以根据文本的目的灵活地选择翻译技能。例如，在进行文化翻译时，译者应仔细考虑两种语言之间的文化差异，并充分理解原文的目的和用法。如果翻译文本的目的是传播原始作者的语言特征、作者的写作意图或源语言文化的语言特征，那么译者可以采用异化策略或直译策略，目标文本中的注释可帮助目标读者更好地理解外来概念。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:23, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”.<br />
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比如，为了保持中文的文化特征，中文谚语“谋事在人，成事在天”应该翻译为“man proposals，heaven disposes.”而不是“man proposals, God disposes."--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:51, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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比如，为了保留中文的文化特征，中国的谚语“谋事在人，成事在天”应该译为“man proposes，heaven disposes.”，而不是“man proposes, God disposes”。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:29, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading.<br />
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这是因为译者想要其他国家的人了解我们的信仰---我们中国人相信老天而非上帝。同时，有时为了迎合一些特定群体的需求，翻译过程中会把翻译简化或删减。比如，中国一些出版社为满足孩子们阅读的需求而出版一些外国名著的简化版本。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:17, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这是因为译者想要其它国家的人了解我们的信仰——我们中国人相信老天而非上帝。同时，有时候我们为了满足一些特定群体的需要，在翻译的过程中，会对译文做出简化或者删减的处理，比如，中国的一些出版社为了满足儿童阅读需求而出版一些外国名著的简化版本。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 03:13, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
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In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. <br />
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在奈达看来，译者只是一个文化使者，是把一种文化的思想传递给另一种文化的人。奈达认为，译者作为信息的第二来源，其作用主要是将原文作者的意图传达给读者。因此，译者必须了解原作者的思想。译者的作用主要是将原作者的意图传达给读者。<br />
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在奈达看来，译者仅发挥文化使者的作用，他们把一种文化思想传递给其他文化背景的人。奈达认为，译者作为信息的第二来源，其主要作用是讲原作的意图传达给读者。因此，译者必须明白原作者的想法。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:50, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
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此外，无论原文的观点是否与自己的观点一致，译者不应在原文翻译中引入任何个人观点。“即使原文有缺点和错误，译者也不应干预、编辑或重写原文，即使有能力也不可改良原文”（谭载喜，1984）。当然，我们可以批判性地接受奈达的观点。当原文有明显的错误（如原文与事实不符）时，应在翻译中加以纠正。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 10:40, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，无论原文的观点是否与自己的观点一致，译者不应在对原文的翻译中引入任何个人观点。“即使原文存在缺点和错误，译者也不应干预、编辑或重写原文；即使译者有能力，也不能对原文做出改进”（谭载喜，1984）。当然，我们可以批判性地接受奈达的观点。当原文有明显的错误（如原文与事实不符）时，应在翻译中加以纠正。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 14:44, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language.<br />
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目的论提高了译者的地位。译者是原文的接收者，将原文的信息传递给读者。目的论允许译者确定译文对原文的还原程度，以及译文对原文的还原程度的比例。它采用了“改、删、减”等翻译策略，否定了只有一种“正确或最佳”的源语言翻译。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:20, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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目的论提高了译者的地位。译者是原文的接收者，并将原文的信息传递给读者。目的论允许译者确定译文对原文的还原程度，及其比例。它采用了“改、删、减”等翻译策略，否定了只有一种“正确或最佳”的源语言翻译。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 14:20, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
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'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144).<br />
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因此，翻译人员在翻译过程中具有更大的自由，可以根据读者的需求，期望和知识背景来传递原文，从而达到翻译任务的目的。<br />
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因此，翻译人员在翻译过程中拥有了更大的自由，他们可以根据读者的需求，期望和文化背景来传递原文，从而完成翻译任务。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:11, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''2.2.5.不同的翻译过程'''<br />
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为了达到功能对等，奈达通过引用核心句，非核心句和转换的概念，提出了著名的逆向翻译理论。 在功能对等理论中，翻译是一个复杂的过程，包括四个阶段：分析，转移，重构和测试（谭载喜，1984，144）。<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 08:34, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
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具体而言，就奈达而言，译者在进行翻译任务时，需要在语法和语义分析的基础上，将原文从表层结构转化为深层结构或伪深层结构，然后将原文的深层结构或伪深层结构转化为译文的深层结构，最后从译文的深层结构转化为译文的表层结构。翻译完成后，译者需要对译文进行重新审视和检验。(彭长江，2017:09）--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 15:16, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
然而，目的论不同于功能对等理论，它没有提出具体的翻译步骤。目的论没有对词语、短语、段落和文本的翻译给出详细的指导，但它从宏观的角度给予译者一定的启示，赋予译者更多的翻译自主权，使译者能够自由地翻译文本。<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:51, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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然而，不同于功能对等论，目的论并未提出明确的翻译流程。对于词，短语，段落和文本的翻译，目的论虽然没有详细的准则，但它从宏观角度给予了一些指导，从而赋予译者更多的自主权，使他们能够自由地翻译文本。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 14:36, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
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'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies.<br />
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三、我对 "两论 "的看法<br />
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3.1. 我对功能对等理论的思考<br />
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3.1.1. 功能对等理论的优势和贡献； 3.1.2.<br />
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首先，"功能对等理论 "将现代语言学、传播学、信息论、符号学和美学引入翻译领域。从宏观角度看，它突破了传统翻译思想的局限性，为翻译研究提供了新的视角。它从多角度对翻译进行了更为细致的研究，将新思想、新观念、新方法运用到翻译研究中，为翻译研究提供了许多新方法。此外，它还为现代翻译研究奠定了坚实的基础。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 04:25, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[[File:Example.jpg]]==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation.<br />
第二，必须强调的是，给了翻译家很多建设性的意见。从微观角度出发，功能对等理论解决了直译和意译之间旷日持久的争论。--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 07:38, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo–translation and translationese cases.<br />
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它要求译者在不同的语言结构中尽可能充分地再现原语言的意义，从而既打破了传统的直译翻译的限制，又限制了译者自由和随意发挥。在某种程度上，功能对等理论极大地促进了包括散文在内的文学作品翻译发展，避免许多伪翻译和翻译腔的情况产生。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 09:01, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
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Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language.<br />
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同时，其缓解了语言学方面的归化和异化之间争论，从多学科的角度寻求归化与异化之间的平衡点。<br />
第三，功能对等理论给读者提供了用母语了解他国文化的机会。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 10:27, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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同时，在语言和文化角度，这缓解了归化和异化之间的争论，并从多学科的角度寻求归化与异化之间的平衡点。<br />
第三，功能对等理论给目标读者提供了用母语了解他国文化的机会。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:22, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同时，它从语言和文化的角度缓和了归化和异化的争论，并从多学科的角度找到了规划和异化的平衡点。<br />
第三，功能对等理论为目标读者提供了用母语了解其他国家文化的机会。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 14:26, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries.<br />
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传统上意义上讲，翻译就是把不同于我们的源语言转换成我们所使用的熟悉的语言。它可以让没有学过外语的人也能理解和欣赏一些用外语写的短语所要传达的信息。比如，如果一个人没有英语常识，他就会把“小菜一碟”认为是“一块蛋糕”。这个例子反映了两国人民之间的文化差异。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 05:11, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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传统上意义上讲，翻译就是把不同于我们的源语言转换成我们所使用的熟悉的语言,这样可以让没有学过外语的人也能理解和欣赏一些用外语写的短语所要传达的信息。比如，如果一个人没有英语常识，他就会把 “a piece of cake”（小菜一碟）认为是“一块蛋糕”。这个例子反映了两国人民之间的文化差异。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
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'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
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好的翻译能克服这些文化代沟并将其转化为受众所熟悉的内容。因此，译者最好能运用功能对等理论将“ a piece of cake” 翻译成著名的中国谚语“小菜一碟”。<br />
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3.1.2 功能对等理论的不足<br />
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尽管功能对等理论在翻译研究中做出许多贡献，它也不是没有其缺陷。 这里我列举了它的三个缺点。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 10:45, 29 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 10:45, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world.<br />
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首先，奈达的功能对等理论是从对《圣经》的翻译中总结得出的。事实上，这个理论并不能作为所有类型的翻译的指导原则。有些文本，比如一些具有深远的历史意义以及文化特色的文章、或者科学类文章、或是抒情类文章、电影字幕、政府报告等等需要的是不同的翻译标准。功能对等理论在恰当的领域中扮演着重要的角色，但其并非普遍适用的或者说万能的。虽然，确切来说世界上其实没有什么是万能的、完美无瑕的。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 10:28, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding.<br />
功能对等理论在特定的领域发挥着重要作用。该理论的正确使用能够帮助翻译人员打造现更出色的翻译。<br />
其次，功能对等理论要求用“通用语言”的书写目标文本，这样可以被受教育程度较低的读者理解及被具有较高文化素养的读者接受，但这在实践中很难实现。 可以说，这一理论的要求太苛刻了。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:41, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
其次，功能对等理论要求译文用一种“共同语言”书写，这种语言应该为文化程度较低的读者所理解，为高素养的读者所接受，但在实践中却很难做到。可以说，这一理论的要求过于苛刻。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 12:58, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
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In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture.<br />
虽然这是一个值得追求的目标，但几乎不可能实现，即使在同一个国家，不同的知识水平，不同的地域文化，甚至不同的生活经历都会导致不同的理解能力。<br />
此外，奈达还忽略了一件重要的事情，那就是，文化是非常复杂的。每个民族及其文化的产生、演变和创造都是不同的。外国作品中的一些文化意象可能是其他国家的读者从未见过、无法理解的。在翻译过程中，译者能在目的文化中找到与之对应的文化对象当然是更为理想的。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:50, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
尽管这是一个值得追求的目标，但是这几乎是不可能达到的。即使在同一个国家，不同的知识水平、地域文化甚至生活经历都可能产生不同的理解能力。此外，奈达还忽略了文化复杂性这一重要事实。每个国家以及它的文化的传承、发展和创造都是不同的。一些外国作品中的文化意象可能对另一个国家的读者来说是完全陌生和无法理解的。在翻译过程中，译者能在目标文化中找到与之对应的文化对象当然是更为理想的。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 11:44, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious.<br />
但是，在大多数情况下，对译者来说，找到那样一个令人满意的代替物是一件十分困难的事。这就使得“功能对能”很难到达，成为了翻译过程中的一个难题。这甚至显示出“功能对等”的缺陷，它让译者在翻译和解释某些文化负载词时感到十分困惑。实际上，文化差异是绝对的和不可避免的，而文化的相似性却是极少的。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 11:34, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但是实际上在大多数情况下，翻译人员很难找到这样的替代物。 这使得所谓的“功能对等”理论非常难以实现，甚至难以发现其漏洞，这也是翻译过程中的困难——译者通常很难翻译和解释具有特殊文化含义的某些单词。 实际上，不同文化之间的差异是绝对的且不可避免的，而相似之处却是罕见而宝贵的。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:46, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
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'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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例如，为了避免西方文化中“红色”一词的危险性和不恰当的情感，一些英国翻译人员将《红楼梦》一书的原标题翻译成《石头的故事》。然而，这种翻译无法传达隐藏在原始书名中的丰富，奢华，梦幻般的生活的信息，更不用说给西方读者带来同样的阅读反馈了。<br />
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'''3.1.3.我对功能对等理论的观点'''--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:22, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，为了避免西方文化中“红色”一词的危险性和不恰当的情感，一些英国翻译人员将《红楼梦》一书的原标题翻译成《石头记》。然而，这种翻译无法传达隐藏在原始书名中的丰富，奢华，梦幻般的生活的信息，更不用说给西方读者带来同样的阅读反馈了。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:34, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
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我们虽然都清楚功能对等理论对于整个翻译学的深远影响，但是它并不是一个普遍适用的理论。我们必须辩证地看待功能对等理论的优缺点。因为它是特定历史时期的产物，所以它与现代翻译理论可能前后矛盾。因此我们要用全面的观点看待奈达的翻译理论。总的来说，奈达的翻译思想是西方翻译研究宝库中的璀璨明珠。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 07:56, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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功能对等理论对整个翻译领域的深远影响是有目共睹的，但其并非是一个能普遍适用的理论。因此，我们必须要辩证地看待功能对等理论的优缺点。由于该理论是特定历史时期的产物，它与当代翻译理论可能存在一些不一致的地方。因此，我们应该全面地看待尼达的翻译理论。总的来说，奈达的翻译思想是西方翻译研究宝库中的璀璨明珠。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 10:01, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
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'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
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3.2 我对目的论的看法<br />
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3.2.1 目的论的长处与贡献<br />
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目的论有很多优势。首先，目的论作为当代西方翻译理论研究的重要突破，突破了语用层次上的功能对等理论的局限并在目的论原理的基础上提高了翻译的标准。目的论为译者在翻译实践中提供了另一种视角，这比起翻译策略要更具备可行性。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 02:38, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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目的论有许多优势。首先，该理论作为当代西方翻译理论的突破，打破了功能对等理论在语言层次上的局限性，并提出了受目的论原则主导的翻译标准。目的论为译者提供了另一个视角来进行翻译实践，这一视角让翻译策略的选择变得更加多元化。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:21, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.2 我对目的论的看法<br />
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3.2.1 目的论的优点与贡献<br />
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目的论有许多优势。首先，该理论作为当代西方翻译理论研究的重大突破，突破了功能对等理论在语言层次上的局限性，并提出了以目的论原则为主导的翻译标准。目的论为译者在翻译实践过程中提供了另一个视角，这一视角让翻译策略的选择变得更加多元化。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 00:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
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其次，目的论着眼于需要翻译的客户需求，指出客户对翻译过程产生的影响，打破了传统翻译理论的局限性。传统翻译理论只考虑了原作者、译者和目的语读者。从这个角度来看，目的翻译理论可以说是翻译研究史上的真正突破。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:11, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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其次，目的论强调了翻译客户的要求，指出了翻译客户对翻译过程的影响，突破了传统翻译理论只考虑原文作者、译者和目的读者的局限。从这个角度看，目的论可以说是翻译史上一个真正的突破。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:07, 31 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
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第三点，目的论强调译者的主动性和参与性，认为原文的作用主要就是提供信息。因此这个理论将翻译的重点从忠实地再现原文转向了译文的创作。它推翻了原文的中心地位，并且确立了译者和译文的中心地位，让所有的翻译学习者和研究者对翻译研究有了新的认识。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 00:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
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最后，目的论从文化角度更深层次地探究翻译的发展，从目的论的角度来看，翻译是在某一特定文化背景下的文化对比与跨文化交流，这对目的语言的读者是很有帮助的。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 04:00, 30 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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最后，目的论从文化角度进一步研究翻译的发展。目的论视角下的翻译是在一种特定的文化背景下的文化对比和跨文化交际，这对目的语的读者大有裨益。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:09, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
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Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context.<br />
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3.2.2.目的论的不足之处<br />
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然而，万物皆不完美，目的论当然也不例外。<br />
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首先，目的论允许翻译人员对原文进行一定程度上的改写，但它并没有指出翻译人员可以在多大程度上对原文进行改写。它给译者太多的自由发展空间，这很容易使译者在翻译时脱离原文语境。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:15, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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'''3.2.2. 目的论的缺陷'''<br />
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万事万物皆有不足，目的论当然也不例外。<br />
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首先，目的论允许译者在某种程度上改写原文，但并没有指出可以改写到何种程度。它给予译者太多的自由，容易让译者在翻译时脱离原文语境。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 01:04, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.2.2 目的论的不足<br />
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然而，万事皆有不足之处，目的论自然也不例外。<br />
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首先，目的论允许译者在一定程度上改写原文，却没有告知译者可以改写到何种程度。该理论给予译者过多自由，而这很容易会让译者在翻译时脱离原文语境--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 10:57, 29 October 2020 (UTC)。<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
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Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text.<br />
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此外，若译者为了达到所谓的 "翻译目的"，不择手段，就可能会歪曲原文的意思和不符合原文本的用法。 相应地，译者就会陷入胡乱翻译的境地，这就可能会违背原文本的意图。<br />
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其次，目的论过分强调翻译的目的、译者的目的和目标语言中的目的，因此，译者很容易在目标文本中改掉或省略原文本中的许多特色。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:55, 28 October 2020 (UTC)XiaoTing<br />
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此外，如果译者为达到所谓的“翻译目的”，不择手段，那么原文的含义和用法就会被歪曲。相应地，译者也会陷入滥译的漩涡之中，这可能会违背原文的目的，<br />
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其次，目的论过度强调了翻译的目的、译者的目的以及目的语的目的，因此，译者很容易在译文中改变或者省略掉许多原文中存在的文体特征。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:53, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling <br />
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此外，如果译者为了达到所谓的“翻译目的”，肆无忌惮地利用各种手段，源文本的原意和用法可能会被扭曲。因此，译者将陷入随机翻译的漩涡，这可能违背原文的意图。<br />
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其次，目的论过分强调翻译的目的、译者的目的和目标语言的目的，使译者很容易在目标文本中改变或省略原文的许多文体特征。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 13:41, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
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Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards.<br />
这使得它不适合某些文体，比如诗歌。因为如果翻译者出于迎合翻译读者的目的，将诗歌翻译成散文或描写段落，他或她可能更像是重写或重新创造一些东西，而不是翻译。翻译毕竟是基于原文的，否则就不能称之为翻译。<br />
最后但并非最不重要的是，它有成千上万的读者。为了满足不同人群的需要，翻译必须采用多种标准。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:03, 31 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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这使得它不适用于某些文体，比如诗歌。因为如果译者出于迎合译文读者的目的，将诗歌翻译成散文或描写性段落，他或她可能更像是在重写或重新创造，而不是翻译。翻译毕竟是基于原文的，否则就不能称之为翻译。<br />
最后但同样重要的是读者成千上万，为了满足不同人群的需要，翻译必须采用多种标准。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 05:47, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
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当各种标准之间出现矛盾时，译者就会无所适从，多重标准就相当于没有标准。例如,如果一个译者接收到翻译客户的翻译任务,他不仅应该忠实地翻译这首歌，同时也要保留原始文本的美，让儿童和成人都能欣赏，那么在这三个相互矛盾的翻译要求下，译者可能会感觉完成翻译任务十分困难。<br />
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'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
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3.2.3.我对目的论的看法<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 10:09, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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当各种标准之间存在矛盾时，翻译者将茫然无措，多重标准就等同于没有标准。 例如，如果译者接到翻译客户的任务，他不但要忠实地翻译这首歌曲，而且还要保留原始文本的美感，让儿童和成人均能欣赏，面对这三重矛盾的翻译要求，译员可能会觉得很难完成任务。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 01:55, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies.<br />
<br />
每种翻译理论或多或少都有其不足之处，目的论也不例外。从某种程度上说，上述目的论的不足之处也是目的论的一个主要特征。这一鲜明的理论特征，使目的论从众多翻译理论中脱颖而出，吸引了众多学者和翻译爱好者的注意。作者认为，目的论对翻译理论发展的贡献及其在翻译实践中的指导意义远远大于其不足之处。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:46, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
<br />
'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities.<br />
<br />
人们应该以更加客观和理性的态度对待它，并让它在翻译领域中发挥应有的作用。 一般来说，汉斯·维米尔（Hans Vermeer）提出的目的论是西方翻译理论研究的重大理论突破，对指导成功的翻译实践也起着重要的作用。<br />
<br />
'''四，结论'''<br />
<br />
通过以上比较，我们发现功能对等理论和目的论都有各自的优势和劣势，两者之间的差异大于相似之处。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:30, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
人们应该以更加客观和理性的态度对待它，并让它在翻译领域中发挥应有的作用。 一般来说，汉斯·维米尔提出的翻译目的论是西方翻译理论研究的重大理论突破，对成功的翻译实践具有重要的指导作用。<br />
<br />
'''四，结论'''<br />
<br />
通过以上的比较，我们发现功能对等理论和目的论各有优缺点，其差异大于相似性。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:38, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''四，结论'''<br />
<br />
通过上述比较，我们发现功能对等理论和目的论各有其优缺点，且其异多于同。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 07:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
<br />
功能对等不仅强调译文与原文在形式与内容上的对等，也旨在实现读者反应上的对等。目的论可以解决一些功能对等理论无法解决的问题，同时拓宽了翻译理论的研究视角，某种程度上来说是对功能对等理论的继承与发展。这两种理论虽然应用范围不同，但各有优点。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 11:06, 31 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
功能对等关注的是译文的内容和形式与原文的对等，以及读者的反应上的对等。目的论能够解决一些功能对等理论不能解决的问题，并能拓宽翻译理论研究的视角，这在某种程度上是对功能对等理论的继承和发展。这两种理论的应用范围不同，但两者各有其独特的优点。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 01:28, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
'''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
'''Research background'''<br />
<br />
Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''功能对等理论与目的论的比较研究'''<br />
<br />
'''引言'''<br />
<br />
'''研究背景'''<br />
<br />
当代西方翻译理论正蓬勃发展，为翻译研究提供了全新的视角。 在上个世纪六十年代，尤金·奈达（Eugene A. Nida）提出了一种基于读者反应的翻译理论，即“功能对等理论”。 随着时代的发展，人们对复杂的翻译现象有了更加深入的了解。 对等论将翻译置于语言层面的范畴中。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 06:46, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
<br />
然而，翻译的本质不仅是纯语言的转换，更是不同文化之间基于语言形式的交流。20世纪70年代，西方出现了以目的语文化为导向的翻译研究，打破了传统翻译理论的文本中心论，使译者更加关注译文和目的语接受者，关注译文的社会功能和交际功能。德国功能主义翻译理论摆脱了当时盛行的等价理论的束缚，拓宽了翻译理论研究的领域。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 10:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但是，翻译的本质不仅是纯语言的转换，而且是基于语言形式的不同文化之间的交流。 20世纪70年代，针对目标语言文化的翻译研究在西方出现，打破了传统的文本集中主义翻译论，这使翻译人员更加关注翻译和目标语言的接受者，翻译的社会和交际功能。 德国功能主义翻译理论摆脱了当时盛行的对等理论的束缚，拓宽了翻译理论研究的领域。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:29, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''Significance of the study'''<br />
<br />
By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
<br />
'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
<br />
This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response.<br />
<br />
该研究的重要性<br />
<br />
通过对比这两个翻译理论的异同，可以加深我们对它们的理解。因此，当我们在翻译的时候，可以根据具体情况选择最合适的翻译理论来对翻译进行指导。所以，将功能对等理论和目的论进行对比是非常必要的。<br />
<br />
章节布局<br />
<br />
本文将分为三个章节。第一章节简要介绍了功能对等，例如功能对等的定义和它的四个标准：传递信息；传达原文精神和风格；语言流畅；相似的读者反应。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:43, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
<br />
'''研究意义'''<br />
<br />
通过比较这两种翻译理论的异同，可以加深我们对它们的理解。 因此，在翻译的过程中，我们可以根据具体情况，选择恰当的翻译理论来协助我们进行翻译。所以，将功能对等理论与目的论进行比较是非常必要的。<br />
<br />
'''章节布局'''<br />
<br />
本文将分为三个章节。第一章节简要介绍功能对等理论，例如功能对等的定义和它的四个标准：传达原文信息；传达原文精神和风貌；语言通顺；读者反映相似。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 07:27, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
第二章包括三个部分：目的论的发展、目的论的定义和目的论的三个原则。最后一章分为两部分：这两个理论的不同和相同之处。<br />
'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
1.功能对等理论的简介<br />
'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
1.1功能对等理论的定义<br />
Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response.<br />
功能对等理论是著名美国译者尤金·奈达翻译理论的核心部分。该理论重视目标语接受者的反应，也就是说，目标语接受者和原语言接受者的阅读反应一致。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 08:32, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
<br />
第二章分为三个部分，即目的论的发展、目的论的定义和目的论的三条规则。最后一章分为两个部分：两种理论的异同。<br />
<br />
'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
<br />
1.功能对等理论的简介<br />
<br />
'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
<br />
1.1功能对等理论的定义<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response.<br />
<br />
功能对等理论是著名美国译者尤金·奈达翻译理论的核心部分。该理论重视目标语接受者的反应，也就是说，目标语接受者和原语言接受者的阅读反应一致。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 10:12, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation.<br />
<br />
他认为翻译不光要确保信息传递的正确性以及词语意义上的信息对等，也要在翻译的过程中考虑目标读者的文化背景和行为习惯，在风格，语义以及其他方面实现信息对等，这就是说，要实现语言的功能对等。在翻译的过程中，我们不能只考虑一些经常出现的因素，比如说，词汇和语法，也要注意一些语言学的因素，比如说文本，文化，社会背景等，而这对于翻译来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:02, 28 October 2020 (UTC) Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
他认为翻译不仅是为了保证交换信息的正确性，实现词汇层面上的信息对等，也需要考虑目的语接受者的文化背景和行为习惯，在翻译过程中实现风格、语义和其它方面的功能对等，也就是实现语言的功能对等。在翻译的过程中，我们不仅需要考虑词汇和语法等形式因素，还需要注意到例如语境、文化和社会背景等对翻译很重要的语言因素。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:05, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
<br />
'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
<br />
'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
<br />
奈达对翻译的定义表明，翻译不仅在词汇意义上是对等的，而且在语义，文本和样式上也是对等的。 翻译传达的信息包括表面词汇信息和深层文化信息。 这种“动态对等”包括四个方面：1.词汇对等； 2.词汇对等。 句法等价； 3.文本对等； 4.风格上的对等。在这四个方面中，奈达认为“意义最重要，形式是第二”（张春柏，1998：50）。<br />
1.2功能对等理论的准则奈达的功能对等翻译理论有四个标准（奈达，2001：117）：<br />
1.2.1传达信息--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 12:56, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
<br />
Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
<br />
“总统的史学家......”<br />
<br />
It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
<br />
<br />
“信息”包括原文传递的各种信息：语义、风格、文学形象、场景和心理效应。在功能等同理论中，“传递信息”的标准是指译者向目标语言接收者传递的目标语言信息与原作者向目标语言接收者传递的原始文本信息基本相同。<br />
<br />
例如：“总统历史学家...”<br />
<br />
目前还不清楚“总统历史学家”传达给中国读者的信息与“总统历史学家”传达给英国读者的信息是否相同。然而，根据奈达的功能等同理论，译者将其翻译成通过添加词语，使中国读者能够正确理解原文中“总统历史学家”的真正含义。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
<br />
From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text.<br />
<br />
Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
<br />
1.2.2 传达原作的精神和风格<br />
在奈达看来，翻译就是用译入语以最自然的方式再现原文，首先是意义，然后是精神风格，从而使译文读者产生与原文读者基本相同的心理反应。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 05:32, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.2.2 传达原作的精神和风格'''<br />
<br />
在奈达看来，翻译就是用译入语以最自然的方式再现原文，首先是意义，然后是精神风格，从而使译文读者产生与原文读者基本相同的心理反应。<br />
<br />
例如：“来吧，朋友！”--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 10:40, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
<br />
'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
<br />
这是中央电视台播出的一档栏目。如果将其译为“come on, friends!“，在形式上似乎与原文相似，但作为一档栏目名还不够庄重。“庄重”展现了原中文名“来吧，朋友！”的风格，应在翻译中再现。因此，” A time to make friends”虽然在形式上与原文大相庭径，但却准确地讲原文的精神内涵传达给了读者。<br />
<br />
“1.2.3 流利的语言：即完全符合目的语的规范和准则。”--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:27, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这是央视播出的一档节目。如果将其翻译成“come on，friends！”，在形式上似乎与原名相似，但作为一档节目名还不够庄重。而“庄重”正是原中文名“来吧，朋友！”所展现的风格，应当在翻译中再现。因此，译为“A time to make friends（交友时光）”虽然在形式上与原名大相径庭，但是却准确的将原名的精神风貌传达给了目的语读者。<br />
1.2.3 语言流利：即完全符合目的语的规范和习惯。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:09, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text.<br />
<br />
此标准意味着在传达原文信息和再现其神韵时，翻译过程不应受到原文语言形式和结构的限制，而应把握原文的内涵和精神。 --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:47, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example：“车来了！”<br />
<br />
例如翻译中文“车来了！”<br />
<br />
“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
<br />
需根据情况译成：“Here comes the car（小汽车）/truck（卡车）/bus（公交车）/minibus（面包车）/lorry（货车）/taxi（出租车）！” --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:47, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
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汉语中的范畴词“车”可用来替换任何类型的车辆，但是英语不能这样。相反，英语习惯使用确切词。因此，把相似的汉语词汇翻译成英语词汇时，必须搞清楚交通工具的具体意义，然后根据英语表达习惯，翻译成具体的英语交通工具名称。如果你过马路时，提醒你的同伴“车来了” 。应该根据英语表达习惯，将“车来了”翻译成“当心”，这样英语读者才能真正理解原文的意义。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 11:47, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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汉语中，范畴词“车”用来指任何类型的车。但英语中没有这种用法。与此相反，英语习惯使用具体词。因此，当将汉语翻译成英语时，有必要弄清交通运输的各种各样的方式，并根据英语表达的习惯将其用具体的词翻译出来。当你过马路时，提醒你的同伴说“车来了！”根据英语表达习惯，你应该将“车来了！”翻译成“当心！”这样英语读者才能真正理解原文的意思。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:53, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
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The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader.<br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
前两个标准关注语言的传播信息,内容和风格,而后者两个关注观众对翻译的接受度:目标读者与目标文本之间的关系同原读者与目标文本之间的关系基本上是相同的,这样才能达到译者和作者之间精神上的契合,目标读者也能得到和原始读者相同的感受。例子:“像雪一样白。”--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:43, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
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'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
有时候它也能翻译成洁白无瑕，因为在译入语文化语境中，人们可能不知道雪为何物。我们也可以把英语中“to grow like mushroom”（像蘑菇一样成长起来）翻译成"如雨后春笋般地成长起来" 因为英语里的"mushroom"(蘑菇)就与中文里的“春笋”完全对等。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 11:06, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory.<br />
汉斯•J•弗米尔提出的目的论是德国功能主义理论的核心，该理论认为翻译的目的决定翻译方法和策略。弗米尔认为译者在翻译过程中应当遵守三大基本规则，即目的论，连贯性和忠实<br />
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'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
2.1 目的论的发展--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
目的论作为德国功能主义理论，是由汉斯•J•弗米尔提出的。该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译时将采用的翻译方法和策略。弗米尔认为译者在翻译过程中应该遵循三大基本原则，分别是目的原则，连贯原则和忠实原则。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 11:47, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle.<br />
20世纪70年代以前，翻译研究的焦点是对等。但实际上，这种对等是很难实现的，因为文化之间的差异是很难消除的。为了解决这一问题，翻译理论家们提出了新的理论，运用功能和交际的方法来研究翻译。在此背景下，功能目的论不断发展，大胆地摆脱了对等的束缚，以目的论作为一般原则。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:52, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在20世纪70年代以前，翻译研究的重点是对等。 实际上，由于很难消除文化之间的差异，因此很难实现这种对等。 为了解决这个问题，翻译理论家提出了新的理论，运用功能性和交际性的方法来研究翻译。 在这种情况下，功能主义的目的论继续发展，并以目的为一般原则大胆地摆脱了对等的束缚。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:31, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪70年代以前，翻译研究的重点在于对等。事实上，这种对等很难实现，因为文化之间的差异是很难消除的。为了解决这一问题，翻译理论家们提出了新的理论，运用功能和交际的方法来研究翻译。在这种背景下，功能主义目的论不断发展，并以目的为总原则大胆地摆脱了对等的束缚。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
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The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory.<br />
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因此，在行为理论和跨文化交际的框架下对翻译进行研究，这为世界翻译理论，包括汉语翻译开辟了一条新的道路（李长川，2009:11）。目的论的发展经历了以下四个阶段：<br />
第一阶段：凯瑟琳娜·赖斯首先将对等概念引入翻译批评，提出了功能翻译理论的原型。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，在行为理论和跨文化交际的框架下对翻译进行研究，这为世界翻译理论，包括汉语翻译开辟了一条新的道路（李长川，2009:11）。目的论的发展经历了以下四个阶段：<br />
第一阶段：凯瑟琳娜·赖斯首先将对等概念引入翻译批评，提出了功能主义理论的原型。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:18, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
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On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
一方面，瑞斯（Reiss）仍然坚持以原文为中心的对等理论，并指出理想的翻译应从概念内容、语言形式和交际功能等方面与原文对等。她认为理想的翻译应该是全面的交际翻译。另一方面，瑞斯(Reiss)也意识到某种对等是不可能的。例如，译文和原文有不同的功能。在这种情况下，瑞斯(Reiss)认为译者应该优先考虑译文的功能特征，而不是对等原则。(张景兰，2004:1) 瑞斯(Reiss)的研究为目的论奠定了基础。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 14:26, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
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第二阶段：瑞斯（Reiss）的学生汉斯·J.·福尔米尔（Hans J. Vermeer）提出了目的论。根据这一理论，翻译的目的成为翻译过程中最重要的原则。福尔米尔认为，翻译是一种人类活动，而正因为任何一种人类活动都是带有目的的，因此翻译的目的应该在翻译开始之前就决定下来。福尔米尔还认为，翻译应该从原文章出发，是一种必须通过协商而完成的有目的的人类行为。此外，翻译活动必须遵循三个基本原则，其中目的原则是最重要的。在提出这三大原则后，评判翻译好坏的标准不再是“对等”，取而代之的是：翻译是否完全达到了预期目标。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第二阶段：瑞斯（Reiss）有一个学生，叫做汉斯·J.·福尔米尔（Hans J. Vermeer）。正是他提出了目的论。基于这一理论，翻译过程中最重要的原则成为翻译的目的。福尔米尔认为，翻译是一种人类活动。由于任何一种人类活动都是目的性的，因此翻译的目的应该在翻译开始之前就定下来。福尔米尔还认为，翻译应该从原文出发，必须通过协商而完成，是有目的的人类行为。此外，翻译活动必须遵循三大基本原则，目的原则是其中最重要的。在提出这三大原则后，评判翻译好坏的标准不再是“对等”，取而代之的是：翻译是否完全达到了预期目标。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 07:12, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
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The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose.<br />
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第三阶段：霍尔兹·曼塔利在交际理论和行为理论的基础上提出了翻译行为论。翻译行为论是把翻译视为受目的驱使、以翻译结果为导向的人与人之间的相互作用，聚焦于将翻译过程当作复合信息传递物在不同文化间的转移。（杰里米·芒迪，2001：77）。翻译是一个交际的过程，牵涉到一系列的角色和参与者。曼塔利把文本看成是实现交际功能的纯理论工具，认为文本的内在价值完全服务于其目的。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 14:41, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第三阶段。在交流理论和行动理论的基础上，霍尔兹·曼塔利提出了翻译行动。翻译行动将翻译看作是以目的为导向、以结果为目的的人际互动，并把翻译过程看作是涉及跨文化传递的信息传递化合物（杰里米·芒迪，2001：77）。翻译是一个涉及一系列角色和角色的交际过程曼塔里将文本视为实现交际功能的纯粹工具，认为文本的内在价值完全服从于其目的。 --[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:22, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
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The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory.<br />
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译者仅需对目标语言负责，且目的语文本应该完全独立于源语文本，这就进一步发展了功能主义翻译理论。<br />
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The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
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第四阶段：克里斯蒂安·诺德全面地总结并完善了功能理论，他提出“功能加忠诚”的概念，这一概念系统的阐明了翻译文本分析中需要考虑的内外部要素，以及基于源语文本提出符合翻译目的的翻译策略的方法。<br />
--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:59, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
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Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78).<br />
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2.2 目的论的定义<br />
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目的论最初由德国学者汉斯·弗米尔于1978年提出。“skopos是一个希腊词汇，意为‘目标’或‘目的’，弗米尔出于翻译和翻译行动的目的将其作为一个技术术语引入到翻译理论中。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 13:01, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.2 目的论的定义<br />
目的论最初由德国学者汉斯·弗米尔于1978年提出。“skopos”是一个希腊词汇，意为“目标”或“目的”，弗米尔出于翻译和翻译行为的目的将其作为一个专业术语引用到翻译理论中。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 14:43, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
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翻译活动有许多目的，弗米尔将其分为三类：译者基本目的，例如谋生；目标文本的交际目的，例如启发读者；选择一些特殊翻译策略或步骤以实现的目的，例如字对字翻译旨在表现源语言结构特征。一般而言，目的论指源文本交际目的。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:41, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
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'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
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In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
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'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
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In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
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2.3 目的论的三条基本规则<br />
这部分将通过例子来呈现对于这些规则的具体分析。<br />
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2.3.1 翻译目的规则<br />
在目的论的三条规则中，目的论是任何翻译都应遵循的主要原则。维米尔关于此规则的解释如下：--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 08:19, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.3 目的论的三条基本规则<br />
这部分将通过示例对这些规则进行详细分析。<br />
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2.3.1 翻译目的规则<br />
在目的论的三条规则中，目的论是任何翻译都应遵循的首要原则。维米尔关于此规则的解释如下：--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:57, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.3 目的论的三条基本规则<br />
这部分将通过示例对这些规则进行详细分析。<br />
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2.3.1 翻译目的规则<br />
在目的论的三条规则中，目的论需遵循的首要原则。弗米尔关于此规则的解释如下：--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 14:41, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
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''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20)<br />
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每一篇文章都是为一个特定的目的而制作的，并且应该为这个目的服务。因此，目的论的原则是这样的:翻译/解释/说话/写作时要确保你的文本/译文是在对应的情境中、是和对应的人群、并且是准确按照想要的方式发挥作用。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 11:50, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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每一篇文章的产出都有一个特定的目的，并且文章应该服务于这个目的。翻译目标论的规则应该如下:以一定的方式进行翻译/解释/说话/写作，使你的文本/翻译在它所使用的情境中适用，这种方式对想使用这种方法的人来说也是有效的，它也能准确按照人们想要的方式发挥作用。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 14:03, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
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Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
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无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
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因此，目的论认为任何翻译动作都是由翻译目的决定的。也就是说，“只要目的正确，可以不择手段”(Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101)，翻译的目的决定了翻译方法和策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:24, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，目的论认为任何翻译行为都是由翻译目的决定的。也就是说，“只要目的正确，可以不择手段”(Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101)，翻译的目的决定了翻译方法和策略。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 09:18, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
<br />
如果采用直译的方法，这个句子可译为“我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”。但这样的译文没有一点美感，也就谈不上雅致。鉴于广告的最终目的是诱导消费者购买其所推销的产品和服务，这则广告采用意译的方法，结合中国传统文化，使之像一首古诗，韵味古朴。它既表达了广告的含义，又注入了艺术的特质，让香奈儿五号香水充满了魔力，满足了一些人对高品质生活的追求，也给消费者留下了深刻的印象。因此可以称之为成功的翻译。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:37, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
<br />
Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view.<br />
通顺原则<br />
通顺原则又叫文体内部通顺原则。这一原则下，文本内容必须通顺，读得懂并且合乎情理。换句话说，译文读者读译文时，可以结合自身已有的知识文化背景来理解译文。任何一种文本都能传递信息，有它自己的功能。但是从语言学角度来讲，文本背后要表达的信息和功能并不能被读者一眼看出。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:46, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
2.3.2 连贯性原则<br />
连贯性原则又叫文内连贯原则。这一原则要求译文必须具有连贯性、可读性以及可接受性。也就是说，译文接受者能够根据自身文化和知识背景理解译文。任意一篇文本都能传递信息有其功能，但从语言学角度来看，文本的信息和功能不是一直都一目了然的。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 08:42, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
<br />
Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
译者根据目的规则选择适合目的的方面和组件，然后通过语言处理来翻译源文本，使翻译后的文本成为新的信息提供者。 在语言处理过程中，翻译人员必须关注翻译在翻译语言中的可读性和可理解性。 只有翻译在TL接收者的交流环境中才有意义，才能将源文本的文化和信息有效地传递给目标语言阅读器。 <br />
<br />
例子：这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 03:20, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose.<br />
这是旅行宣传的一部分。为了追求翻译的流畅和连贯，将原有介词短语改为主谓结构的句子，这使句子间的关系更加紧凑。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 16:03, 1 November 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
<br />
'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
<br />
<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
<br />
Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
<br />
OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
<br />
农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
<br />
开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
<br />
忠实原则也称为语际连贯法则，它指出源文本和目标文本之间必须有连贯性。这与严复的“信”原则有相似之处。忠实原则可保持原文的状态，并限制不同翻译目的的翻译行为。然而，忠实原则的概念是相对的。“信”的形式和程度取决于翻译的目的和译者对原文的理解。<br />
例如：免费进入农场，带狗请牵绳<br />
开放时间：3月1日—11月30日 上午10点—下午5点--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 15:32, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists.<br />
<br />
There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
<br />
'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
<br />
'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
<br />
The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as much as possible.<br />
<br />
本章将主要讨论功能对等理论和目的论的异同。<br />
<br />
3.1 差异<br />
<br />
3.1.1 理论基础的差异<br />
<br />
美国的结构主义语言学和人类语言学直接影响了早期的对等理论。后来，奈达将翻译研究与词义结构分析法、语义成分分析法、以及二十世纪四五十年代流行于美国的乔姆斯基的转换生成语法相结合，并在语言表达和翻译过程中采用结构分析，这些都为翻译研究注入新鲜血液（陈刚，2011:45）。将翻译传播理论和跨文化内涵的运用作为起点，奈达更正了乔姆斯基的深度转换语法理论，反而更加注重信息接受者的心理，同时也尽可能地激发接受者的潜能。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 15:17, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
本章将主要讨论功能对等理论与目的论之间的异同。<br />
<br />
3.1差异<br />
<br />
3.1.1不同的理论基础<br />
<br />
早期的对等理论直接受到美国结构主义语言学和人类语言学的影响。 后来，奈达将翻译研究与二十世纪四五十年代在美国流行的句法结构分析方法、语义成分分析方法和乔姆斯基的转换生成语法相结合，对语言表达和翻译过程进行了结构分析，为翻译研究注入了新鲜血液（陈刚，2011：145）。 奈达以传播理论和跨文化内容为起点，修订了乔姆斯基的深层转换语法，关注信息接收者的心理，并尽可能地激发了信息接收者的潜力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 00:58, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human.<br />
<br />
目的论于20世纪70年代末起源于德国。它批判了基于语言学的翻译理论，认为其过于注重形式，并在传播理论，信息理论，行为主义理论，语篇语言学和文本理论的基础上发展而来。基于行为主义理论，目的论提出翻译行为的概念，将翻译引入了新的领域。也就是说，它将翻译视作是人类有目的、有意识的跨文化交流活动。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 09:12, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
德国斯科普斯理论是 20 世纪 70 年代末兴起的一所新兴学派。批评说，基于语言学派的翻译理论注重形式，是在交际理论、信息理论、行为理论、话语语言学和文本理论的基础上发展起来的。基于行为理论，斯科波斯理论提出了翻译行为的概念，将翻译拓展到一个新的领域。也就是说，翻译是人类一种有目的、有意识的跨文化交际行为。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
<br />
'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
<br />
顾名思义，目的论认为翻译活动是一种“行动”，任何行动都有其目标或目的。目的论的代表人物之一汉斯•J•维米尔用简洁的语言概括了目的论的精髓:目的决定方式，即翻译的目的决定翻译过程。<br />
<br />
3.1.2不同的翻译原则和标准--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 14:36, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees.<br />
<br />
奈达的功能对等理论是指对源语信息最切近的自然对等。“自然”在这里的意思是译文必须遵守目的语的语言和文化，与目标读者的语境和需求相一致。奈达清楚说明了，这里的“对等”并非是数学上的“相等”，但“近似”是指不同程度的功能对等的近似。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 13:32, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
奈达的功能对等理论指的是“对源语信息最切近的自然对等”。此处的“自然”指的是翻译必须遵从目的语的语言和文化，与语境相一致，并且满足目标读者的需求。奈达清晰地阐明了这里的“对等”并非数学意义上的“相等”，但“近似”是不同程度的功能对等。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:16, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
<br />
根据奈达的动态对等理论，译者必须遵循以下四条规则以实现“贴切而自然的对等”：（1）传达意思；（2）传达原作的精神和风格：（3）流畅；（4）使读者产生相似的反应。 为了实现以上四条标准，内容和形式会产生一次又一次的冲突。 有时内容要让步于形式，有时形式需让步于内容。两者构成了一个统一体。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 00:48, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
根据奈达的动态对等理论，为了达到“接近自然的对等”，译者必须遵循四个标准：（1）传达意义；（2）传达原作的精神和风格；（3）流畅；（4）读者思维。为了达到这四个标准，内容和形式之间会经常出现矛盾：要么是内容让位给形式，要么是形式让位给内容。这二者构成一个统一的整体。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:13, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
根据奈达以上的动态对等理论，为了达到“接近自然的对等”，译者必须遵循四个标准：（1）传达意义；（2）传达原作的精神和风格；（3）流畅；（4）读者思维。为了达到这四个标准，内容和形式之间偶尔会出现矛盾：要么是内容让位给形式，要么是形式让位给内容。这二者构成一个统一的整体。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:22, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand.<br />
目的论主张翻译应遵循三条原则：目的性原则、连贯性原则和忠实性原则，其中目的性原则是最高原则。其主要目的是使译文在目的语环境中达到目的语接受者的预期功能。除了遵循最高原则外，翻译还必须遵循连贯原则和忠实原则。前者要求译文“语内连贯”，即译文需要符合目的语的交际语境和文化背景，以便译文读者能够理解。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:00, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
目的论主张翻译应遵循三个规则：目的性原则、连贯性原则和忠实性原则，其中目的性原则是最高原则。其主要目的是使译文在目标语言环境中达到目标语言接受者的预期功能。 除了最高原则外，翻译还必须遵循连贯性原则和忠实性规则。前者要求译文要“语内连贯”，即翻译需要满足目标语言的交际语境和文化背景，以便目标读者可以理解。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 08:41, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
<br />
But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”.<br />
<br />
后者要求翻译时源文本和目标文本保持一致。就是说，译文应该应可能地模仿源文本，无论是形式上上的模仿还是内容上的模仿都是允许的，这取决于翻译的目的。后两个规则从属于最高规则--目的论规则。<br />
<br />
但是，这也让翻译理论家产生了疑问。译者可以为这个目的做任何事情吗？接着，诺德提出了“功能加忠诚”理论。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 01:18, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
诺德认为：没有原文本就没有翻译，再创不属于翻译；“译者既要对原文本也要对翻译环境负责，既要对原信息发出者也要对翻译接收者负责。”译者的这种责任就是“忠诚”（张梅芳，2005：60-65）“功能加忠诚”的原则避免了目的论的极端，并对其进行了补充，既强调了译者的责任也限制了译者的自由。目的论认为，翻译是否成功取决于原文本的目的是否实现，并且这种期待也反映了目标语读者的要求。因为目标语读者的反应不同，目的论的翻译标准因此也是多元化的。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 07:32, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
'3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
<br />
Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
<br />
3.1.3 不同的文化方向<br />
奈达试图克服文化差异，消除源文本中的文化氛围。 他的理论主要针对原文。也就是说，源语言文化强调源语言和目标语言之间的文化环境的一致性。同时，奈达是语言通用性的支持者。他的理论反映了结构主义语言学的翻译思想，即客观世界的“镜象反射”和语言表达的普遍性。译者的完全模仿和独立性表达了其文化的价值，尤其是目标语言文化和源语言文化的文化一致性。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 13:52, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.1.3 不同的文化方向<br />
奈达试图克服文化差异和消除源文本中的文化氛围。 他的理论主要针对原文。也就是说，源语言文化强调源语言和目标语言之间文化环境的一致性。同时，奈达是语言通用性的支持者。他的理论反映了结构主义语言学的翻译思想，即客观世界的“镜象反射”和语言表达的普遍性。译者的完全模仿和独立性表达了其文化的价值，尤其是目标语言文化和源语言文化的文化一致性。<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
弗美尔把翻译看做一种有目的的行为，第一是因为它的结果，也就是目的语。目的语是文化导向的，而目的语的文化决定目的语的适合性。因此，目的论认为翻译是一种针对源语文化或目的语文化的不可逆的信息传递。不存在中间立场，这是一种跨文化的交际行为，是交流的，也是文化的。此外，目的论以宏观后现代文化为导向，特别是目的语文化的习惯，传统和规范。（范德瑞 2019:67）<br />
'''3.2 相似之处'''--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:01, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
弗米尔认为翻译是一种有目的的行为，理由首先是翻译的结果，即译文。译文以目的文化为导向，目的文化决定了译文的适合性。因此，目的论认为翻译是一种针对源语文化或目的语文化的不可逆的信息传递。不存在中间立场，这是一种跨文化的交际行为，是交流的，也是文化的。没有中间立场，它是跨文化交际行为，是交际和文化行为。此外，目的论的研究对象是宏观的后现代文化语境，特别是目的语文化的习惯、传统和规范。（范德瑞 2019:67）<br />
'''3.2 相似之处'''--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 11:12, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
<br />
译文以目的文化为导向，目的语文化决定了译文是否合适。因此，目的论认为翻译是一种不可逆转的源语文化的信息传递或目的语文化中的语言传递。翻译没有中间媒介，它是跨文化交际行为，是交际性和文化性行为。此外，目的论的导向是宏观的后现代文化语境，特别是目的语文化的习惯、传统和规范(范德瑞，2019:67)。<br />
<br />
3.2相似性<br />
<br />
3.2.1两者都是翻译和语言功能的结合<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 02:36, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
译文面向目的语文化，目的语文化决定了译文的适用性。因此，目的论认为翻译是一种信息到源语文化或目的语文化中语言的传递，而这种传递是不可逆转的。翻译没有中间立场，它是跨文化交际行为，是交际性和文化性行为。此外，目的论面向后现代文化的宏观语境，尤其是目的语文化的习惯、传统和规范(范德瑞，2019:67)。<br />
<br />
3.2相似之处<br />
<br />
3.2.1两者都是翻译和语言功能的结合<br />
--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:59, 29 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers.<br />
<br />
虽然由汉斯·弗米尔和克里斯蒂娜·诺德提出的目的论与奈达提出的功能对等理论是不同流派在不同时期提出的翻译理论，但二者之间存在着许多内在联系和共同之处。毫无疑问，两种理论都有其存在的合理性，并在各自所处年代的翻译活动中取得了进一步的发展。不管是“目的论”还是“功能对等理论”，二者的最终目的都是为了实现不同语言之间的顺畅交流，减少信息交换时产生的误解和冲突。尤其值得注意的是，两者都将翻译与语言功能相结合，注重语言功能在翻译中起到的作用。持目的论的理论家认为，翻译是一项带有目的的交流活动，翻译过程是由预期功能或者说翻译目的所决定的。而翻译目的很大程度上受到目标接收者、语境以及目标接收者的文化背景所影响。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 14:16, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
<br />
Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural."<br />
<br />
因此，译者应根据客户的要求，结合翻译目的和目标接受者的具体情况，来决定原文信息的取舍、翻译策略的应运和译文的表达。<br />
<br />
尼达还从语言功能的角度提出了功能对等的翻译原则，并将翻译与语言功能相结合。他指出，由于语言和文化的差异，翻译不可能得到原文和译文之间的形式上对等，而只能得到功能对等。各种语言的表达方式虽然不同，但它们具有相同的表达能力和相同或相似的语言功能，即表达功能、认知功能、人际功能、信息功能、命令功能、移情功能、同情功能、移情功能和审美功能。如果这些方面的翻译基本相同，那么就实现了翻译的功能对等。根据这一观点，他提出“原始内容的保留必须改变形式，改变程度，必须依赖于不同语言在语言和文化之间的差距。”--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 01:46, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
<br />
Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world.<br />
<br />
为了产生一定效果，翻译时对形式和内容的调整，就是功能理论的应用。 但是，奈达并没有往功能主义的方向上进一步发展，而是专注于对等概念。 因此，他的理论从根本上不同于德国功能翻译学派的观点。<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2都强调读者的角色和翻译的可读性。'''<br />
<br />
维米尔（Vermeer）认为，翻译的接受者，即读者，是翻译要求的重要组成部分，是确定翻译目的的最重要因素之一。 目标语言的接收者是译文的接收者或听众，具有自己特定文化圈的知识，期望和交流需求。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:33, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
翻译从形式到内容的调整就是功能理念的具体运用，从而产生效果。但是奈达没有进一步往功能主义方向发展，而是仍然聚焦于对等概念。因此，他的理论从本质上不同于德国功能翻译学派的观点。<br />
<br />
都强调读者这一角色和翻译的可理解性<br />
维米尔认为译文受众，也就是读者，作为翻译要求中重要部分，是决定翻译目的的最重要的因素之一；目的语接收者是译文受众和倾听者，具有自己特定文化世界的知识、期望和交际需要。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 06:56, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
<br />
翻译是目的语环境下的文本，在目的语的语境下针对于目的语和目的语读者。此外，目的论的连贯原则强调翻译必须符合“文本连贯”这一准则，也就是，只有译文受众完全懂得译文的意思，译文才有意义。由此可见，目的论看重读者这一角色以及译文的可理解性。<br />
奈达的功能对等理论也是以读者为中心。奈达认为翻译的研究对象是读者；译文受众不是语言交际的被动对象，而是交际活动的积极参与者。读者对译文的反应是评判译文质量的唯一标准。因此，译文必须通顺易懂。为了译文能通俗易懂，甚至可以删掉文中像隐喻这类读者不能理解的地方。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 02:18, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion.<br />
<br />
结语<br />
<br />
通过比较分析奈达的功能对等理论和德国功能主义目的论，笔者发现目的论批判性地继承了奈达功能对等理论的理性因素，并且抛弃了其中的非理性部分。翻译目的论摆脱了对等理论的束缚，打破了传统的单一翻译研究视角，转而关注语言以外的翻译活动中其他相关因素的研究。目的论突破了等效翻译理论的框架，提出了以目的论为主导的翻译标准多元化的理论体系。翻译标准的多样化让翻译功能更贴近现实。这显然比奈达以功能对等为唯一标准的理论更科学、更有效、更通用。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 03:05, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
这显然比奈达以功能对等为唯一标准的理论更科学、更实用和更全面。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 08:47, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br />
<br />
而且，与强调翻译内部研究的传统语言翻译理论相比，目的论否认翻译是一种简单的语言转换，而更加注重翻译的外部性。与奈达的翻译理论相比，目的语理论更关注翻译活动的人性和社会性。此外，翻译目的论将翻译的重点从原始文本的复制转移到更具挑战性的目标文本的创建，这增强了翻译人员作为翻译主体的积极参与，从而推翻了原始文本的中心地位，建立目标文本和译者的中心地位。功能主义目的论将翻译置于动态的文化语境中，强调译者的积极干预。因此，它解决了功能对等理论未能解决的一些问题，拓宽了传统翻译理论的研究视野，是功能对等理论的重大突破和重要补充，在现代翻译理论中树立了鲜明的旗帜。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:09, 1 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201019_trans&diff=11622920201019 trans2020-12-20T05:13:26Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhou Shuyao 周书尧 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
Acknowledgement<br />
<br />
I am indebted to the more than 300 students of the Master Course "Introduction to Translation Studies" conducted in the two fall terms 2019/2020 and 2020/2021 at Hunan Normal University, Foreign Studies College. They have enriched this monograph with their ideas, their creativity and the top students even have contributed short passages to this book on single aspects. They have also helped to arrange that the monograph could appear in different languages simultaneously.<br />
The Foreign Studies College is one of the top places of Translation and Interpreting Studies in China.<br />
<br />
致谢<br />
<br />
我衷心感谢在湖南师范大学外国语学院两个秋季学期（2019/2020和2020/2021）开设的“翻译学概论”硕士学位课程的300多名学生。他们用自己的想法和创造力丰富了这本专著的内容，尖子生们甚至还为书中的章节撰写了简短的文章。这些学生还负责将这本专著翻译成不同的语言。湖南师范大学外国语学院在中国翻译与口译研究的顶尖领域具有一席之地。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:40, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
致谢<br />
<br />
我衷心感谢三百多名学生在湖南师范大学外国语学院2019年和2020年秋季修读了“翻译学概论”这门硕士课程。这些学生用自己的想法以及创造使本书更为丰富，其中，甚至一些尖子生还为本书的某些内容撰写了简短的文章，他们帮助安排这本书能同时以不同的语言进行出版，湖南师范大学外国语学院已成为中国翻译和口译研究的最高学府之一。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 05:09, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
Foreword<br />
<br />
Interpretation theories and interpretation studies are as old as human languages, since interpretation practise is not just necessary between full fledged languages, but is practised as soon as two different individuals meet, like a grandmother and her grandchild. The first lay interpreters naturally reflected on their interpreting work and this was the start of theories and studies. As soon as written language was invented, critical reflection also started and with it translation theories and translation studies.<br />
<br />
序言<br />
<br />
与人类语言一样，口译理论与口译研究也很古老，因为在完全成熟的语言之间，口译实践不仅是必要的，而且只要两个个体相遇，比如祖母和孙子，实践就会产生。最初的外行口译人员很自然地会反思他们的翻译工作，这就是理论和研究的起点。书面语言一经发明，批判反思也就开始了，随之而来的就是翻译理论和翻译研究。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:05, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
序言<br />
<br />
口译实践并不只会出现在两种完全成熟的语言之间，其实，只要两个不同的个体相遇，比如祖孙之间，就会产生这一实践，因此，口译理论以及口译研究同人类语言一样古老。第一批缺乏经验的口译人员本能地反映他们的口译工作，这也就促成了理论和研究的诞生。书面语言产生后，批判反思也随即应运而生，紧随其后的还有翻译理论以及翻译研究。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 02:17, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
The first thoughts about transponing the meaning of one language into a similar one of another language were prescriptive with precepts and principles, sometimes exaggerated into dogma and people not adhering to them being tortured or murdered.<br />
<br />
In the 1960s, the translation studies started to become aware of itself as an academic discipline.<br />
<br />
起初，关于将一种语言转化为另一种类似语言的观点是受一定戒律与原则规范的，这种观点有时还被夸大为教条，而不遵循这一约束的人则遭到酷刑或谋杀。<br />
<br />
到20世纪60年代，翻译学开始意识到自己是一门学科。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:54, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
起初，将一种语言转化为另一种类似语言是受一定戒律、原则、甚至是教条所规范的，而不遵循这些约束的人则遭到酷刑或谋杀。<br />
到20世纪60年代，翻译学开始意识到自己是一门学术学科。<br />
--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 05:10, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
'''I. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
Translating sets forth on its journey a long time ago. It has been over 2200 years since Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey from Greek into Latin around 250 BC, which is the earliest activity of translating from recorded history. Throughout history, translation is not only involved in politics,culture, religion, language and so forth, but also keeps changing as times and social conditions roll on. On grounds of the changes of targets and contents of translation history, considering the specific periods of people’s apprehension of translation and the roles translation plays in society of different times, researchers divided the history of western translation into 3 parts, translation of religious materials, translation of literary classics and translation of non-literary materials. <br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
The division of western translation history varies from person to person in circles of translation. Generally speaking, from about 250 BC when people translated ''Septuagint'' into Greek to the 16th century when the translation of the Bible prevailed, it is the historical period of translating religious materials, followed by period of translation of literature mainly from literary classics and great works of social sciences.(Wu & Shu 2011:76) After the Second World War, however, translation of non-literary and practical materials began to exert influence as a major force.在翻译界，人们对西方翻译史的划分各不相同。一般来说，从大约公元前250年，人们把《圣经旧约》翻译成希腊语，到十六世纪圣经翻译的盛行，这一时期是宗教素材翻译的历史时期，紧随其后的是文学翻译时期，主要以文学经典著作以及社会科学巨著为主。（吴&纾 2011:76）但是，第二次世界大战以后，非文学翻译和实用材料的翻译开始发挥主要作用。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 01:48, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西方翻译史的划分在翻译界因人而异。一般来说，从公元前250年左右，人们把《圣经旧约》翻译成希腊语，到16世纪圣经翻译开始盛行。这一时期是宗教素材翻译的历史性时期，其次是主要以文学经典和社会科学巨著为素材的翻译时期。(吴淑仪，2011：76)第二次世界大战后，非文学材料和实用材料的翻译开始作为主力产生影响。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 07:43, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In the west, studies on translation practices and theories have walked through the recorded history of over two thousand years, which is very close to the one in China. Nevertheless, China had made little progress with translation studies because of closed-door policy. Before years around 1980s, the systematic study on theories of western translation had been left incomplete in China, where few books and papers related were published. And even in the western countries, there existed similar situations. However, studies on theories of western translation has made appreciable development since 1980s, especially the books on history of western translation theory written by Rener, Robinson, etc.<br />
有历史记载以来，西方有关翻译实践和理论的研究已有2000多年的历史，中国也差不多。然而，由于闭关锁国政策，中国在翻译研究方向并没有取得什么进展。大约1980年代以前，中国有关西方翻译理论的系统性研究并不完整，只有少量的书和相关论文发表。甚至一些西方国家也有类似的情况。然而自1980年代起西方翻译理论的研究取得了良好的进展，尤其是Rener，Robinson等人有关西方翻译理论历史的书籍。By Chenjiaxin--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 11:01, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
These books and materials are indisputably of great value for us to take a closer look at theories of western translation, yet it is very hard for people of Chinese cultures to search, unearth and analyse the history of translation theories in the backgrounds of western cultures. As Tan Zaixi put it in his book ''The Brief History of Western Translation'', “From ancient times, translation in the west has been proceeding for over two thousand years, along with extraordinary translators and divergent theories, which can not be expound within twenty or thirty thousand words.”(Tan 1991:1) And for translation studies as a independent discipline, it is a very meaningful job to study translation and its theories from all over the world, which includes the western translation theories.<br />
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在我对西方翻译理论进行更为深入的了解过程中，这些书和材料无疑有着极大的价值，然而对于中国文化背景的人来说，在西方文化背景下查找，挖掘以及分析翻译理论发展历史是非常不容易的。正如谭载喜在《西方翻译简史》中所提到的那样：“从古至今，西方翻译和杰出翻译家及不同翻译理论已经经历了2000多年的历史，仅用2万或是3万字是阐述不清楚的。”（谭 1991:1）翻译学作为一门独立学科对于研究翻译和世界各国翻译理论（包括西方翻译理论）是极具意义的。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 06:40, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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这些书籍和资料无疑对我们深入研究西方翻译理论具有重要价值，但对于中国文化界人士来说，在西方文化背景下对翻译理论的历史进行探索、发掘和分析是非常困难的。正如谭载喜在其《西方翻译简史》中所写：“西方翻译从古至今已有两千多年的历史，有着杰出的译者和不同的理论，这不是两三万字就能解释清楚的。”(谭1991:1)翻译研究作为一门独立的学科，研究包括西方翻译理论在内的世界各国的翻译及其理论，是一项非常有意义的工作。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:53, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Accordingly, while studying the history of western translation theories, we must understand the necessity of describing the development of western translation theories in a proper way and figure out how they are classified, especially for theories of modern and contemporary times. Based on the fundamental way of studying translation or ideologies of various schools, now people would usually divide translation studies into literary school, linguistic school and cultural school.<br />
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因此，在研究西方翻译理论的历史时，我们必须认识到正确描述西方翻译理论发展及明确其分类的必要性，尤其是近现代的翻译理论。基于研究翻译或各流派的意识形态的基本方式，现在人们通常会将翻译研究分为文学学派、语言学派和文化学派。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:32, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，我们在研究西方翻译理论发展史时，必须明白合理描述西方翻译理论发展并弄清其分类（尤其是现代西方翻译理论和当代西方翻译理论）的必要性。基于翻译学研究的基本方法和各大学派的意识形态，当今的翻译学研究可分为文学学派、语言学学派和文化学派。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:13, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，在研究西方翻译理论发展史的时候，我们必须深谙，用合理方式描述西方翻译理论的发展，弄清楚如何将翻译理论分类，是非常必要的。在研究现代和当代翻译理论的时候，更需要如此。基于各流派研究翻译或者意识形态的基本方式，人们现在通常把翻译研究分为文学学派、语言学派和文化学派。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:27, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，在研究西方翻译理论发展史时，我们必须认识到，以适当的方式描述西方翻译理论发展以及弄清楚它们的分类方式是十分有必要的，特别是那些现当代的理论。根据研究翻译的基本方法或各种学派的思想，现在人们通常将翻译研究分为文学学派、语言学派和文化学派。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 08:34, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
The literary school includes the traditional philological approach and the hermernutic approach; the linguistic school consists of the equivalence approach, the functional approach and the cognitive approach; the cultural school covers translation studies approach, deconstruction approach, feminism approach, post-colonial approach and the integrated approach, of which translation studies approach can be further divided into polysystem theory, the norm theory and the manipulation theory. By contributing new thoughts to this discussion, the study aims to reach more consensus among translation studies scholars in this aspect.<br />
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文学学派包括传统的语文学方法和解释学方法；语言学学派包括对等法、功能法和认知学方法；文化学派涵盖翻译学研究方法、解构法、女性主义方法、后殖民主义方法和合成法。其中翻译学研究方法又可再分为多元系统理论、标准理论和控制理论。上述理论为本研究提供了很多新理念。故本研究旨在让翻译学研究者在这一方面达成更多共识。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:05, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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文学学派包括传统语文学方法和解释学方法：语言学学派包括对等方法、功能性方法和认知学方法； 文化学派包括翻译学研究、解构法、女性主义法、后殖民方法和整合法，翻译学研究又可再分为多元系统理论，标准理论和操控理论。通过在这个论述中注入更多的新思想，这个研究旨在使更多的翻译学研究学者在这方面达成共识。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 14:37, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
'''II. School Classification''' <br />
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Beyond dispute, it’s practicable that people describe the history of western translation theories by dividing them into different schools in light of theories and ideologies of translation studies. With the modernization and integration of economy in western society, western translation theories also begin to get over the hurdles in the way of mutual development and blur the distinction among nationalities, which makes it harder to owe some ideology or theory of translation to a certain country or area. For instance, Gideon Toury was famous in the west but lived in Israel.<br />
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2.流派划分<br />
毫无疑问，根据翻译研究理论和意识形态，将西方翻译理论划分为不同流派来阐述西方翻译理论历史是切实可行的。 随着西方社会经济的现代化和一体化，西方翻译理论突破界限，开始融合发展，模糊了种族界限，翻译意识形态或理论的区域划分难以界定。例如，吉迪恩·图里（Gideon Toury）在西方闻名遐迩，但他却是以色列人。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 03:00, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
In contrast, when some ideology or theory is proposed by someone in some place, it can probably be responded to or supported by scholars from all corners of the world. They hold it up totally out of agreement with the points someone makes, not necessarily where the points come from. Another example, Eugene A. Nida, who put forward the idea of “functional equivalence”, is American, but Kade, who is his supporter, comes from German. Therefore, it might be easier to understand the present situation and trends of western translation theories from levels of translation schools and ideologies, especially for theories of contemporary and modern times.<br />
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相反，某个地区某位学者提出某种观念或者理论的时候，会受到世界各地学者的回应和支持。他们支持这一观点仅仅是因为认同，而非刻意地关注其来源。再如，提出“功能对等”理论的学者尤金·奈达（Eugene A. Nida）是美国人，而他的支持者凯德（Kade）却来自德国。因此，从翻译流派和意识形态，尤其是现当代理论的层面来理解西方翻译理论的现状和趋势也许会更容易一点。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 11:26, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
相反，当某个地方的某个人提出某种意识形态或理论时，很有可能会得到来自全世界各地学者的响应和支持。他们同意别人的观点，而不考虑这些观点的出处。再如，提出“功能对等”思想的尤金•奈达是美国人，而支持他的是德国人凯德。因此，从翻译流派和意识层面，特别是近现代的翻译理论层面来理解西方翻译理论现状和发展趋势会更容易。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 06:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
As one would expect, it is just one of the methods to classify western translation theories on the basis of translation schools or ideologies. From a perspective of historical development, it would be a more traditional way to classify western translation theories by times and nations. This diachronic way of studying it helps to organize the historical materials clearly and make profitable comparisons among traditions and characteristics of translation theories among western countries and regions, which enables people to understand the distribution and trends of western translation theories with an open mind. On the other hand, the diachronic way also describes the divergence and amalgamation of western translation theories.<br />
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正如人们所期望的那样，它只是根据翻译学派或意识形态对西方翻译理论进行分类的方法之一。 从历史发展的角度来看，将西方翻译理论按时间和国家分类是一种更为传统的方法。 这种历时性的研究方法有助于清晰地整理历史资料，并在西方国家和地区之间对翻译理论的传统和特征进行有益的比较，使人们能够以开放的思想来理解西方翻译理论的分布和趋势。 另一方面，历时性方法也表现了西方翻译理论的分歧和融合。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:52, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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正如人们所想，根据翻译流派或意识形态对西方翻译理论进行分类只是其中一种方法。从历史发展的角度看，将西方翻译理论按时代和民族分类是一种比较传统的方法。这种历时性的研究方法有助于理清史料，也有利于对西方国家和地区翻译理论的传统和特点进行比较，这使人们能够虚心地了解西方翻译理论的分布和发展趋势。另一方面，这种研究方法也描述了西方翻译理论的分歧与融合。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 05:29, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
To give an example, the debate between free and literal translation never ends during which the eclecticism occurred and then literal translation was overtaken by free translation; the transfer from regarding the words as translation units to viewing sentences, discourses and even the whole passages as translation units... and so on. Despite that, as for studies on western translation theories, it is not the best way to do it only by a certain means. If we completely choose the way of describing the history of western translation theories by dividing them into different schools in light of theories and ideologies of translation studies, the relation between translation theories and specific cultural environment of society may be ambiguous and so is the relation between diachronic and synchronic development of translation.<br />
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举个例子，意译与直译之间的争论从未停止。在这个争论的期间，先是出现了折衷主义，然后又是意译占领了主导地位；翻译也从以词为单位，转变到了以句子、语篇甚至整篇文章为单位...诸如此类。尽管如此，在我们研究西方翻译理论的时候，仅采用某种单一的手段并不是最好的方法。如果我们完全按照翻译研究的理论和意识形态来将西方翻译理论划分为不同的流派，从而阐述西方翻译理论史的话，可能会模糊翻译理论与特定的社会文化环境之间的关系，同样也可能模糊翻译的历时性发展和共时性发展之间的关系。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 08:18, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，意译与直译之争从未结束，直到折衷主义的出现，直译才被意译取代；翻译单位也在发生转变，从以词为翻译单位转变为以句子，语篇乃至整篇文章为翻译单位······等等。 尽管如此，仅靠某种方法去研究西方翻译理论并不是最好的方法。 如果完全按照翻译研究的理论和意识形态将西方翻译理论划分为不同的流派并研究其发展历史，那么翻译理论与特定社会文化环境的关系，翻译的历时发展与共时发展的关系就可能是模糊不清的。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:57, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
If we only decide on a more traditional way to classify western translation theories by times and nations, our research and description will inevitably be in need of subjects of translation theories. To avoid such deficiencies, we must adopt a way combining both means mentioned above to study western translation theories. In other words, we must take into consideration not only the historical connection between theories and ideas of translation but also the relation of translation theories with the specific social and cultural environment. Only by doing so, our research would be able to describe the whole process of western translation theories from an objective perspective.<br />
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如果只按照时期和国家这种传统的方法来对西方翻译理论进行分类，那么我们的研究和描述将无可避免的需要翻译理论主题，为了避免这种不足，我们必须采取一种将上述提到的方法结合起来的方法来研究西方翻译理论。换句话说，我们不仅要考虑翻译理论和翻译思想之间的历史联系，也要考虑翻译理论和特定社会文化环境之间的关系，只有这样做，我们的研究才能从客观的角度描述西方翻译理论的整个进程。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:18, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
From what we have mentioned above, we view western translation theories from two sides. First, we view it from the respect of historical development steadily. Cicero, was the first translation theorist in the west during times of Roman empire. As a rhetorician and orator, he categorized translation into ones by “ut interpres” and “ut orator” for the first time. Translation by “ut interpres” means translation of no creativity but translation by “ut orator” means translation of creativity which may even rival the original.<br />
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根据上诉所言，我们可以从两方面看待翻译理论。首先：我们从历史发展角度来看，西塞罗是罗马帝国时期，第一个西方翻译理论家。西塞罗是个修辞学家，也是个演说家，他第一次把翻译分成“解释员”式和“演说家”式。“解释员”式翻译在翻译过程中没有创造性,而“演说家式”翻译富有创造性，这种译文甚至能媲美原文。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 02:16, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如上所述，我们可以从两方面看待翻译理论。首先，我们从历史发展角度来看，西塞罗是罗马帝国时期，第一个西方翻译理论家。作为修辞学家，同时也是演说家，西塞罗第一次把翻译分成“解说员”式和“演说家”式。“解说员”式翻译在翻译过程中没有创造性,而“演说家式”翻译富有创造性，甚至可能媲美原文。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:12, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
通过如上所述，我们可以从两方面看待西方翻译理论。 首先，从历史稳定发展的角度看，西塞罗是罗马帝国时期的第一位西方翻译理论家。作为一名修辞家和演说家，西塞罗首次将翻译分为“解说员”式和“演说家”式。前者的翻译意味着翻译过程中没有创造性的翻译，而后者的翻译则包含创造性翻译，这样的翻译甚至能与原文相媲美。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 02:30, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据上诉所言，我们可以从两方面看待西方翻译理论。首先是历史发展的角度。西塞罗是罗马帝国时期第一个西方翻译理论家。他不仅是个修辞学家，也是个演说家，首次把翻译分成“解释员”式和“演说家”式。“解释员”式翻译在翻译过程中没有创造性,而“演说家式”翻译富有创造性，这种译文甚至能媲美原文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:22, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
As a matter of fact, Cicero put forward two fundamental ways of translating and pioneered the study of theories and methods of translation. Since Cicero’s studies on translation, western translation theories have been dealing with arguments between free translation and literal translation, word-for-word translation and excessively free translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness and so forth.<br />
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实际上，西塞罗提出了两种基本翻译方法，是翻译理论研究和翻译方法研究的先锋。自西塞罗的翻译研究开始，西方翻译理论在意译还是直译、字对字的翻译还是大篇幅意译、遵循忠实原则还是不忠实原则等方面众说纷纭。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:18, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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实际上，西塞罗提出了两种基本翻译方法，率先研究翻译理论和翻译方法。自从西塞罗进行翻译研究后，西方翻译理论就意译与直译、逐字翻译与过度意译、忠实与不忠实等方面一直争论不休。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 01:54, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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事实上，西塞罗提出了两种基本的翻译方法并且率先进行了翻译理论和翻译方法的研究。自从西塞罗进行了翻译的研究以后，西方翻译理论就意译与直译、逐字翻译与过度意译、忠实与不忠等问题一直争论不休。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:30, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
Besides Cicero, there are an abundance of excellent translation theorists in western translation history, who have proposed assorted theories and ideas from different angles in different times. In ancient times, aside from Cicero’s categorization of “literal translation” and “free translation”, Marcus Fabius Quintlianus thought that the target ought to compete with the original; St. Jerome believed that people were supposed to follow the rules of literal translation when translating ''the Bible'' and use free translation when it came to literary classics; St. Augustine held the view that translation was inspired by God.<br />
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在西方翻译史上，除了西塞罗之外，还有许多优秀的翻译理论家，他们在不同时期从不同角度提出了各种各样的理论和思想。在古代，除了西塞罗对“直译”和“意译”的分类外，马库斯·法比尤斯·昆体良（Marcus Fabius Quntinlianus）主张译文应该与原文竞争；圣杰罗姆（St. Jerome）认为人们在翻译圣经时应该遵循直译的原则，而翻译经典文学作品时应该遵循意译的原则；圣奥古斯丁（St. Augustine）认为翻译是凭上帝的启示。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:58, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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除了西塞罗，西方翻译史上还有许多杰出的翻译理论家，他们在不同时期从不同角度提出了各种理论和观点。在古代，除了西塞罗对“直译”和“意译”的分类外，马库斯·法比尤斯·昆体良（Marcus Fabius Quntinlianus）主张目标语应当和源语不相上下。圣·杰罗姆（St. Jerome）认为圣经的翻译应遵循直译原则，而翻译文学经典时则采用意译。圣·奥古斯丁（St. Augustine）认为翻译受到了上帝的启示。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:13, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
In the Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius promoted the literal translation that would rather keep “faithful” than “elegant”; Dante was of the opinion that “works of literature are untranslatable”. During the Renaissance, Desiderius Erasmus believed that translation was not a subjection to authority of religious beliefs and translation of ''the Bible'' depended on the language of a translator; Martin Luther held the view of humanism that texts must be rendered in the people’s language; Etienne Dolet reckoned that people translated on “five principles” of understanding the content of the original, being proficient in the original language and the target language, avoiding word-for-word translation, expounding in simple languages and focusing on the style of the target text.<br />
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在中世纪，曼利乌斯-波埃修斯提倡字面翻译，认为“忠实”大于“优雅”；但丁认为 "文学作品是不可翻译的"。文艺复兴时期，德西德里乌斯-伊拉斯谟认为翻译不是服从于宗教信仰的权威，''圣经''的翻译取决于译者的语言；马丁-路德持人文主义的观点，认为文本必须用人民的语言来渲染；艾蒂安-多莱估计，人们翻译的 "五项原则 "是理解原文内容、精通原文和目标语言、避免逐字翻译、用简单的语言阐述、注重目标文本的风格。<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
From the 17th to 19th century, Charles Batteux was of the opinion that author was the master and translator was the servant, whose work were not allowed to be amplified, to omit and change the wording of the original; John Dryden categorized translating into metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation and he thought translation was some kind of art; Tytler put forward three principles that the target reflected the ideas exactly the original conveyed, the style and skills the target used should be of the same characteristics of the original and the target should be as expressive as the original; Friedrich Schleiermacher made a distinction between translation and interpretation, literal translation and mechanical translation; Humboldt believed his theories that language decided the translatability and untranslatability of the world; Matthew Arnold thought whether a translation was good or not depended on the experts; Francis W. Newman had the idea that it were common readers, not the experts,who determined the criteria of translation.<br />
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从17世纪到19世纪，不少翻译家谈到了原作者与译者之间的关系，夏尔·巴托便是其中之一。在他看来，原作者应为主人，译者为仆人。但凡放大译者职能、遗漏或篡改原文文意等行为，都是不被允许的；约翰·德莱顿将翻译分为直译、意译和拟译，他认为翻译是一种艺术；泰特勒推演出翻译的三条原则，即1）译文应当准确反映出原文想表达的意义；2）译文中采用的风格和技巧应当与原文一致；3）译文应当像原文一样具有感染力。弗里德里希·施莱尔马赫将口译和笔译、直译和机翻区别开来；洪保德认为语言决定了可译性或不可译性；马修·阿诺德觉得一篇译文的好坏与否掌握在评判专家手中；而纽曼则认为制定翻译标准的不是专家们，而是普通读者。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 11:20, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 20th century, we have Fedolov’s theories that people should study translation theories from linguistics first and translation theories is categorized into history, introduction and arguments of translation; we have Roman Jakobson’s three classification of interlingual translation, intralingual translation and intersemiotic translation; we have Levy’s thoughts that “translating should make reader have an illusion of the original”, “translating is a deciding process”; we have Gachechiladze’s theories on literary translation that “translation is always a artistic and realistic reflection of the original” and “ translation of literature and art is a artistic work”;<br />
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在20世纪，我们有费道罗夫的理论，告诉人们应该先从语言学研究翻译理论，翻译理论分为翻译史，翻译导论和翻译争论；我们有罗曼·雅各布森的语际翻译，语内翻译和符际翻译的三种翻译分类； 我们有利维的观点——“翻译应该使读者对原著产生错觉”，“翻译是一个下决定的过程”； 我们有加切奇拉兹的文学翻译理论，即“翻译始终是对原著的艺术和现实反映”和“文艺翻译是艺术工作”；--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 14:36, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在20世纪，费道罗夫的理论表明人们应该先语言学开始学习翻译理论，翻译理论分为翻译史，翻译导论，和翻译论证；罗曼•雅各布森讲翻译理论分为语际翻译，语内翻译，和符际翻译；利维认为“翻译应该使读者对原著产生幻觉”，“翻译是一个决定性的过程”；加切奇拉玆的文学翻译理论认为“翻译始终是原著的艺术和现实反应”，“文学翻译就是艺术工作”。 By Chen Jiaxin--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 11:21, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
we have Carford’s theories of linguistics that translation should reach an equivalence of context; Nida thought “translating is a science”, “translating is communicating” and there exists equivalence between the readers of the original and the target; Mounin’s view of modern linguistics on translation theories; emphasized that the target needed to break the limits of the original. All the thoughts and ideas mentioned above have constituted the most essential parts of western translation theories.<br />
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卡福德认为翻译需追求文本对等；奈达认为翻译是一门科学也是一门交际，原文读者和译文读者应获得同样的理解；缪宁认为当代语言学在于翻译理论；保尔•瓦雷里认为译文需打破原文的限制。各翻译家的见解构成了西方翻译主要理论。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:00, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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卡福德的语言学理论认为，翻译需追求文本对等；奈达认为翻译是一门科学也是一门交际，好的译文应当使译文读者与原文读者有同样的反应；缪宁则从现代语言学角度来分析翻译理论；保尔·瓦雷认为译文需打破原文的束缚。上述各见解构成了西方翻译的基本理论。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:14, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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卡福德的语言学理论认为，翻译应文本对等；奈达认为翻译是一门科学也是一门交际，好的译文应当使译文读者与原文读者有同样的反应；缪宁则从现代语言学角度来分析翻译理论；保尔·瓦雷认为译文需打破原文的束缚。上述观点是西方翻译理论的主要观点。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:46, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Furthermore, we could look at the whole system of western translation theories from the other side, which is the schools of ideology. There are two branches of it: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation. The school of translation of literature and art stems from the early drama by Terentius in Ancient Rome, ucceeded by Levy and Gachechiladze in modern times, and continues to thrive in the 21st century.<br />
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甚者，我们可以从另一面-也就是理想学派，来整体的看西方翻译理论。其中存在两个分支：文学与艺术翻译理论和翻译的语言学理论。文学与艺术翻译学派起源于早期的戏剧由古罗马泰伦提乌斯提出和现代的<br />
利维和加切奇拉泽继承并且在21世纪继续繁荣发展。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 14:24, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
此外，我们还可以从另一个角度来看待西方翻译理论的整个体系，即意识形态流派。它有两个分支：文艺翻译理论和语言学翻译理论。文艺翻译学派起源于古罗马特伦提乌斯的早期戏剧，近代以利维和加契拉泽为代表，并在21世纪继续蓬勃发展。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:09, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
People of this branch perceive translation as a kind of literary art, which draws attention to recreation of literature. Theorists have been discussing the defects and merits between faithfulness and unfaithfulness, word-for-word translation and excessively free translation, literal translation and free translation and so on. Besides, they also foreground the purposes and effects of translation. They stress both the original and the literary attributes of the language of it., as well as the idiomatic expression and tradition of literature of the original that people must respect whiling translating. They not only zero in on the style and literariness of the text very much but the talent of literature a translator or interpreter should possess.<br />
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这个分支的人把翻译作为一种文学艺术，引起了人们对文学娱乐的关注。理论家们一直在讨论忠实与不忠、逐字翻译和过度自由翻译、直译和自由翻译之间的缺陷和优点。除此之外，他们也强调翻译的目的和效果。他们也都强调翻译语言的原创性和文学性，以及成语性词语。在翻译时，人们必须尊重原始表达和文学传统。他们不仅非常重视文本的风格和文学性，而且笔译或者口译人员应具备文学才能。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:18, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这一分支的人把翻译看作是一种文学艺术，这就引起了对文学再创造的关注。理论家们一直在讨论忠实与不忠实、逐字翻译与过度意译、直译与意译等方面的优缺点。此外，他们还强调了翻译的目的和效果。他们同时强调翻译语言的原始属性和文学属性，以及在翻译时，人们必须尊重原文的惯用表达和文学传统。他们不仅十分注重文本的风格和文学性，还注重译者应具备的文学才能。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:02, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
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The school of linguistic theories of translation is from Augustine and people of traditional linguistics or philology in Ancient Rome to various schools of modern linguistics in the 20th and 21st century. For this situation, the core lies in language. People of this school, who think that the goal of translating is to reach the equivalence between the original and the target, combine translation theories with analysis of semantic and syntactic functions and talk on issues of translation from the characteristics of structure and sentence-making skills of a language so as to show how the equivalent texts are made from words, grammars and other features of a language.<br />
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语言学翻译理论学派包从古罗马的奥古斯丁和学习传统语言学或语言学的人，到20世纪和21世纪现代语言学的各个学派。从这一点来看，这一学派的核心在于语言。这一学派的学者，认为翻译的目的是达到原文与目标语之间的等值，他们把翻译理论与语义、句法功能的分析结合起来，从语言的结构特点和造句技巧来谈论翻译问题，从而说明对等文本是如何由词语、语法等其他语言特点构成的。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 07:06, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译理论语言学派，源自奥古斯丁和古罗马时期传统语言学或语文学，以及20世纪和21世纪的各现代语言学派。从这一点来看，这一学派的核心在于语言。这一学派的学者认为，翻译的目的是达到原语和译文的对等，将翻译理论与语义和句法功能分析相结合，并从结构和造句技巧的特点谈翻译，从而说明对等文本是如何由单词，语法和其他语言特点组成的。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 03:15, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
From either branches we can see that they have their own advantages and disadvantages. Translation theories of literature and art give an emphasis to the purposes and results of translating and the artistic effects from a macroscopic view, but neither pay much heed to practical process of translating and skills of using a language nor care about whether the target and the original reach the equivalence of structures. Linguistics theories of translation is also not spotless because some theories don’t stress the aesthetic functions and ignore the recurrences of works of literature and art. They mostly focus on the structure of a language to and theoretically are limited to word, sentence or syntax only, which disregards the main structure of a text and the structure of discourse and the cultural features to a larger extent.<br />
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从这两个分支中我们可以看出它们各有优缺点。文艺翻译理论从宏观上强调翻译的目的、结果和艺术效果，但既不注重翻译的实际过程和语言运用技巧，也不关心译文和原文是否达到了结构的对等。语言学的翻译理论也并不完善，因为有些翻译理论没有强调文学艺术作品的审美功能，忽视了文学艺术作品的再现性。它们大多着眼于一种语言的结构，理论上仅限于词、句或句法，而忽视了语篇的主体结构和语篇结构以及文化特征。<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
However, no matter it is the branch of translation theories of literature and art or linguistics theories of translation, they are not completely isolated but complement each other. Although either of two branches has its own shortcomings, there is no translation theorist of literature and art who could talk about the artistic value of literary works divorced from linguistic issues; there is no theorist of linguistics who could be immersed in linguistic structures of a text without issues of aesthetics.<br />
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但是，无论是文学艺术翻译理论的分支还是翻译语言学理论的分支，它们都不是完全孤立的而是相辅相成的。 尽管两个分支中的任何一个都有其自身的缺点，但是没有文学和艺术的翻译理论家可以谈论与语言问题脱节的文学作品的艺术价值。 没有语言学的理论家可以沉浸在文本的语言结构中而没有美学问题。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:44, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但是，无论是文学艺术翻译理论的分支还是翻译语言学理论的分支，它们都不是完全孤立的而是相辅相成的.尽管它们都有其自身缺点，但是没有文学和艺术的翻译理论家可以脱离语言问题来谈论文学作品的艺术价值，也没有语言学的理论家可以脱离美学问题沉浸在文本的语言结构中。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
'''III. About ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'''''<br />
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Joan Pinkham, a professional translator from the U.S., published the book ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' in 2000. She worked for the Foreign Languages Press and Central Compilation and Translation Bureau in China for 8 years from 1980s to 1990s. It is one of the few books by westerners that systematically discuss the “Chinglish” issues in China. In the years working for the Foreign Languages Press and Central Compilation and Translation Bureau, her job was to revise and polish the drafts from Chinese translators, which was inevitably affected by Chinese and mindset of Chinese people. For that reason, Pinkham got to know many English translations with “Chinese characteristics” and wrote this book.<br />
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三.关于《中式英语之鉴》<br />
来自美国的专业翻译家琼·平克姆在2000年出版了《中式英语翻译之鉴》。20世纪80年代至90年代，她在中国外文出版社和中央编译局工作了8年。这是为数不多的西方人系统讨论中国“中式英语”问题的书籍之一。在外文出版社和中央编译局工作的几年里，他的工作是修改和润色中国翻译的草稿，这不可避免地受到中国人和中国人心态的影响。因为这个原因，平克姆认识了很多有“中国特色”的英文译本，因此写了这本书。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:02, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' consists of three parts, Unnecessary Words, Sentence Structure and Supplementary Examples, which reveal lots of mistakes Chinese translators tend to make. <br />
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First of all let’s take a look at examples given in the fist chapter:<br />
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promoting the cause of peaceful reunification;<br />
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reforms in the sphere of economy;<br />
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to ensure a relationship of close cooperation between.<br />
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《中式英语翻译指南》包含了三个部分，分别是赘词、句子结构以及补充例子，这三部分向我们呈现了中国翻译者常常会犯的各种错误。<br />
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首先，在第一章中给出了以下几个例子：<br />
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推进和平统一事业；（原句中“事业”的对应词“the cause of”赘余）<br />
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经济领域的改革；（原句中“领域”的对应词“the sphere of”赘余）<br />
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确保双方关系密切合作。(原句句子结构错误)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 02:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《中式英语翻译指南》由三部分组成，即 "不必要的词"、"句子结构 "和 "补充例句"，揭示了很多中文翻译者容易犯的错误。<br />
首先让我们来看看第一章节中给出的例子：<br />
促进和平统一的事业；<br />
经济领域的改革；<br />
确保以下方面的密切合作关系。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:05, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《中式英语之鉴》包含三部分，即不必要的词、句子结构和补充例句，揭示了中国译者容易犯的许多错误。<br />
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首先让我们来看看第一章给出的例子:<br />
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促进和平统一事业；<br />
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经济领域的改革；<br />
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以确保双方之间的密切合作关系。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 15:06, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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Phrases like these can often be seen in some English papers or periodicals and they seem to make sense to English learners or translators in China. But the author regards them as negative examples in the first chapter of the first part, Unnecessary Nouns. The author mentioned that “Many of these nouns are easy to recognize. They are plainly redundant because their sense is already included or implied in some other element of sentence.”(Liu 2002:34) in the book. Here the author perceives nouns like “cause”, “sphere” and “relationship” as “category nouns”, which are the general nouns that sever only to introduce a specific noun to follow.<br />
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这些短语会经常出现在一些英语文章和期刊中，对于中国的译者来说这似乎是可以理解的。但是本书的作者在第一章第一部分中把这些短语作为了赘余名词部分的负面例子，他认为这些名词很容易理解，因为通过句子的其他部分已经能够推定或者总结其意义，所以它们的存在非常多余。（刘 2002: 34）作者将“原因” “领域”“关系”这样的词称作“类别词汇”，这些具有概括意义的词汇只能在句中引出一个更为具体的词。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 05:12, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Let’s take the first phrase as an example. In such constructions, the first noun announces the category of the second; in this case, it tells the readers that “promoting” falls into the category of “cause.” That is something they already know. Accordingly, the first noun should be deleted: “ promoting peaceful reunification.”(Pinkham 2000:16) It is the same for other two examples. What’s more, the first chapter also involves “Unnecessary Verbs.” Examples are as follows:<br />
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to bring about a change in this state of affairs;<br />
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until China realizes its modernization;<br />
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trying to entice the Korean army to launch an attack against them.<br />
让我们以第一个短语为例。 在这样的结构中，第一个名词表明第二个名词的范畴； 在这种情况下，它告诉读者，“促进”属于“原因”的范畴。这是他们已经知道的事情。 因此，应删除第一个名词:促进和平统一（Pinkham 2000:16）。其他两个示例也是如此。 此外，第一章还涉及不必要的动词。例子如下：<br />
改变这种状况；<br />
直到中国实现现代化；<br />
试图诱使朝鲜军队对其发动攻击。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:03, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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以第一个短语为例，在这样的结构中，第一个名词已经体现了后一个名词的类别，由此读者便知道，“促进”其实是“原因”的一种，因为这是他们已经到知道的事情。因此，应该删除第一个名词“促进和平统一（平卡姆 2000: 16）。另外两个示例也是如此。此外，第一章还提到了赘余动词。例如：<br />
改变这种状况<br />
知道中国实现现代化<br />
诱使朝鲜军队对其发动攻击。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 05:23, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
“Like unnecessary nouns, most unnecessary verbs in Chinglish occur in phrases. Usually they are combined with nouns (plus the inevitable articles and prepositions that nouns bring with them).”(Pinkham 2000:34) The commonest type is phrases like these. As for “to bring about a change in this state of affairs”, here the verb (“bring about”) is a weak, colorless, all purpose word having no very specific meaning of its own, while the real action is expressed in the noun(“change”). Since the verb is not contributing anything to the sense, it can be edited out: “change this state of affairs.”<br />
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“与赘余的名词类似，中式英语中大多数赘余的动词也出现在短语中，且通常和名词同时出现（以及依附于名词又必不可少的冠词和介词）。” （平卡姆 2000:34） 最常见的类型见以下短语。在短语“为这种情况带来改变”中，动词“带来”显得无力、无趣、缺乏具体含义，而名词“改变”传达出了具体的动作。鉴于这个动词没有起到达意的作用，可将其删去得到短语“改变这种情况”。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:42, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
In the second chapter, the author talks about Unnecessary Modifiers, which is not a problem easy to cope with for Chinese translators because it covers the issue of whether they should be used and using the modifiers properly. Five types of unnecessary modifiers are listed, redundant modifiers, self-evident modifiers, intensifiers, qualifiers and cliches. But the author especially points out that it is not appropriate to revise some accepted phrases, which are related to some national policies, even if they have unnecessary modifiers in the sentences, because this may cover political affairs.<br />
作者在第二章中论述了非必要的修饰语。要知道，是否应该使用以及如何正确使用这些修饰语，对中国译者来说并非易事。本章列举了五类非必要修饰语，分别是赘余修饰语，废话（不言而喻）修饰语，加强词，限定词和套话。但作者同时也指出，一些与国家政治有关的短语如果已被认同，即便句子里面有非必要限定词，也不要轻易去修改了，因为这可能涉及政治事务。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 01:48, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第二章中，作者讨论了不必要的修饰语，由于它包含了是否需要使用修饰语，以及合理使用地问题，所以修饰语的问题对中国译者来说是难以处理的。作者列举了五种不必要的修饰语，包括冗余修饰语、显而易见的修饰语、强调修饰语、限定修饰语以及陈腐的套语。但是作者特别指出，即使句子中存在不必要的修饰语，修改与某些国家政策相关的既定短语也是不合适的，因为这可能涉及政治事务。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:42, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
In the third and forth chapter the author talks on Redundant Twins and Saying the Same Thing Twice. For instance, views and opinions, help and assistance, stir up and incite, sentiments and feelings, prudent and cautious. The author classifies the redundant words into three groups according to the relation between synonyms and clauses and offers corresponding reversion. And she adds that examples of redundant synonyms are too many to list even for native English speakers; for example, rules and regulations, bits and pieces, by leaps and bounds, betwixt and between, by hook or by crook, huffing and puffing.<br />
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作者在第三章和第四章列举了同义赘余词対和同义词对，例如：观点和看法，帮忙与协助，挑起与煽动，情感与感情，小心和谨慎。根据同义词和分句的关系，作者将这些赘余词分为三组，并且提供了相应的回复。她还补充说，赘余同义词的例子太多了，甚至以英语为母语的人都难以列举完，例如：规章和制度，零碎和片段，飞跃和跳跃，之间和中间，不折手段和千方百计，喘息和喘气。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 04:37, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
After centuries of development, these phrases are now accepted by native English speakers or learners probably because of their jaunty alliteration or rhythm. But the author believes that these phrases unavoidably “exert an influence not only on native speakers of English (including foreign polishers) but on Chinese translators as well, reinforcing the habits of their own language. No doubt this influence contributes to the abundance of twins in Chinglish.”<br />
经过几个世纪的发展，这些短语可能是因为很强的幽默感和节奏感现在已经被英语母语者或学习者接受。但作者认为，这些短语不可避免地“会影响英语母语者（包括外国的波兰人），以及中国翻译者，从而强化他们母语使用的习惯。 毫无疑问，这种影响促使相对应的中式英语表达增多。”--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The first chapter of the second part is mainly about The Noun Plague. Here the author shows a draft: “The prolongation of the existence of this temple is due to the solidity of its construction.” She also gives a revision: “The temple has endured because it was solidly built.” The first version contains four abstract nouns, while the second has none. Not only do the nouns make the statement nearly twice as long, but they also make it pretentious, wooden and hard to understand.(Pinkham 2000:56) Yet, the author doesn’t think that “noun plague” only occurs in Chinglish but in English by native speakers, especially in theses and government documents where abstract nouns can often be seen, because they want their theses or documents to seem more “authoritative” or “scientific.”<br />
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第二部分的第一章主要内容是名词之殇。在这一章里，作者展现了一份草稿：“寺庙稳固的结构延长了它的存在期限。”同时也提供了一份修订版：“寺庙长存的原因是因为它建造稳固。”第一个版本包含了四个抽象名词，而第二个一个也没有。名次不仅使句子长度长了近两倍，而且使句子更做作、死板、使人难以理解。（Pinkham 2000:56）但是，作者认为“名词之殇”不止存在于中式英语里，还存在于以英语为母语的人中，特别是在文章和政府文献里，经常会运用抽象名词，这是因为他们想让自己的文章或者文献看起来更具权威性，或者更具科学性。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 02:35, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第二部分的第一章主要是关于名词瘟疫。 作者在这里展示了一个草稿：“这座庙宇的存在之所以延长，是因为其坚固的结构。” 她还作了一个修改：“圣殿之所以能忍受，是因为它是坚固的。” 第一个版本包含四个抽象名词，而第二个则没有。 名词不仅使陈述的时间长了将近两倍，而且使句子变得自命不凡，木质且难以理解。（Pinkham 2000：56）然而，作者并不认为“名词瘟疫”仅发生在中式英语中，而是 以英语为母语的人，尤其是在论文和政府文件中，通常可以看到抽象名词，因为他们希望论文或文件看起来更“权威”或“科学”。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:47, 25 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:47, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
The author thinks this is a dangerous trend which we should all fight against. And she advocates to use more verbs, gerunds or adverbs instead of abstract nouns. From the eighth to the twelfth chapter, the author gives some instruction to tell English learners and translators in China how to get rid of the mindset of Chinglish by putting pronouns and antecedents first, then the adjuncts and its purposes, in a logical way. The eighth chapter discussed the improper collocation of pronouns and antecedents. In this condition, personal pronouns, relative pronouns or demonstrative pronouns show up without antecedents or are too far away from antecedents.<br />
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作者认为这是一个危险的趋势，我们都应反对。 她主张多用动词，动名词或副词代替抽象名词。 从第八章到第十二章，作者对中国的英语学习者和翻译者就如何摆脱中式英语的思维模式进行了一些指导，按照先将代词和先行词放前面，然后是附加词及其目的逻辑顺序。第八章讨论了代词和先行词搭配不当的问题。 在这种情况下，人称代词，关系代词或指示代词在没有先行词或距离先行词太远的情况下出现。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 05:20, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
This is exactly what the uncertainty and lack of rigor of Chinese has brought about. The ninth chapter mainly talks about where we should set phrases or clause in an English sentence. The author is of the opinion that translators should pay attention to where the phrases or clauses are in a sentence so that the logic is clear and key points are highlighted. She also thinks that the phrases or clauses ought to modify what is close to them, otherwise in the sentence may occur the illogical parts. In addition, to stress the key points, the most important information should be imparted at the end of a sentence.<br />
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这正是汉语的不确定性和缺乏严谨性所带来的问题。第九章主要讨论的是在英语句子中应该在哪里设置短语或从句。作者认为，译者应该注意短语或分句在句子中的位置，使句子逻辑清晰，重点突出。她还认为短语或从句应该修饰那些意思接近它们的东西，否则在句子中可能会出现不合逻辑的部分。此外，为了强调重点，最重要的信息应该放在句末。<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
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'''IV. Discussion'''<br />
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From Introduction and School Classification, we have leaned that in western translation history, there are traditionally two branches: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation. In 1959, the book, ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' by Roman Jakobson, analyzed comprehensively the relation bewteen language and translation, the importance of translation and some existing problems of translating from an angle of linguistics, which had made groundbreaking contribution to linguistics theories of translation. Eugene A. Nida put forward a concept of “Translating is science” and he also applied Theory of Communication into translation on the basis of linguistics, believing that translating is communicating.<br />
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四、讨论<br />
从介绍和流派分类中，我们了解到西方翻译史在传统上有两个分支:文艺翻译理论和翻译语言学理论。1959年，罗曼·雅各布森(Roman Jakobson)的《论翻译的语言学方面》一书从语言学的角度全面分析了语言与翻译的关系、翻译的重要性以及翻译中存在的一些问题，对翻译的语言学理论做出了开创性的贡献。尤金·奈达提出了“翻译是科学”的概念，并在语言学的基础上将交际理论应用到翻译中，认为翻译就是交际。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:50, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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四、讨论 <br />
我们从介绍和流派分类中可以了解到西方翻译史在传统上有两个分支:文艺翻译理论学派和翻译语言学理论学派。1959年，罗曼·雅各布森(Roman Jakobson)在《论翻译的语言学方面》一书中从语言学的角度全面综合地分析了语言与翻译的关系、翻译的重要性以及翻译中存在的一些问题，对翻译的语言学理论做出了开创性的贡献。尤金·奈达提出了“翻译是一门科学”的概念，并在语言学的基础上将交际理论应用到翻译中，认为翻译就是交际。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
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He proposed the principle of “Dynamic Equivalence” and further submitted “Functional Equivalence” from the perspective of social linguistics and communicative function of language, which was instrumental in modern history of translation theories in the west as well. Nonetheless, Nida’s theories paid too much heed to content rather than form. To make up the deficiency, Peter Newmark put forward “Communicative Translation” and “Semantic Translation.” The former aimed at restructuring the language of the target in order to make it expressive and underline the effects of information; the latter emphasized the formal resemblance between the original and the target.<br />
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他提出了“动态对等”原则，并从社会语言学和语言交际功能的角度提出了“功能对等”，这在西方现代翻译理论史上也具有重要意义。尽管如此，奈达的理论过于注重内容而非形式。为了弥补这一不足，纽马克提出了“交际翻译”和“语义翻译”，交际翻译旨在重构目标语的语言，使之具有表现力，突出信息的作用；而语义翻译强调原文与译文形式上的相似性。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 01:21, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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他提出了“动态对等”原则，并从社会语言学和交际功能的角度进一步发展提出了“功能对等”原则，这在西方现代翻译理论史上也具有指导意义。然而，奈达的理论过于注重内容而非形式。为了弥补这一不足，纽马克提出了“交际翻译”和“语义翻译”，交际翻译旨在重构目标语的语言，使之具有表现力，突出信息的作用；而语义翻译强调原文与译文形式上的相似性。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:20, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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他提出了“动态对等”原则，并从社会语言学和语言交际功能的角度提出了“功能对等”的原则，这在西方现代翻译理论史上也具有重要意义。尽管如此，奈达的理论过于注重内容而非形式。为了弥补这一不足，纽马克提出了“交际翻译”和“语义翻译”，前者旨在重构目标语的语言，使之具有表现力，突出信息的作用；后者强调原文与译文形式上的相似性。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:22, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
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From theories and ideas above, the core issue they care about is how the source language is transferred into the target language and “equivalence” is what they have in common. Katharina Reiss, Hans Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord from Germany started to use communicative theories, theories of communication, discourse linguistics and ideology of aesthetics to switch the focus of their studies from source texts to target texts, which made it an influential school in international translation circles.<br />
从以上理论和观点来看，他们关心的核心问题是源语言如何转化为目的语，“对等”是他们的共同之处。来自德国的凯瑟琳娜·赖斯、汉斯·弗米尔、胡斯塔·霍尔兹·曼塔里和克里斯蒂娜·诺德开始运用交际理论、交际理论、话语语言学和美学思想，将研究重心从原文转向目标语篇，成为国际翻译界颇具影响力的流派。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 04:35, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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In 1971 in the book ''Translation and Limitations in Translation Criticism'', Reiss’s functional theories of translation was in embryonic state, where she believed that translation should reach equivalence in respects of conceptual content, forms of language and communication and name it “integral communicative performance.” In practice, however, she realized that the equivalence was not what people expected so relation between function of the original and the target was the priority.<br />
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在1971年出版的《翻译批评的可能性与局限性》一书中，赖斯的翻译功能理论暂处于萌芽状态。在此书中，他提出翻译应当在思想内容、语言形式和交际功能等方面达到对等，这样的翻译才可以称为“完整的交际行为”。然而，她意识到在实践中，人们并不期待这种对等状态，因此应该把源语与目的语功能之间的关系放在首位。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:43, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在1971年出版的《翻译批评：潜力与制约》一书中，赖斯的翻译功能派理论思想暂处于萌芽状态。在此书中，她提出翻译在概念性的内容、语言形式和交际功能上与原文对等，她称这种翻译为“综合性交际翻译”。然而，在实践中，她意识到这种对等并不是人们所期待的那样，因此应该把源语与目的语功能之间的关系放在首位。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:25, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
<br />
Hans Vermeer proposed skopos theory for that matter, which looked on translating as a process with purposes and results of the original. The skopos theory has three rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Skopos rule is considered as the primary one. It means that in the context and culture of target language, translation ought to work in a way exactly the recipient of target language expects and the purpose of translation actions determines the whole process of translating, that is, “the end justifies the means.”<br />
<br />
就此，汉斯·弗米尔提出了目的论，把翻译看作是一个以原文为基础的有目的和结果的行为过程。目的论遵循三个原则:目的原则、连贯性原则和忠实性原则。其中目的原则被认为是最首要的原则，即翻译应该在目的语的语境和文化中，以目的语接受者所期望的方式进行，翻译行为所要达到的目的决定了整个翻译行为的过程，即“结果决定方法”。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:27, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
汉斯-维米尔为此提出了目的论（skopos theory），他把翻译看成在原作基础上产生目的和结果的过程。目的论遵循三个规则：目的性、连贯性和忠实性。其中目的性被认为是最主要的规则。它是指在目标语言的语境和文化中，翻译应该以目标语言接受者所期望的方式进行，翻译行为的目的决定了整个翻译过程，即 "结果决定方法"。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 07:15, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Coherence rule is that translation must accord with the standard of intratextual coherence, which means that translation has readability and acceptability to the recipient and makes sense in communicative context and culture of the target language. The fidelity rule means that there exists intertextual coherence between the original and the target. This is actually what other theories have talked about faithfulness in translation but the faithfulness depends on the purpose of the target and how translator understand the original.<br />
连贯性是指译文必须符合语内连贯的标准，即译文具有可读性和可接受性，并在目标语言的交流语境和文化中具有意义。忠实性原则指原文与译文之间应该存在语际连贯一致。这相当于其他翻译理论提到的所谓的忠实于原文，但与原文忠实的程度和形式取决于译文的目的和译者对原文的理解。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 04:57, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
连贯原则是指翻译必须符合语篇内连贯的标准，即译文对接受者具有可读性和可接受性，在交际语境和目的语文化中有意义。忠实原则是指原文与译文之间存在互文连贯。这实际上是其他理论所说的翻译中的忠实，但忠实取决于目的地和译者如何理解原文。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 05:28, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
Here we also have talked about the book The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish. This book has discussed some problems English learners and translators in China have in grammar and vocabulary. For discourse and semantics, there also exits some issues. And the author is American who has the typical mindset of the west and is able to find out some problems of translation by Chinese translators. And the author tends to revise those translations in an aspect of linguistics theories of translation.<br />
在这里我们也谈论到一本名为《中式英语翻译指南》的书。书里提及到中国的英语学习者在语法和词汇方面的问题，以及一些论述和语义方面的问题。作者是一位带有典型西方思维的美国人，因此也能发现中国翻译者翻译时的问题。同时，作者也倾向于从翻译的语言学角度去修正这些译文。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:16, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
the editorial calls on the Chinese people to fully implement the CPC’s basic line, deepen reform and further opening to the outside, so as to further push forward the political, economic and social development of the country in a steady way;<br />
<br />
The author revises it into:<br />
<br />
the editorial calls on the Chinese people to implement the CPC’s basic line, deepen the reform, and promote the opening to the outside, so as to steadily push forward the political, economic and social development of the country.<br />
<br />
例如：<br />
<br />
这篇评论呼吁中国人民充分实践中国共产党的基本路线，深化改革，进一步对外开放，以此来进一步推动国家政治、经济和社会稳定发展。<br />
<br />
作者将这句话修改成了：<br />
<br />
这篇评论呼吁中国人民实践中国共产党的基本路线，深化改革，推进对外开放，以此来稳定推动国家政治改革经济和社会发展。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 06:17, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
<br />
In this sentence, “fully” is deleted because the author thinks it is unnecessary for its sense can be taken for granted: policies should always be fully carried out. If the word conveys something more specific in Chinese, that must be spelled out for the reader of English. We must say, for example, “to implement CPC’s basic line in all its aspects,” or “in every respect.”<br />
<br />
要始终贯彻政策， 此句中，“充分地”一词被删去了，因为这对意义的表达无足轻重。如若一个词在中文中要传达更加准确的意义，那么翻译成英语时要为英语读者指出。例如,“要始终贯彻中国共产党的基本路线”一句须译成“to implement CPC’s basic line in all its aspects,” 或 “in every respect.”--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:17, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在这句话中，“fully”被删除，因为作者认为它的意义是理所当然的，没有必要:政策总是要充分执行的。如果这个词在中文中表达了更具体的意思，就必须为英语读者拼写出来。比如，“要始终贯彻中国共产党的基本路线”一句须译成“to implement CPC’s basic line in all its aspects,” 或 “in every respect.”--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:10, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
<br />
As for “further”, it is obvious that at this point in history any push given to development will be a “further” push. The repetition of “further” in the draft is particularly undesirable because the word is used in two different senses. It appears first as a verb (“to further opening”), then immediately after as an adverb (“to further push ahead”), so that the reader is obliged to go back and read the sentence again in order to make sense of it.(Pinkham 2000:74)<br />
至于“进一步”，很明显，在这一历史时刻，为了发展的任何举措都将是“进一步”的推动。 草案中对“进一步”的重复使用是特别不合意的，因为该词有两种不同的含义。 它首先作为动词（“进一步打开”），然后立即被用作副词（“进一步推动”），因此读者必须回过头来再次阅读该句子才能理解。（Pinkham 2000：74）。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 05:21, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
至于说“进一步，”很明显，在这个历史节点上，任何推动发展的举措都可以称之为“进一步。”草案中“进一步”的重复出现是非常没有不可取的，因为这个词包含两种意思。首先，它作为动词（“促进开放”）出现，然后立即又作副词用（“进一步推进”），以至于读者为了弄清楚句子的意思，不得不回过头重读。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 08:19, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
<br />
Even though the author doesn’t talk on any translation theories directly in her book, her discussion on Chinglish and the revision she offers do involve some translation criteria, for example, domestication and foreignization. Translating is the transfer process from one language to another, during which it carries wide backgrounds of culture. To be specific, it is also the process of transferring cultures among each one. In general, there are two ways when it comes to this process: domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
虽然作者在书中没有直接谈到任何翻译理论，但她对中式英语的讨论和提出的修改确实涉及到一些翻译标准，例如归化和异化。翻译是一种语言向另一种语言的转换过程，在这个过程中承载着广泛的文化背景。具体来说，它也是文化在每个人之间传递的过程。一般来说，这一过程有两种翻译方法:归化和异化。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:05, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
翻译是从一转语言转换成另一种语言的过程，在这个过程中蕴含着大量的文化背景知识。准确来说，这也是一个文化间相互转换的过程。总的来说，再次过程中一般有两种方法，即归化和异化。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:24, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
<br />
Domestication is that features of the original are abandoned, that is to say, characteristics of translation follow ones of the target, which would, to some degree, make it easier to understand for recipients of the target language and contributory to culture exchanges. Foreignization is that translator translates in a way the original does, translation remaining characteristics of the original language.<br />
归化就是摒弃原文的特征，即翻译的特征遵循译文的特点，这在一定程度上使译文的读者更容易理解，也有助于文化交流。异化是指译者以原文的方式进行翻译，保留原文的特征--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 07:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)。<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
<br />
The author defines “Chinglish” as “Chinglish, of course, is that misshapen, hybrid language that is neither English nor Chinese but that might be described as ‘English with Chinese characteristics’”in the book. And she also points out that “this book is intended to help them turn their work into real English such as might have been written by an educated native English speaker of the language.” It means that the author is in favor of domestication during the process of translating.<br />
书中，作者将“中式英语”定义为“Chinglish”，其指的是既不是英语也不是中文的变形语言或是混合语言”，但它或许是“具有中国特色的英语”。 她还指出：“这本书旨在帮助他们将中式英语转变成真正的英语，转换成像是受过良好教育的英语母语者写的那样。” 这意味着作者在翻译过程中赞成归化。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:14, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
书中，作者将“中式英语”定义为“Chinglish”，其指的是既不是英语也不是中文的变形语言或是混合语言”，但它或许是“具有中国特色的英语”。 她还指出：“这本书旨在帮助他们将中式英语转变成真正的英语，转换成像是受过良好教育的英语母语者写的那样。” 这意味着作者赞成在翻译过程中使用归化的方法。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:54, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
Here’s an another example: <br />
<br />
we should draw up correct development and construction plans for all these zones;<br />
<br />
The author revises it into:<br />
<br />
we should draw up correct plans for the development of all these zones.<br />
<br />
The author thinks that two large abstractions plainly used here mean the same thing. And to avoid using the noun “development” as an adjective, we should say: “ for the development of all these zones.” That would be the simplest, most natural word order in English.(Pinkham 2000:87)<br />
<br />
再举一个例子：我们应该为所有这些区域制定正确的开发建设规划。作者将其修改为：我们应该为所有这些区域的发展制定正确的规划。作者认为这里所使用的两个大的抽象概念是一个意思。为了避免把名词“发展”用作形容词，我们应该说：“为了所有这些区域的发展”。这是英语中最简单、最自然的词序。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 12:29, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
再举一个例子：我们应该为所有区域拟订正确的开发建设的计划。作者将其修改为：我们应该为所有区域的发展拟订正确的计划。作者认为这里所使用的两个大的抽象概念意思相同，为了避免把名词“发展”用作形容词，我们应该说：“为了所有区域的发展”，这才是英语中最简单、最自然的词序。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:58, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
'''V. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In summary, ''A Brief History of Western Translation Theories'' by Tan Zaixi recounts the history of western translation theories from ancient times by introducing main characters, translation works, translation schools and other events in the west in historical stages. The book also takes preliminary analysis and discussion into development between theories and practices of translation. There are two different directions in terms of translation theories in the west: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation.<br />
<br />
简而言之，谭载喜所著的《西方翻译理论简史》一书，通过介绍主要的翻译人物、翻译作品、翻译流派以及西方历史舞台上的翻译事件的方式，记录了西方翻译历史。此书还对翻译理论和实践的发展作了初步的分析和讨论。在西方，翻译理论研究分为两个方向，一是文学艺术翻译理论，一是语言学翻译理论。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 14:56, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
The former one extends from the ancient dramas to modern translations. In this regard, translation is considered as literary art, which focuses on recreation of the original. Theorist mostly emphasize culture, style and literariness of the target and the literary talent of the translator. The latter direction is linguistics theories of translation, which combine theories with semantics and syntax, and believe that translating should reach semantic equivalence between the original and the target through vocabulary, grammar and skills of using a language.<br />
文学艺术翻译理论包含了古代戏剧到当代翻译。从这个方面来看，翻译被看作是一种对源文本进行再创造的文学艺术。这些理论家特别强调目标语的文化、风格和文学性的同时，也很强调译者的文学修养。语言学翻译理论则结合翻译理论与语义句法，他们认为翻译应当通过恰当运用词汇、语法、和语言技巧，从而达到源文本和目标语的语义对等。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 03:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
前者涵盖内容从古代戏剧到现代翻译。在这里，翻译被认为是一种文学艺术，其重点在于对原文的再创作。理论家们主要强调译语的文化性，风格和文采以及译者的文学才能。后者指语言学翻译理论，它将理论与语义和句法相结合，并主张翻译应通过词汇，语法和语言技巧的使用达到原文和译文之间的语义对等。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 05:44, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
In the long term, linguistics theories of translation has had predominance of studies of modern translation theories. Theorists hold the view that translation studies ranges from applied linguistics and contrastive linguistics and is closely related to semantics, along with literature and art studies, sociology, anthropology, psychology, theories of communication and so forth.<br />
<br />
长期以来，语言学的翻译理论在现代翻译理论的研究中占有主导地位。理论家认为，翻译研究的范围包括应用语言学和对比语言学，与语义学以及文学艺术研究、社会学、人类学、心理学、传播理论等密切相关。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:16, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从长远来看，翻译语言学理论在现代翻译理论研究中占主导地位。理论家认为，翻译研究不仅涉及应用语言学和对比语言学，而且还与语义学以及文学和艺术研究，社会学，人类学，心理学，传播理论等密切相关。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
长期以来，语言学理论在现代翻译理论中占有主导地位。理论学家认为翻译研究包含应用语言学和对比语言学，同时也与语义学、文学艺术研究、社会学、人类学、心理学、传播理论等相关联。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 07:20, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' by Joan Pinkham summarizes the evidence of the common issues in English translation, which are ones translators in China are usually neglectful of. As Jacques Barzun, Dean of the Graduate Faculties of Columbia University, put it, “The clarity of her explanation is equaled only by the deftness with which she states the point of the English usages and the simplicity of the revisions made in faulty sentences.<br />
<br />
琼·平卡姆所著的《中式英语之鉴》总结了中国翻译常见问题的例证，这些问题是中国译者常常所忽略的。哥伦比亚大学研究生院院长雅克·巴尔赞表示，“琼的论证清晰明了，灵活熟练，在阐述英语用法要点和指出错误句修订的简洁性方面也是如此。”--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:57, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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琼·平卡姆所著的《中式英语之鉴》总结了英语翻译中常见的问题的例证，而这些问题正是中国的翻译者通常所忽视的。正如哥伦比亚大学研究生院院长雅克·巴尔赞所言："她的解释之清晰，只有她对英语用法的阐述之灵巧和对错误句子的修改之简洁才能与之媲美。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:19, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
琼·平卡姆所著的《中式英语之鉴》总结了英语翻译中常见问题的例证，而这些问题通常为中国译者所忽视。正如哥伦比亚大学研究生院院长雅克·巴尔赞所言：“她的解释之所以清晰，是因为她能熟练陈述英语用法的要点，并对错误句子进行简单的修改。”--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 12:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
I know of no books as well adapted as hers to the needs of clumsy writers.” Even though the author doesn’t talk on any translation theories directly in her book, her discussion on Chinglish and the revision she offers do involve some translation criteria and the author tends to uphold domestication in this book. And we can’t deny that as a professional translator from America, with the typical western mindset, the author is inevitably influenced in the spectacular background of western translation history.More importantly, the two books this article refers to have demonstrated that theories must be applied into practice, guide practice and reveal the objective patters inside translating, otherwise theories would lose its vitality.<br />
<br />
据我所知，没有一本书能像她的书那样，满足一些笨拙作家的需求。”虽然本书作者没有在书里直接谈及翻译理论，但她对于中式英语的讨论及修订中就涉及了一些翻译原则，同时她在书中也倾向于支持归化。我们不得不承认，作为一名具有西式典型谦逊特点的美籍专业译者，这个作者难免受到西方翻译史背景的影响。而更为重要的是这本杂志提及到的两本书都提出：理论必须付诸实践、指导实践并揭示翻译的客观模式，否则理论将失去生机活力。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 07:44, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
References:<br />
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[1]巫阿苗,束学军.西方翻译理论流派划分探索.[J].合肥工业大学学报.2011.12.25<br />
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[2]谭载喜.西方翻译简史.[M].北京.商务印书馆.1991.05<br />
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[3]刘银燕.中式英语, 你在使用吗?——《中式英语之鉴》评介.[J].外语教学.2002.09.30<br />
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[4]-[8] Joan Pinkham.The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish. [M].北京。外语教学与研究出版社.2000.05<br />
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主要参考书目:《西方翻译简史》、《中式英语之鉴》<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
<br />
'''Derrida and Benjamin'''<br />
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'''Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View'''<br />
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'''1.Pure Language and Difference'''<br />
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In its essence, translation is a kind of linguistic activity. Therefore, all translation theories involve linguistic issues. Benjamin has presumed a perfect original language as the origin of subsistent languages in real world after summarizing the deflects of subsistent languages. This original language is from God, and has full creativity and cognition, in which, language and spirit, meaning and form, signifier and signified have been united to show the truth through self-manifestation.<br />
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“德里达和本杰明。”<br />
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"德里达和本雅明翻译观的比较"<br />
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"纯粹的语言和差异"<br />
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翻译本质上是一种语言活动。因此，所有的翻译理论都涉及到语言问题。本雅明在总结现存语言偏差的基础上，假设有一种完美的原始语言作为现实世界中现存语言的起源。这种原始的语言来自上帝，具有充分的创造性和认知能力，其中，语言与精神、意义与形式、能指与所指有机地结合在一起，通过表现自我以展现真理。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:54, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
德里达和本杰明<br />
德里达和本杰明翻译观的比较<br />
纯语言与差异<br />
翻译本质上是一种语言活动。因此，所有的翻译理论都涉及到语言问题。本杰明在总结现存语言偏差的基础上，假设有一种完美的原始语言作为现实世界中现存语言的起源。这种原始的语言来自上帝，具有充分的创造性和认知能力，其中，语言与精神、意义与形式、能指与所指有机地结合在一起，通过表现自我以展现真理。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:30, 24 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
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德里达和本杰明<br />
德里达和本杰明翻译观的比较<br />
纯语言与差异<br />
翻译本质上是一种语言活动。因此，所有的翻译理论都涉及到语言问题。本杰明在总结现存语言偏差之后，推测出一种完美的原始语言作为现实世界中现存语言的来源。这种原始的语言来自上帝，具有完全的创造性和认知能力，其中，语言与精神、意义与形式、能指与所指有机地结合在一起，通过自我表现以展示真理。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 06:30, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
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Benjamin has pointed out that with the corruption of human, the language has no longer been one but multiple. Naming language has corrupted into the abstract conceptual language. '''(Cao Danhong 6)''' In this way, it descended to instrumental signs. It refers to things in various manual systems but it can never covey the universality through self-manifestation, so the relationship between the human and world has changed from the intersubjectivity into subject-object dichotomy where human dominates.'''(Wei Jiangang & Sun Yingchun 75)'''<br />
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本雅明指出，由于人类进化，语言已不再只有一种，而是多种多样。命名语言遭到破坏，成为抽象概念性语言。（曹丹红）这样，语言就从命名语言降为符号语言，指各种人工系统中的事物，但永远不能通过自我表现来追求普遍性，因此人与世界的关系从主体间性转变为由人主导的主客体二分法。（魏建刚，孙迎春）--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 07:55, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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本杰明指出，由于人类的堕落，语言已不再只有一种，而是多种多样的。命名语言遭到破坏，成为抽象概念性语言。（曹丹红）这样，语言就降为指示符号，指各种人工系统中的事物，但永远不能通过自我表现来追求普遍性，因此人与世界的关系从主体间性转变为由人主导的主客体二分法。（魏建刚，孙迎春）--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 02:41, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
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In another word, due to language descended from the original “being” into lower “having”. Therefore, it has become the synonyms of “abstract”, “judgement” and “meaning”. Language has never been a medium but a kind of means used in communication of “subjects” '''(Wohlfarth 27)'''. As a result, meaning has been the external reference out of sign itself, instead of spirits of self-manifestation of pure language.<br />
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换句话说，由于语言从原始的“成为”下降到更低层次的“拥有”。因此，它成为“抽象”、“判断”、“意义”的同义词。语言从来就不是一种媒介，而是一种“主体”交流的手段。（沃尔法思27）因此，意义已不再是单纯语言的自我表现精神，而是符号本身的外在参照。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:55, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
换言之，由于语言从最初的“有”演变为更低级的“有”。因此，它成为“抽象”“判断”以及“意义”的同义词。语言从来都不是媒介，而是“主体”交流时使用的一种手段。（沃尔法斯 27）.因此，意义已经成为符号本身之外的外部参照，而不是纯粹语言自我修炼的精神。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
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And the relationship between signified and signifier is actually external instead of being original, direct and internal. Paul De Man has said that we think we use our language freely. We feel comfortable and familiar with the dwelling place within our language, in which we thought we weren’t alienated, but we don’t notice that this kind of alienation has been shown strongly in our relationship with our original language. It has been disintegrated already, which bring a special alienation, a peculiar pain. '''(Paul De Man, 99)'''<br />
所指与能指之间的关系实际上是外在的而不是原先就有的直接内在联系。保罗德曼曾说过，我们认为自己可以自由地使用语言。在我们自己的语言社区，我们感到舒适和熟悉。在这里，我们感到我们没有被疏远。但是我们没注意到这种疏远已经强烈地表现在我们与源语言的关系中。而且这种关系已经分裂了，这带来了一种特殊的疏离，一种奇怪的痛苦。（保罗德曼，99）--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:08, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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所指与能指之间的关系实际上是外在的而不是原先就有的直接内在联系。保罗德曼曾说过，我们认为自己可以自由地使用语言。我们所生活在的语言区使我们感到舒适和熟悉，在这里我们不会有疏离感，但是我们没有注意到这种疏离感在我们与源语言的关系中得到了强烈体现。 这种关系已经瓦解了，带来了一种特殊的疏离，一种奇怪的痛苦。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 04:07, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
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Benjamin has set the transcendental existence of pure language in order to make the path of salvation to human clear, that’s to say to find the lost pure language is to unite the world together. Benjamin thinks that, all practical languages have a common origin and among themselves a kind of affinity that goes beyond the history. As, Benjamin once said, “The reference of pure language just like each language that exists as an entirety, is identical.<br />
本杰明为了使人类的救赎之路更明晰而设定了纯语言的先验存在，这就是说，找到遗失的纯语言是将整个世界统一。 本杰明认为，所有实用语言都有一个共同的渊源，并且彼此之间有着超越历史的紧密关联。 正如本杰明曾经说过的：“纯语言的引用就像实体存在的某种语言一样。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:25, 24 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
文学艺术翻译理论包含了古代戏剧到当代翻译。从这个方面来看，翻译被看作是一种对源文本进行再创造的文学艺术。这些理论家特别强调目标语的文化、风格和文学性的同时，也很强调译者的文学修养。语言学翻译理论则结合翻译理论与语义句法，他们认为翻译应当通过恰当运用词汇、语法、和语言技巧，从而达到源文本和目标语的语义对等。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 03:39, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
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However, this reference cannot be achieved through one single language, but through the complement of various languages” '''(Benjamin 61)''' That’s to say, if we want to reconstruct pure language, we have to eliminated the external relationship of linguistic reference and restore the identical relationship between spirit and language, which means to promote the linguistic reference of all languages to form an integral complementary, which call duty on translation.然而，这种指称不是通过单一的语言来实现的，而是通过各种语言的互补来实现的，“（本杰明61）”，也就是说，要重建纯粹的语言，就必须消除语言参照的外在关系，恢复精神与语言的同一关系，这意味着促进所有语言的语言参照形成一个完整的互补，这就需要翻译来工作。--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 05:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
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Only through translation can the mode of reference of source language enter into the target language. Therefore, to Benjamin, the significance of translation is not to covey the basic meaning and content of source language but the changes to both languages after translation, thereby translation can make us to know more about the differences and complementation of each language.<br />
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唯有通过翻译，源语的指称模式才能进入目标语。因此，对于本杰明来说，翻译的重要性在于表现翻译对于两个语言的改变，而不是传达源语基本的意义和内容。因此，翻译能帮助我们了解更多语言的差异和互补之处。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 02:28, 26 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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只有通过翻译，源语言的指称模式模式才能进入目标语言。 因此，对本杰明而言，翻译的意义不是传达源语言的基本含义和内容，而是翻译后两种语言的变化，因此翻译可以使我们更多地了解每种语言的差异和互补性。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 03:01, 26 October 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
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What is different between Benjamin and Derrida is that Derrida has invented the concept of “la differánce", which uses infinitely flowing stream of meaning to overthrow the western logocentrism. Thereout, it has assured the translation view that advocates difference and opposes the identity. Derrida has pointed out that la differánce is the precondition of possibility of multiple meanings so that meaning is the result of its moving. While meaning cannot precedes la differánce, there would be no existence of pure and completely identical origin of meaning, just like what the Babel story reminds us. '''(Davis 10)'''<br />
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班杰明与德里达的不同之处在于，后者提出了“差异”这一概念，它以无限变换的意义流来推翻了西方的逻各斯中心主义。由此，提倡差异、反对同一性的翻译观得以确立。德里达指出:差异是多义可能性的前提，意义是多义运动的结果。虽然意义不能凌驾于差异，但也不会存在纯粹的、完全相同的意义起源，正如圣经故事所示的那样。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 04:28, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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班杰明与德里达的不同之处在于，后者提出了“差异”这一概念，它以意义是无限流动的观点推翻了西方的逻各斯中心主义。由此，提倡差异、反对同一性的翻译观得以确立。德里达指出:差异为多义提供了可能性，意义是多义运动的结果。意义不能凌驾于差异，与此同时，也不会存在纯粹的、完全相同的意义起源，这正如巴别塔的故事所示的那样。（戴维斯，第十页）--Ouyang Ling<br />
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本雅明与德里达的不同之处在于，后者提出了“差异”这一概念，它以意义是无限流动的观点推翻了西方逻各斯中心主义。由此，提倡差异、反对同一性的翻译观得以确立。德里达指出:差异是多义的先决条件，因此意义是多义运动的结果。意义不能凌驾于差异，与此同时，也不会存在纯粹的、完全相同的意义起源，这正如巴别塔的故事所示。（戴维斯，第十页）--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 07:35, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
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In another word, as meaning is in la differánce so that there cannot be any conceptual or theoretic systems no matter it is in one language or in several languages. Meaning always presents its fluidity, uncertainty and diversity. We cannot make meaning independent of language nor can we make language independent of meaning. On the contrary, meaning is already in language so meaning is the linguistic meaning.<br />
换句话说，由于意义是不同的，所以不管是在同种语言中抑或是不同的语言中，意义都不会有概念上的或是理论上的系统。意义总是呈现出流动性、不确定性和多样性的特质。所以我们不能把意义与语言相互脱离。反而，意义与语言是共存的，意义就是语言意义。<br />
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==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
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Due to the language is so complicated, fickle, ambiguous and different with itself, thus, meaning is also unclear ambiguous and even mysterious. '''(Cai Xinle 200)''' What we can discuss is only the relationship of difference instead of the transcendental identity. In Derrida’s view, word is in a dynamic state, we can only understand it, describe it or listen to its voice in such a dynamic condition.<br />
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由于语言复杂、多变、模棱两可、与自身不同，因此，意义同样也模糊不清，甚至很神秘。（蔡新乐 200）我们所能讨论的只是差异的关系，不是超验的同一性。德里达认为，词汇处于动态变化之中，我们只能在这样一个动态的环境下理解它、描写它，倾听它的声音。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 12:32, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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由于语言是如此的复杂，多变，模棱两可，与自身不同，因此，其意义也是含糊不清，甚至是神秘的。(蔡新乐200)我们所能讨论的只是差异的关系，而不是先验的同一性。在德里达看来，词汇处于动态变化之中，我们只能在这样的动态环境下理解它、描述它或者倾听它的声音。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 03:24, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言复杂、多变、意义模糊、与自己的符号系统存在差异，因此，意义同样也模糊不清，甚至很神秘。（蔡新乐 200）我们所能讨论的只是差异的关系，不是超验的同一性。德里达认为，词汇处于动态变化之中，我们只能在这样一个动态的环境下理解它、描写它，倾听它的声音。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 08:49, 26 October 2020 (UTC)Meng ying<br />
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==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
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If we must establish an origin, the difference will be it. Derrida has regarded the difference as the origin, aiming to explain that in the very beginning where meaning formed, that’s to say the source has already had initial difference among meanings. The so-called purity has been contaminated and the source is rather complicated. '''(Zhu Gang 20)'''<br />
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如果必须要建立一个起源，那么差异将就在于此。德里达视起源为不同之处，意图阐释早在意义形成的最开始，在不同意义中，其原材料已开始各有不同。所谓的纯粹早已被玷污，原材料也极其复杂。(朱刚 20)--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:42, 26 October 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
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Derrida and Benjamin all oppose to structural linguistic view. What is different is that Benjamin opposed the human control and domination of language by emphasizing the identity of language and spirit. We’d rather to say that it’s opposed to structuralism but to the opposite relation between the subject and object. In essence, Benjamin is not against the concepts like structure, order, and center etc. He just opposes the structure, order and center etc. that are based on the interference to language done by the subject-object relationship, emphasizing that language will not be constrained by the fetter of any subject-object relationship.<br />
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德里达和本杰明都反对结构语言学观点。 不同的是，本杰明通过强调语言和精神的身份，反对人类对语言的控制和支配。 我们宁愿说这与结构主义相反，而不是主体和客体之间的关系相反。 本质上，本杰明并不反对诸如结构，顺序和中心等概念。他只是反对基于主客关系对语言干扰的结构，顺序和中心等概念，强调语言不会受任何主客关系的束缚。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 02:50, 26 October 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
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德里达和本杰明都反对语言学中的结构理论。但不同的是，本杰明通过强调语言和精神的同一性，反对人类对语言的控制和支配。我们宁愿说这与结构主义相驳，而不是说这是主客体之间对立的关系。从本质上看，本杰明并不反对诸如结构，顺序和中心等概念。他只是反对基于主客体关系对语言有干扰的此类概念。他强调需要不会受任何主客体关系的束缚。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 09:03, 26 October 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
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If we consider more carefully, he doesn’t disapprove the logocentrism completely as he just emphasizes that logocentrism cannot be constructed and learned by the subject and object relation. It must be built and realized by the way of unintentionality or the “presence” of logos will be delusive. On the contrary, Derrida is refusing any metaphysics during the process of his deconstruction of any conceptual system. In his opinion, Benjamin has not cast off the set pattern of logocentrism because Benjamin’s “Pure language” is still a construction of a concept, no matter how transcendental and absolute identity it is.<br />
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通过进一步的思考，我们会发现本雅明并不是完全不认同逻各斯中心主义，他强调不能仅依靠主客体关系来构建和学习逻各斯中心主义，必须通过非目的性的方式建立起逻各斯，否则逻各斯的存在将毫无意义。与之相对的，德里达则反对在概念系统的解构中一切形而上学的观念，他认为本雅明提出的“纯语言”观点是又一形而上学概念的构建，不论此概念体现出了超验主义或是绝对同一性，它都没有丢弃逻各斯中心主义的固定模式。--Ouyang Ling<br />
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如果我们更仔细地想想，我们会发现本雅明并非完全反对逻各斯中心主义，他只是强调不能依靠主客体关系来构建和学习该中心主义，我们必须通过非故意的方式建立起逻各斯中心主义，否则它只会迷惑人。相反，德里达在解构任何概念系统的过程中拒绝任何形而上学的观点。他认为本杰明并没有摆脱逻各斯中心主义的模式，因为无论本杰明的"纯语言"达到何种程度的超验性和绝对同一性，它仍然是概念构建。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 14:48, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
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Videlicet, if God were the person who deconstructs, we would see that rationality dominates everything and logos will be the deconstruction in the speaker’s status. It would not be the deconstruction of deconstruction. Once there is an unshakable center, logos will take the domination and everything will obey the authority in the center. Therefore, in order to avoid constructing any central system or structure, Derrida take the difference as the origin of everything.<br />
换言之，如果上帝是那个解构的人，我们会发现理性主导着一切、逻各斯将会解构说话者的地位。它不会成为解构之解构。一旦出现了一个不可撼动的中心，逻各斯会占据主导地位，所有事情都服从于中心的权威。因此为了避免构建任何中心系统或中心结构，德里达主张万物的起源是差异。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 02:05, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
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There will be no identity and everything is constantly reproducing and differentiating, so it presents nothing but difference. At any moment, it’s different from others as well as itself. In this way, the identity doesn’t exist. All we can observe is the dynamic stuff, which constantly changes.<br />
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从此将没有身份，一切都在不断地复制和分化，所以它呈现的只是差异。在任何时候，它都不同于别人，也不同于它自己。这样，同一性就不存在了。我们所能观察到的是动态的东西，而这些动态的东西都在不断变化。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 11:05, 30 October 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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'''2. Metaphrase and Relevant Translation'''<br />
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As Benjamin and Derrida has different linguistic view, their comprehension about the translation criterion are also different from each other’s. Benjamin thinks that in various languages, the ultimate essence, pure language, is only relevant to the linguistic factors and its changes. In linguistic works, it bears heavy alien meaning. Translation’s unique function is to make the pure language get rid of this heavy burden, to turn the symbolic action into symbolic objects itself, to make the pure language reoccur during the linguistic transition. '''(Benjamin, 67)'''<br />
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2.短语和相关翻译<br />
由于本杰明和德里达的语言观点不同，因此他们对翻译标准的理解也有所不同。 本杰明认为，在各种语言中，最终的本质，即纯语言，仅与语言因素及其变化有关。 在语言作品中，它带有沉重的外来意义。 翻译的独特功能是使纯净的语言摆脱繁重的负担，将符号动作转化为符号对象本身，并使纯净的语言在语言转换过程中重新出现。 （本杰明，67）--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 10:12, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
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In other words, real languages, without exception, refer to things externally. To recover the identity of language and spirit, we must let the language to break the shackle of meaning while the effects of translation are to make the two languages free of the heavy burden by making the modes of reference of the two languages complementary of each other. To judge whether translation of a work is successful is to observe the combination of signifier and signified of language.<br />
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换句话说，纯语言全都指代外部事物。要恢复语言和精神的同一性，我们必须让语言打破意义的枷锁，而翻译的作用是通过让两种语言的指代方式互补从而摆脱这种繁重的负担。判断作品的翻译是否成功，就要观察语言能指和所指的组合关系。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:13, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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换句话说，纯语言全都指代外部事物。要恢复语言和精神的同一性，我们必须让语言打破意义的枷锁。翻译所要达到的效果就是利用两种语言之间的互补，让这两种语言从翻译的束缚中解放出来。判断一篇翻译作品是否成功，就是看其语言能指和所指之间的组合关系。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 01:46, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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换句话说，无一例外，所有纯语言全都指代外部事物。如果我们想要恢复语言和精神的同一性，就必须让语言打破意义层面上的枷锁。翻译是通过建立两种语言之间的互补性让它们摆脱摆脱重负。判断一篇翻译作品是否成功的标志，就是看其语言能指和所指之间的组合关系是否准确。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 02:31, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
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Benjamin thinks Hölderlin’s translation work is the perfect sample of for instance, his works are almost perfect transition of texts because they are absolutely literal translation and metaphrase but also not readable. It dismembered the sentences, leading to the consequence that meaning is missing. '''(Paul De Man 104)''' To Benjamin, the translation that gets the language out of the shackle of meaning, and makes the language manifest itself to covey the spirits is the best translation..<br />
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本杰明认为，霍尔德林的翻译作品是完美的范例，例如，他的作品几乎是文本的完美转变，因为它们绝对是直译和逐字逐句的，但也不可读。 它肢解了句子，也导致了句子意义缺失。 （保罗·德曼104）对本杰明而言，使语言摆脱意义的束缚并使语言表现出来以传达精神的翻译是最好的翻译。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 15:50, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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本杰明（Benjamin）认为霍尔德林（Hölderlin）的翻译作品是完美的范例，几乎是文本的完美再现，因为是绝对直译和逐字逐句翻译的，但是也无法阅读。其译文剖析了句子，却导致了句子意义流失。（保罗·德曼104）本杰明认为，翻译能帮助语言摆脱意义的束缚，让其表现出来并传递精神，才是最好的翻译。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 02:22, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
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Anyway, translation has to turn back to language itself, to the reference of language, to reach pure language commonly shared by the two languages by complementing the modes of reference of source language and target language. Benjamin declares that the interlinear version of Babel is the prototype of all translation due to the reason that Babel is the words of God, which are so true that language identifies with spirit.<br />
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无论如何，翻译必须回归语言本身，回到语言的指称中去，直达纯语言。这种纯语言通过源语和目的语指称模式的互补而由这两种语言所共享。本雅明称，不同文字隔行对照版的巴别，是所有翻译的原型。因为巴别是上帝的语言，它是绝对正确的，因而它即是精神。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 13:00, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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无论如何，翻译必须回归语言本身，回到语言的指称中，去达到所谓的纯语言。这种纯语言就是通过源语和目的语指称模式的互补，并由这两种语言所共有。本雅明认为，隔行对照版的巴别塔就是所有翻译的原型。这是因为巴别塔是上帝的语言，它是绝对正确的， 与精神保持一致。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 03:08, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
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Derrida is totally different from Benjamin’s proposition that he proposes the relevant translation. In general, “relevant” is the best translation in Derrida’s view, which is also the sort of translation expected by people. It’s a kind of translation that fulfills its duty and finishes its mission. It’s that kind of translation that finds the most comparatively accurate words for the expressions in the source text, that language used is the most correct, appropriate, relevant, direct and apropos…<br />
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德里达与本杰明提出相关翻译的主张完全不同。一般来说，在德里达看来，“相关”是最好的翻译，也是人们期待的那种翻译。它是一种尽职尽责、完成使命的翻译。这种翻译能为原文中的表达找到最准确的词语，所用的语言就是最正确、最恰当、最相关、最直接、最恰当的…--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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德里达与本杰明的翻译主张完全不同。德里达提出了对照翻译。一般来说，在德里达看来，“对照”是最好的翻译，也是读者们想要的翻译。这种翻译方法尽职尽责且能完成其翻译使命，它会（在目标语言中）找到能够最准确表达原文的词语，它所使用的（目标）语言是最正确、最恰当、最中肯、最直接、最合适……--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:33, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
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Obviously, Derrida is trying to use a series of words to set standard for the best translation or the ideal translation. What’ a pity is that many scholars believe the literal meaning that such is what set by Derrida, ignoring the implication. '''(Wang Yingchong 15)''' However, if we reflect on the “relevant”, we can hardly make what it means clear, and Derrida himself has made no ostension on “relevant”, thus, this is actually the word game of Derrida that meaning being not assured makes translation impossible.<br />
很明显，德里达正努力用一系列的词设立一个标准，来鉴定最好的翻译或者最理想的翻译。遗憾的是 ，许多学者都认为德里达所定义的字面意义忽略了暗含意义（王英冲 15）。然而，如果我们仔细考虑“相关性”，就很难弄清楚意思，而德里达本人并未明确定义“相关性”，因此，意义的不确定使翻译不可能，这实际上是德里达的语言游戏。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 02:33, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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显而易见，德里达在尝试用一些词来设立一个标准，从而来评判出最佳翻译或者最理想的翻译。遗憾的是 ，许多学者都认为德里达所定义的标准在字面意义上忽略了其内在意义。（王英冲 15）。然而，如果我们仔细考虑“相关性”，就很难弄清楚意思。而德里达本人并未明确定义“相关性”，因此，意义的不确定使得翻译不可能存在，这实际上是德里达的文字游戏。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:03, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
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With the trick of the untranslatability of the word “relevant”, Derrida implies the deconstruction of his standard of translation. What Derrida really wants to express is that if there was a standard of translation, and the standard would work as the same, then would the standard still support itself? The untranslatability of “relevant” has already told us the untranslatability, not mentioning the translation standard. In Derrida’s point of view, meaning is already the delayed presence, leading to the result that translation is a debt that translator can never pay off, a mission that translator can never finish. Therefore, can text really not be translated?<br />
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借助“相关性”一词不可翻译性这一诀窍，德里达（Derrida）隐晦地解构了解构了他的翻译标准。德里达真实想表达的是，如果存在一个翻译标准，并且该标准生效，那么这个标准能否继续支撑自己？“相关性”的不可翻译性已经告诉了我们不可翻译性的存在，更不用说翻译标准了。在德里达看来，意义已经是延迟的存在，导致翻译是一种译者永远无法还清的债务和永远无法完成的使命。所以，文本真的不可翻译吗？--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 15:25, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
借助“相关性”一词不可翻译性这一技巧，德里达隐晦地解构了他的翻译标准。德里达真正想表达的是，如果存在一个翻译标准，并且该标准生效，那么这个标准能否继续支撑它自己？“相关性”的不可翻译性已经告诉了我们不可翻译性的存在，更不用说翻译标准了。在德里达看来，意义已经是延迟的存在，导致翻译是译者永远无法还清的债务和永远无法完成的使命。所以，文本真的不可翻译吗？--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 02:24, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
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Derrida says that we have to know what relevant translation is, what relevant translation means and what the essence of translation is, its mission, ultimate purpose and final mission. On one hand, relevant translation, no matter wrong or right, is generally better than irrelevant translation, and is likely to be viewed as the best translation. The definition of translation skopostheorie and the definition of the essence of realization in translation are contained in the definition of relevant translation. Therefore, the question that what relevant translation is goes back to what translation is or what should the translation be. While what the translation should be seems to be equal to what the possible best translation would be. '''(Derrida 429)'''<br />
德里达说，我们必须知道什么是相关翻译，什么相关翻译意味着什么，翻译的本质是什么，其使命，最终目的和最终使命。 一方面，无论是对是错，相关的翻译通常比不相关的翻译要好，并且可能被视为最佳翻译。 翻译目的论的定义和翻译中实现实质的定义包含在相关翻译的定义中。 因此，相关翻译是什么的问题可以追溯到什么是翻译或应该是什么。 虽然翻译应该看起来与可能的最佳翻译是相等的。 '''（德里达429）--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 16:16, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
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Therefore, Derrida’s discussion about the standard of translation goes back to the translatability and untranslatability. Actually, what Derrida wants to prove is that translation itself is a paradox, that is, just in the untranslatability can translation exist and go on. The original text always owes to translation, and constantly summons translation, and in a larger sense, anything meaningful calls for interpretation. '''(Wang Yingchong 17).''' Whereas, the good translation or the translation standard can only be discussed in absolute translatability; pursuit of translation in absolute untranslatability will be nonsense, and it can only be infinitely approached but never reached as once it become absolute translatability, which means translation presents the meaning in limitless differánce in presence, the identity occurs, then the translation will be unnecessary.<br />
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因此，德里达对翻译标准的讨论回到了可译性和不可译性。实际上，德里达想要证明的是翻译本身就是一个悖论，也就是说，只有在不可译性中，翻译才能存在并继续下去。原文总归是要感激翻译的，并不断呼唤翻译，从更大的意义上讲，任何有意义的东西都需要诠释。”(王颖重 17)。然而，好的翻译或翻译标准只能在绝对可译性中讨论;追求绝对不可译性的翻译是毫无意义的，它一旦成为绝对可译性，就只能无限接近而不能达到，这意味着翻译在存在中以无限的差异呈现意义，一旦出现同一性，那么翻译就没有必要了。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:53, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
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In short, Derrida and Benjamin have different view on translation. Benjamin worships metaphrase through which two languages can supplement each other’s referential pattern to manifest the pure language, whose spirits are the best translation. While Derrida plays a small fraud that he sets relevant translation as translation criterion but he doesn’t make it clear, in which way he indicates his ideas of untranslatability and that pursuit of translation in absolute untranslatability will be nonsense, and it can only be infinitely approached but never reached.<br />
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本杰明崇尚元短语，通过元短语，两种语言可以互相借鉴方法，以体现纯语言，双语言精神便是最好的译著。德里达则耍了一个小骗局：他把相关的翻译作为翻译的标准，但标准却模糊不清，这样他就表明了他对不可译性的想法；还有德里达认为在绝对不可译性中追求翻译是无稽之谈。不可译性只能无限接近，却永远触及不到。简而言之，德里达和本杰明对翻译有不同的看法。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 03:20, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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本杰明推崇元短语，通过元短语，两种语言可以互相借鉴方法，以体现纯语言，双语言精神便是最好的译著。德里达则耍了一个小骗局：他把有关的翻译作为翻译的标准，但其标准却模糊不清，这样他就表明了他对不可译性的想法；还有德里达认为在绝对不可译性中追求翻译是无稽之谈。不可译性只能无限接近，却永远触及不到。简而言之，德里达和本杰明对翻译有不同的看法。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:59, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
'''3. Afterlife and Rebirth'''<br />
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Benjamin also differs most from Derrida in the insight of the relationship between the original work and translation work. In Benjamin’s perspective, the purpose of translation is to promote the complementation of referential modes of different languages so as to restore the identity. Therefore, translation work is never the copy or reappearance of the original work, but the supplement and succession of the original work and in turn, original work can only rely on its translation work to refresh its vitality and go on its subsistence.<br />
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3.来世和再生<br />
在原作和译作的关系视角方面，本杰明和德里达也十分不一样。本杰明认为，翻译的目的是不同语言参考模式的补充，以保持语言的身份。因此，译作从来不是原作的复制或再现，相反，是原作的补充以及接续，原作只能依赖译作以保持其活力和生命力。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 01:18, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
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Various forms of life closely correlate with biological phenomena though it has no great significance to biological phenomena. Translation work grows out of original work or we’d rather say it originates from the afterlife. Due to the fact that original work precedes the translation work, and in the range of world literature, no great works meets a perfect translator when its author is still alive, so translation work only marks the continuity of the original work. '''(Benjamin 76)''' Benjamin has regarded the original work as vigorous organism so that translation is viewed as the continuity of original work, which is also the afterlife of original work. Benjamin stresses that life is a historical concept instead of the existential concept. Life doesn’t limit within biological body. Only when we view life as a historical process of organism survival, can the concept of life be understood correctly.<br />
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不同的生活方式与生物现象密切相关，尽管前者对后者影响不大。译作源于原作，或者我们可以说译作源于原作的来世。由于原作先于译作而存在，世界文学中的伟大作品在其作者在世时都遇不到完美译员，因此译作仅仅标志着原作在延续。（班杰明76）班杰明把原作看作充满活力的有机体，因而译文视为原作的延续，也就是原作的来世。班杰明强调，生命是一个历史概念，而非存在主义概念。生命不受限于生物体而存在。只有当我们把生命看作有机体存活的历史进程，生命的概念才能得以正确理解。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 08:15, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
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With this sense, translation work being the continuity of original work can be comprehended. Those that was flashy will corrupt and those that was fashionable will become old. So does the linguistic form. The linguistic form of the original work will die out with time passing by, but the life of original work will not die with the existential form of original work. With the help of translation work, the life of original work will be continued, updated and expanded, thus being constantly succeeded in its life history. Hence, translation was like the source of rejuvenation. '''(Kramer 24)'''<br />
在这个意义下，我们可以理解翻译作品是对原作的延续。那些浮华的终将腐败，那些时尚的也终将落伍。语言学的形式也是如此。原作的语言形式会随着时间的流逝而褪去，但原作的生命却不会因它的存在形式消亡，在翻译这项工作的扶持下，原作的生命得以延续、更新和扩展，从而在其生命史上不断取得成功。因此，翻译就像是复兴的源泉。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从这个意义上讲，我们可以把译作理解为原作的延续。那些浮华俗丽的译作将会腐化，那些时尚流行的将会落伍。译作的语言形式也是如此。随着时间的流逝，原作的语言形式将会逐渐消失，但原作的生命却不会随其存在形式而消亡。译作使得原作的生命得以延续，得以更新，得以延伸，因而原作能在其生命历程中不断取得成功。因此，翻译就好比是活力之源。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 08:49, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
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The final purpose of language is to meet our needs to show that the relation among languages is quite close. Translation cannot reveal or build such hidden relation, but translation can reoccur it by intensification and embryotic appearance. Right through the expression of embryotic form, it makes relation among languages reoccur. (Benjamin,60) Accordingly, translation is not the birth of original work nor the death of original work but the living on of the original. It’s the birth after death and death after birth. In this way, Benjamin has assured the position of the original work which is higher than the translation work, on which the original work depends to continue its life. Translation can never be equal to the original work because only the original language has the vigor to embody the fruit of pure language.<br />
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语言的最终目的是满足我们的需求，以展示语言之间的关系是非常密切的。翻译不能揭示或建立这种隐藏的关系，但翻译可以通过强化和再生的形式重现这种关系。正是通过再生形式的表达，使语言之间的关系得以重现。（本杰明，60）因此，译作不是原作的诞生，也不是原作的消亡，而是原作生命的延续。译作成为原作永恒的来世。这样，本雅明就确定了原作的地位高于译作，而原作依靠译作得以继续生存。译作不可能等同于原作，因为只有原作才有活力体现纯语言的成果。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 15:20, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言的最终目的是满足我们的需求，以展示语言之间的关系是非常密切的。翻译不能揭示或建立这种隐藏的关系，但翻译可以通过强化和再生的形式重现这种关系。正是通过再生形式的表达，使语言之间的关系得以重现。（本杰明，60）因此，译作不是原作的诞生，也不是原作的消亡，而是原作生命的延续。译作是生死的轮回。这样，本杰明就确定了原作的地位高于译作，而原作依靠译作得以继续生存。译作不可能等同于原作，因为只有原作才有活力体现纯语言的成果。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:20, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
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Compared to that, Derrida thinks that translation work is the rebirth of the original work and notes that there are two implications in “rebirth”, which are given by “Fortleben and Uberleben” in Benjamin’s The Task of Translator, indicating that life will continue, consistent and survival continues, but it also indicates resurrection after death. Derrida emphasizes that original work has equal and independent position with translation work, which are complementary for each other. If the original text calls for supplement, that’s because it’s not flawless, complete, entire and self-identified. The original texts to be translated fell into exile from the very beginning. '''(Derrida 2003)'''<br />
相比这个，德里达认为，翻译作品是再生的原创作品并指出“再生”有两个含义。这个在本雅明的《译者的任务》一书中有提到。这表明生活还将继续，一致和生存继续。但它也表明了死后复活。德里达强调原文和翻译作品具有平等和独立的地位，两者相辅相成。如果原文需要补充的话，那是因为它是不完美的、不完整的和没有自我认同的。从一开始原文就被放逐。（德里达2003）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 05:21, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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All in all, Derrida and Benjamin have shown their distinctive comprehension about the original work and translation work. Benjamin has claimed that translation work is the afterlife of original work and original work also depends on translation to continue its life. Due to the fact that only the original work can deliver birth to pure language, although the very relations among languages can be reoccurred in translation work, original work ranks first. Derrida holds another opinion that the two, original work and translation work are equal and complementary.<br />
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总之，德里达和本杰明对原作和翻译工作表现出了他们独特的理解。本雅明曾说，翻译是原作的来世，原作也要靠翻译来延续其生命。由于只有原作才能表达出纯语言，虽然语言之间的关系可以在翻译工作中重现，但原作是排在第一位的。德里达则持另一种观点，认为原作和翻译工作二者是平等互补的关系。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:29, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
总之，德里达和本杰明对原作和译作都表达了他们独特的见解。本雅明认为译作是原作的来世，原作靠译作来延续其生命力。虽然语言之间的关系可以在译文中重现，但是只有原作才能产生纯粹的语言，所以原作排在第一位。德里达却认为原作和译作二者是平等互补的关系。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 02:08, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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Secondly, on the aspect of the author, deconstructivism emphasizes the intertextuality instead of the author, declaring that God was already dead and trying to overthrow the concept that author is the source of meaning from the ground level, so translation views of deconstructivism denies the originality of the author and even the copyright of the author(Jiang Xiaohua & Zhang Jinghua 42). However, Benjamin advocates the originality of the author. Though he has not mentioned the issues about author’s copyright, we can infer from the emphasis of originality of original work and creativity of the author that he should admit the copyright of the author.<br />
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其次，在作者方面，解构主义强调的是互文性，而非作者，其认为上帝早已死亡，且试图推翻作者是文本意义的来源这一观点，因此解构主义的传统观念是否定作者的原创性甚至也否定作者的版权(蒋晓华&张景华 42)。然而，本杰明却主张作者的原创性。虽然他没有提到作者的版权，但我们可从他强调原创作品的原创性以及作者的创造性推断出他应该也承认作者的版权。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 00:29, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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其次，在作者方面，解构主义强调的是互文性，而非作者，其认为上帝早已死亡，且试图从根本上推翻作者是文本意义的来源这一观点，因此解构主义的传统观念是否定作者的原创性甚至也否定作者的版权(蒋晓华&张景华 42)。然而，本杰明却主张作者的原创性。虽然他没有提到作者的版权，但我们可从他强调原创作品的原创性以及作者的创造性推断出他应该也承认作者的版权。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 01:32, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
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Thirdly, on the aspect of translator, translation view of deconstructivism places the translator in the equal position of author, but at the meantime, it denies the creativity and copyright of translator. What Derrida does is to completely ignore the subjectivity of translator but focus on text. On the contrary, Benjamin does not only emphasize the position of translator and consider that translator contributes creativity as well as author, which just differs in the way of wok and he also points it out that the success of translation depends on the ability of translator.<br />
第三，从译者的角度来说，解构主义的翻译观把译者置于与作者同等的地位，但同时又否定了译者的创造性和版权。德里达所做的就是完全忽略译者的主体性，而把关注点放在文本上。相反地，本杰明不仅强调了译者的地位，认为译者跟作者一样富有创造性，只是作用方式不同而已，他还指出，翻译的成功取决于译者的能力。<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 16:08, 26 October 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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第三，从译者角度来看，解构主义的翻译观使译者处于作者的同等地位，但同时也剥夺了译者的创造力和版权。 德里达的所作所为是完全忽略译者的主观性，而只关注文本。 相反，本杰明不仅强调译者的地位，而且认为跟作者一样，译者也具有创造力，只是形式不同而已。他还指出，翻译的成功取决于译者的能力。 --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:33, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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Fourthly, on the aspect of translation work, translation view of deconstructivism has eliminated the difference between the original work and translation work, believing that original work and translation work supplements each other and coexists with each other; the original work lives on with the help of translation work while the translation work becomes independent text because it succeeds the semantic differánce of the original work.<br />
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第四，译作方面，解构主义的翻译观消除了原作与译作的差异，认为原作与译作相互补充、相互共存，原作借助于译作而生存，而译作因继承了原作的语义差异而成为独立的文本。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 06:34, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第四，在译作方面，解构主义翻译观消除了原作与译作的差异，认为原作与译作相辅相成、相互共存；原作在译作的帮助下得以延续，而译作因继承了原作的语义差异而成为独立的文本。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
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Fifthly, on the aspect of translation criterion, translation view of deconstructivism has deconstructed the traditional translation view that seeks loyalty and equivalence and it has deconstructed the comprehension, extraction and transmission proposed by itself. '''(Wang Yingchong 18)''' As a result, it has treated the translatability and untranslatability in an equal way, indicating that any text can be translatable and untranslatable. Accordingly, the criterion of translation has been dissolved. Compared to Derrida, Benjamin prefers literal translation, advocating that we should promote the supplement of the referential modes of original work and translation work in the general purpose of realizing pure language.<br />
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第五，翻译标准方面，解构主义的翻译观颠覆了传统翻译观所追求的忠实和对等，它对自己提出的理解、提取和传递进行了解构。(王颖冲 18) 因此，它把可译性和不可译性一视同仁，表明任何文本都可以是可译的，也可以是不可译的。据此，翻译的标准被消解了。与德里达相比，本雅明更倾向于字面翻译，主张我们应该在实现纯语言目的同时，提倡原作和译作的参照模式要相辅相成。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 10:24, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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'''Translation Aesthetics<br />
Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
Translation, especially literary translation, is a creative activity in nature. Translation is the pursuit of beauty and truth, and it involves philosophical concerns. Aesthetics, the study of beauty, is an eternal theme of Chinese literature. Ever since the emergence of translation, aesthetics and translation have been closely bonded together. Translation Aesthetics is a perfect combination of translation and aesthetics.<br />
翻译美学<br />
从美学角度研究格拉迪斯的译著《边城》<br />
翻译，尤其是文学翻译，其本质上是一种创造性的活动。翻译追求美，向往真理，它还涉及到哲学的有关重点内容。美学，顾名思义，研究美，它是中国文一项永恒的主题。翻译自出现以来，便于美学紧密相连。翻译美学是翻译与美学的一种完美结合。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:33, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
翻译美学 <br />
从美学角度研究格拉迪斯的《边城》翻译，尤其是文学翻译，本质上是一种创造性的活动。翻译是对美与真的追求，它涉及到哲学问题。美学是对美的研究，是中国文学永恒的主题。自翻译出现以来，美学与翻译就紧密地联系在一起。翻译美学是翻译与美学的完美结合。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 02:18, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
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'''1 About Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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翻译美学<br />
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Translation Aesthetics is to analyze, explain and solve the aesthetic problems emerging in interlingual conversion. Its main contents are aesthetic subjects, aesthetic objects, the aesthetic subject’s experience of aesthetic objects, the methods of representing beauty in translating process, the criteria of translation aesthetics and so forth.<br />
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翻译美学是分析、解读并且解决不同语种对话间出现的问题，主要包括美学主体、美学客体、美学主体的客体经验、翻译过程中传递美的途径、翻译美学标准等等。<br />
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'''1.1 Development of Translation Aesthetics in China'''<br />
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中国的翻译美学发展脉络--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 01:20, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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翻译美学是分析、解释和解决语言转换中出现的美学问题。它的主要包括美学主体、美学对象、审美主体的对象经验、翻译过程中表达美的方式以及翻译美学标准等。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:41, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译美学用于分析、解读和解决语言转换中出现的美学问题，主要包括美学主体、美学客体、审美体验、在翻译过程中如何呈现美感以及翻译美学标准等等。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 11:28, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
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The traditional translation theory in China originated from the translation of Buddhist scriptures more than 1700 years ago. Chinese translation theory has a close relationship with philosophy and aesthetics. In China, aesthetic thoughts have a long history. Confucius, Mencius, Laozi and other famous ancient thinkers put forward their views on aesthetics. In the process of the formation and development of literary translation, ancient aesthetic thoughts provided the ideological basis for it. Classical aesthetic thoughts made subtle influence on Chinese literary translation theories. The translation theories which contain classical aesthetics are naturally different from other countries' translation theories.<br />
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中国传统翻译理论起源于1700多年前的佛经翻译。该理论与哲学、美学有着紧密的联系。在中国，美学思想有着悠久的历史。孔子、孟子、老子等古代著名思想家都曾提出自己的美学观。古代美学思想为文学翻译的形成和发展过程提供了思想基础。古典美学思想对中国文学翻译理论产生了潜移默化的影响。这种包含古典美学思想的翻译理论与其他国家的翻译理论有着天然的区别。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:28, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国传统翻译理论起源于1700多年前的佛经翻译,而这种翻译理论同哲学、美学有着密切的联系。在中国，美学思想有着悠久的历史。孔子、孟子、老子等古代著名思想家都提出了自己的美学观。并且在文学翻译的形成和发展过程中，古典美学思想为其提供了思想基础，产生了潜移默化的影响。因此，这种包含古典美学思想的翻译理论自然不同于其他国家的翻译理论。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:35, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, “Aesthetic constituents of source text can be classified into two systems: formal aesthetic constituents and non-formal aesthetic constituents.”[4]. Formal aesthetic system include the scope of phonetics, morphology and syntax. While the non-formal aesthetic system is non-material, non-natural sensible. It is an indefinite, non-quantitative system. So it is also called “fuzzy sets” or “sets of fuzziness”. All kinds of beauty in the two systems are aesthetic objects, which we will experience in translation.<br />
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基于刘宓庆的翻译理论，“源文本的美学成分可以分为两个系统：正式美学成分和非正式美学成分。”【4】.正式美学系统包括语音学、形态学和句法学的范畴。而非正式美学系统则是非物质、非自然的内容。这是一种不明确，非量化的系统。因此它也被称之为“模糊集”或者“集的模糊性”。在这两个系统中的所有种类的美都是美学目标，而这一体验则会在翻译中体现出来。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 14:47, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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刘宓庆认为，“源文本的审美客体可以分为两个系统：形式系统和非形式系统。”【4】.形式系统包括语音学、形态学和句法学的范畴。而非形式系统则包含非物质、非自然的成分，它是一种不明确，非量化的系统。因此它也被称之为“审美模糊集”或者“集的模糊性”。在这两个系统中，不同种类的美都属于审美客体，这也是我们在翻译中将要感受到的。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 15:39, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
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Yan Fu, a Chinese scholar, once put forward the theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and Qian Zhongshu also put forward the theory of transformation, and so on. All these theories reflect the influence of classical aesthetics on Chinese writers. Reviewing its development, it is not difficult to find that almost all Chinese translation theories have their aesthetic origin.<br />
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中国学者严复提出“信”、“达”、“雅”的翻译原则，钱钟书则提出翻译的转化理论等等，这些理论的提出体现出中国作家受到了不少古典美学的影响。回顾其发展，不难看出几乎所有的中国翻译理论都可从中追溯其美学之源。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:09, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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--[[User:Monan|Monan]] ([[User talk:Monan|talk]])中国学者严复曾提出“信、达、雅”的原则，钱钟书也曾提出过翻译的“转化”理论，等等。这些理论都反映了古典美学对中国作家的影响。回顾其发展历程，我们不难发现，几乎所有的中国翻译理论都可寻其美学渊源。<br />
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中国学者严复曾提出“信”、“达”、“雅”的翻译原则，钱钟书也曾提出翻译的转化理论，等等之类。所有的这些理论都反映了古典美学对中国作家的影响。回顾其发展历程，不难发现几乎所有的中国翻译理论都有其美学之源可寻。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:19, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
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'''1.2 Lin Yutang’s theory of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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In 1933, Lin Yutang put forward three principles for translation: faithfulness, smoothness and beauty in the article of On Translation. The three principles of translation represent three responsibilities respectively: that toward the original author, that toward the reader, and that toward art. Here, fidelity becomes threefold. It is not only the fidelity to the original author, but also fidelity to the target reader and to art. In Lin Yutang’s opinion, translation is a kind of art. The main difference between art and science is that science is guided by the rule, while art is not. As for the standard of beauty in translation, he thought that “Every writing has its beauty in sound, meaning, spirit and style.”<br />
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'''1.2林语堂的翻译美学理论”<br />
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1933年，林语堂在《论翻译》一文中提出了翻译的三个原则：忠实标准，通顺标准，美。 翻译的三个原则分别代表三个责任：对原作者的责任，对读者的责任和对艺术的责任。 这里，能保证三重真实性。 这不仅是对原作者的忠诚，而且也是对目标读者和艺术的忠诚。 林语堂认为翻译是一种艺术，而 艺术与科学之间的最大不同之处在于科学以规则为导向，而艺术则不是这样。 至于翻译的美学标准，他认为“每一篇文章在声音，含义，精神和风格上都有其美感。”<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 02:19, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
1933年，林语堂在《论翻译》一文中提出了翻译的三个原则：忠实、通顺和美。这三个翻译原则分别代表了对原作者、读者和艺术的责任。同时，忠诚也变成了三重奏。忠诚不只是对原作者的忠诚，还包括对读者和艺术的忠诚。在林语堂看来，翻译就是一门艺术。艺术与科学最大的不同就是科学讲究规则，而艺术则无规则可言。他认为翻译中的美的标准就是“任何一篇文章无论是在音韵和意义还是在神采和风格上都有着独特的美。”--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 11:31, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
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[1] The ideal translator should make his work an art. He should love it with the heart of art, be careful with it and regard translation as fine art. Especially when translating literary works, translator should pay more attention to the beauty of words. Lin Yutang believes that the most important thing in literary translation is to embody the style of the original work. That is, “not only what it says, but also how to say it”. From this point of view, Lin Yutang's translation thought is mainly aimed at literary translation. Among his three translation principles (faithfulness, smoothness and beauty), the third principle--beauty is regarded as the most important point in literary translation. Therefore, Lin Yutang's translation thought is also recognized as “translation of aesthetics” by some scholars.<br />
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理想的译者应该使他的翻译成为一种艺术。他应该以一种艺术之心去爱它，小心对待他，并且将翻译当成艺术。尤其是在翻译文学作品的时候，译者应当花更多心思在词汇的优美与否上。林语堂认为在文学作品翻译时最重要的事是体现作品的风格。也就是说，“不仅是看他说了什么，还要看他怎么说的。”从这个角度来看，林语堂的翻译思想主要着眼于文学翻译。在他的三个翻译原则（忠实性，流畅性，和优美程度），第三原则——优美程度，则被看作文学作品翻译中最重要的一点。因此林语堂的翻译思想也被一些学者视为“美学的翻译”。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 07:34, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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理想的译者应该让自己的译文成为一件艺术作品。他/她应该以一颗艺术之心去爱它，小心照料，并且将翻译当成艺术。尤其是在翻译文学作品的时候，译者应当花更多心思在选词优美上。林语堂认为，文学作品翻译时最重要的事莫过于体现作品的风格。也就是说，“不仅是体现原文的内容，还要体现其表达方式。”从这个角度来看，林语堂的翻译思想主要着眼于文学翻译。在他的三个翻译标准（忠实，通顺，美）中，其中第三条美的标准，便成为文学作品翻译中最重要的一条标准。因此林语堂的翻译思想也被一些学者视为“美学的翻译”。<br />
--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:16, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
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So in the article of '''On Translation''' written by Lin Yutang, the main content is about the discussion on translation standards, and the core idea of the full text is that translation is an art. The most important thing in literary translation is to express the beauty of the original work, and to embody the original author's “how to say” in the translation. At the same time, Lin Yutang also affirmed that translation is creation. The translation with beauty features can make the original work be loved by the readers in the foreign culture, spread widely to the other countries, and achieve its equivalent effect in the source language environment to the greatest extent, which is the greatest responsibility and loyalty to the original text, the author, the readers and the art.<br />
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因此，林语堂在《论翻译》一文中主要讨论了翻译标准的问题，全文的核心思想就是翻译是一门艺术。文学翻译最重要的就是要表达原作的美，并在译文中体现原作者是如何表达这种美的。同时，林语堂也认为翻译是一种创作。有美学特点的译作才能够使外国的读者也能喜欢上原作，能够使原作流传更广，也能够尽量达到与原作在原语言环境等同的效果。这也是对原作、作者、读者以及艺术最大的责任和忠诚。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 11:14, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
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'''1.3 Liu Miqing’s theory of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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In 1995, Liu Miqing offers a theoretical framework of Translation Aesthetics in detail in his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics. “Translation Aesthetics refers to the study on aesthetic object (the source text and the target text), the aesthetic subject (translators and readers) and aesthetic activities in translation, such as aesthetic judgments, aesthetic appreciation, and creative aesthetic representation in translation.”[2]<br />
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1.3刘宓庆的翻译美学理论<br />
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1995年，刘宓庆在其著作《翻译美学理论》中详细介绍了翻译美学的理论框架。“翻译美学是指对翻译中审美对象（原文和译文）、审美主体（译者和读者）以及翻译中的审美活动的研究，如翻译中的审美判断、审美欣赏和创造性的审美表现。”[2]--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:26, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.3 刘宓庆的翻译美学理论<br />
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1995年，刘宓庆在《翻译美学导论》一书中详细阐述了翻译美学的理论框架。“翻译美学是指对翻译中的审美客体(原文和译文)、审美主体(译者和读者)和审美活动的研究，如审美判断、审美欣赏、翻译中的创造性审美表征等。”--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:26, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
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“Aesthetic object (AO) refers to the objective matters that human's aesthetic activity targets at.[3] However, not everything in the objective world is aesthetic object. For instance, The Book of Songs on the bookshelf is not an aesthetic object until translator buys and translate it. In the aesthetic process, the translator appreciate the beauty in sound, beauty in form and beauty in sense in the book.<br />
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审美客体（AO）是指人们审美活动所针对的客观事物。【3】然而，在客观世界里，并非所有事物都是审美对象。例如，书架上的诗经只有被译者买下并翻译了，才是一个审美对象。再审美过程中，译者欣赏到了这本书的音美、形美、意美。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 14:42, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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审美对象（AO）是指人们在审美活动中所针对的客观事物。【3】然而，在客观世界里并非所有事物均是审美对象。比如，书架上的诗经只有在被译者买下并翻译之后才能称之为审美对象。在审美过程中，译者体会到了这本书的音美，形美和意美。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 14:58, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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审美对象（AO）指的是人们在审美活动中所针对的客观事物。【3】然而，并不是客观世界里的所有事物都能称之为审美对象。例如，书架上的《诗经》就不是审美对象，只有当译者买下并进行翻译时才能作为审美对象。在审美过程中，译者会欣赏书的音美，形美和意美。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 07:37, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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It clings to the aesthetic constituents and the aesthetic effects of the ST. If one pursues or analyzes the beauty in translation without adequate consideration of the ST, it equals to fish in the air and yields nothing but vainness. The attribute of TAO is different from the attribute of AO. On the one hand, it is attached to the aesthetic composition of SL. That is to say, translator cannot add something that is not in the aesthetic constituents of ST.<br />
审美客体与源语翻译的审美因素及其效果紧密相关。如果一个人追求或分析翻译之美而未曾妥当考虑结构化文本，那就像是鱼在天空那样颗粒无收、徒劳无功。翻译的审美客体因素与审美客体因素是不同的。一方面，翻译审美客体要考虑到源语的审美组成。即译者不能凭空添加不符合结构化文本审美组成的成分--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:46, 23 October 2020 (UTC)。<br />
审美客体与源语翻译的美学因素和美学效果关系紧密。 如果人们在没有充分考虑审美客体的的情况下追求或分析翻译的美，那么它就等于在空中钓鱼，徒劳无益。翻译的审美客体因素与审美客体因素是不同的。一方面，翻译审美客体要考虑到源语的审美组成。 也就是说，译者不能添加不符合结构化文本审美的内容。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, “Aesthetic constituents of source text can be classified into two systems: formal aesthetic constituents and non-formal aesthetic constituents.”[4]. Formal aesthetic system include the scope of phonetics, morphology and syntax. While the non-formal aesthetic system is non-material, non-natural sensible. It is an indefinite, non-quantitative system. So it is also called “fuzzy sets” or “sets of fuzziness”. All kinds of beauty in the two systems are aesthetic objects, which we will experience in translation.<br />
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刘宓庆认为，源语的审美客体包括两种体系：形式审美客体和非形式审美客体。形式审美体系包含语音、形态和句法。而非审美体系是非物质的、非自然的、感性的，是一个不确定的、非定量的体系。因此非审美体系也被称为“模糊集”。这两种体系中的美均是审美客体，我们在翻译中会碰见这种客体。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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The aesthetic subject (AS) refers to people who carry out aesthetic appreciation activity on the aesthetic object; and translation aesthetic subject (TAS) refers to the translator. When translating, translator plays a dual role. For one thing, he is the recipient of the SL text who should first decode the aesthetic information in the SL text. In this process, his role is both passive and subjective. For another, he is identified as the creator of the target text. Being so, he undertakes the task of aesthetic representation to the target text readers. Hence he ought to play his dynamic role as the aesthetic subject.<br />
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审美主体是指对审美客体进行审美欣赏活动的人;翻译审美主体则指的是译者。在翻译中，译者扮演着双重角色。一方面，他作为文本的接受者，首先要对文本中的美学信息进行解码。在这个过程中，他的角色既是被动的，也是主观的。另一方面，他也是目标文本的创造者。所以，他承担着对目标文本读者进行审美再现这一任务。因此，他应该发挥自己作为审美主体的能动作用。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:47, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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审美主体是指对审美客体进行审美欣赏活动的人;翻译审美主体则指的是译者。在翻译中，译者扮演着双重角色。一方面，他作为文本的接受者，首先要对文本中的美学信息进行解码。在这个过程中，他的角色既是被动的，也是主观的。另一方面，他也是目标文本的创造者。所以，他承担着对目标文本读者进行审美再现这一任务。因此，译者应该发挥自己作为审美主体的能动作用。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:52, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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Comparing Lin Yutang’s theory with Liu Miqin’s theory, we can find that their thoughts have something in common. They both agree that Translation Aesthetics plays a significant role in translation, especially literary translation. Lin Yutang believes that literary translation is a creative art with beauty as its soul, so translators should always keep a heart of beauty-pursuit during the process of translating. While Liu Miqing offers a theoretical framework of Translation Aesthetics in detail. He regards source language and target language as aesthetic objects, treats translators as aesthetic subjects, and constructs basic framework of Translation Aesthetics in a dynamic role of subject and object.<br />
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将林语堂的翻译理论与刘宓庆的对比，可以发现他们在思想方面有一些共同点。他们都认可翻译美学在翻译，特别是在文学翻译中的重要地位。林语堂认为文学翻译就是对其灵魂美丽之处的再一次创造，所以译员在翻译时应以追求美感为目的，而刘宓庆则提出了一个关于翻译美学的具体框架，他将源语言与目标语设定为翻译客体，译员为翻译主体，以主客体的动态变化构建一个翻译美学基础框架。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 11:15, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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对比林语堂与刘宓庆的翻译理论，我们发现他们的想法有一些共同之处。他们都认为美学翻译（原则）在翻译中有重要作用。林语堂觉得文学翻译是一种以美为灵魂的、充满创造力的艺术，所以译者在翻译过程中应始终牢记追求美的原则。刘宓庆则提出了美学翻译的具体理论框架。他认为源语言和目标语言是审美客体，译员是审美主体，借助主客体之间不断的相互作用构建美学翻译基本框架。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:58, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
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'''2 A case study of The Border Town from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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''The Border Town'' is Shen Congwen’s masterpiece, which is also the supporting pillar for him to construct Xiangxi. He adopted a pristine love story to display the pursuit of his ideal life. The love story set in a town of Hunan province which is beside Sichuan province. In the 1930s, it is a quite tranquil place without lots of people in rural area. People there live a simple and honest life. The language of the novel is simple, deep, implicit and subtle, and it is in harmony with the content. It contains rich poetic feelings and produces a beautiful and graceful beauty.<br />
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2.从翻译美学的角度看《边城》个案研究<br />
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《边城》是沈从文的代表作，也是他建设湘西的支柱。他通过一个纯朴的爱情故事来表现他对理想生活的追求。这个爱情故事发生在湖南省的一个小镇，与四川省相邻。在20世纪30年代，由于没有什么人住在农村，这是一个相当安静的地方。那里的人过着简单而又实在的生活。小说的语言简单，深邃，含蓄而又微妙，与内容融为一体。它给人以诗情画意般的感受，产生了一种优雅美。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:17, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.从翻译美学的角度看《边城》个案研究<br />
《边城》是沈从文的代表作，也是他建设湘西的主要作品。他通过一个纯朴的爱情故事表现了他对理想生活的追求。这个爱情故事发生在与四川省交界的一个湖南小镇。那是20世纪30年代里的一个人少宁静的乡村地区，村里的人过着简单而又实在的生活。小说的语言朴实，深邃，含蓄而又微妙，与其内容相得益彰。它给人以诗情画意般的感受，散发着一种优雅美。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 04:10, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
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Literary translation is a very important part in translation studies, and it’s a complicated process that requires many different skills. On the one hand, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very necessary for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should pick up the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. On the other hand, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty in the context of the target language. In this part, a case study is conducted in detail based on Gladys Yang’s English translation of ''The Border Town'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics.<br />
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文学翻译是翻译研究中非常重要的一个环节，它也是一个复杂的过程，需要很多不同的技巧。 一方面，作者在创作过程中，审美风格和审美感受的揉入是非常必要的。 因此，译者在翻译的过程中，要拾掇好文学词汇，转化源文本的美感。 另一方面，文学翻译是全方位艺术品质的表现，它可以使目标读者在目标语言的语境中得到类似于原作美感的欣赏体验。 在这部分，从翻译美学的角度，以格莱迪 杨的英译版《边城》为基础，进行了详细的分析。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:05, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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文学翻译是翻译研究中非常重要的一部分，这是一个复杂的过程，需要运用很多不同的技巧。 一方面，作者在创作过程中，审美风格和审美感受的揉入是非常必要的。 因此，译者在翻译的过程中，要精心挑选文学词汇来转化源文本的美感。 另一方面，文学翻译是全方位艺术品质的表现，它可以使目标读者在目标语言的语境中也能欣赏到类似于原作的美感。 在这方面有一个专题研究：从翻译美学的角度，以格莱迪杨的英译版《边城》为基础，对其进行了详尽的分析。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 04:41, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
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The combination of translation theory and aesthetics is traditional Chinese feature, and Translation Aesthetics carry forward traditional translation theory. With the increasingly close communication between China and other countries, Chinese classical aesthetics and Western aesthetics have developed a certain degree of integration, which is also a special form of mutual learning between China and the West in a sense. This kind of reference promotes the development and application of Translation Aesthetics.<br />
翻译理论与美学的结合是中国的传统特色，而翻译美学则是传统翻译理论的传承。随着中外交流的日益密切，中国古典美学与西方美学发展出了一定程度的融合，从某种意义上说，这也是中西相互学习的一种特殊形式。这种借鉴促进了翻译美学的发展和应用。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 02:12, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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翻译理论与美学的结合是中国的传统特色，而翻译美学则是对传统翻译理论的传承。随着中外交流的日益密切，中国古典美学与西方美学在一定程度上有融合的部分。从某种意义上说，这也是中西相互学习的一种特殊形式。这种相互借鉴促进了翻译美学的发展和应用。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
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The aesthetic subject (AS) refers to people who carry out aesthetic appreciation activity on the aesthetic object; and translation aesthetic subject (TAS) refers to the translator. When translating, translator plays a dual role. For one thing, he is the recipient of the SL text who should first decode the aesthetic information in the SL text. In this process, his role is both passive and subjective. For another, he is identified as the creator of the target text. Being so, he undertakes the task of aesthetic representation to the target text readers. Hence he ought to play his dynamic role as the aesthetic subject.<br />
审美主体是指对审美客体进行审美欣赏活动的人;翻译审美主体指的是译者。在翻译中，译者扮演着双重角色。一方面，作为文本的接受者，他首先要对文本中的审美信息进行解码。在这个过程中，他的角色既有被动的，也有主观的。另一方面，他被认为是目标文本的创造者。因此，他承担着对目标文本读者进行审美再现的任务。因此，他应该发挥自己作为审美主体的能动作用。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:17, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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审美主体指的是审美活动的执行者；所以翻译审美主体就是译者。译者在翻译中有着双重角色。其一，作为原文文本的接收者，他首先需要解码原文中的审美信息。在这个过程中，他同时扮演主观和被动的角色。其二，人们认为他是目标文本的创作者。因此，他承担了为目标读者实现审美再现的任务。所以，作为审美主体，译者的角色是能动的。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:47, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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There is a doubt that why Benjamin insists that the fruit of pure language is on the original work’s side, as we mentioned in the beginning that Benjamin want to realize the identity of language and spirit through exhausting all the referential modes of all languages, and making them melt with each other. Though translation is the living-on of original work which just like the baby from a mother, affiliated to the original. Why the final result will be on the original side still needs our attention. During the differánce of texts, original text can become the translation of former text while the translation can be the original text of later text, thus the chain of textual differánce are built.<br />
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为什么本杰明坚持纯语言的成就是基于原作品之上,还是个疑问。正如我们一开始提刀的那样，本杰明想借助所有的语言引用模式来实现语言和精神的统一通过,并将二者融为一体。虽然翻译是原作的延续，就像婴儿生于母亲，翻译附属于原作。为什么翻译最终会附属于原作，仍然需要我们关注。由于文本的差异，原文可以成为前一文本的译文，而译文可以成为其他翻译的原文，如此就构建了文本差异链。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 05:46, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
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However, in Benjamin’s points, translation work is the afterlife of original work doesn’t mean it’s the end of original work’s life nor that translation work replaces the original one to be an independent organism. Benjamin stresses that continuity of life doesn’t pay much attention to the survival of organism, which means that translation is a medium that pushes the original’s life process, a medium that provides a chance for the continuity of original’s life instead of substitution. The mission of translation is to promote the original work’s linguistic life growing until it ripens and fruit the pure language.<br />
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但是，按照本杰明的观点，翻译工作是原创作品的来世，并不意味着这是原创作品生命的尽头，也不是说翻译作品取代了原来的作品成为独立的有机体。 本杰明强调，生命的连续性并没有过多地关注有机体的生存，这意味着翻译是一种推动原始生命过程的媒介，这种媒介为原始生命的延续而不是替代提供了机会。 翻译的任务是促进原始作品的语言生活成长，直到成熟并结出纯净的语言。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 13:35, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但按照本杰明的观点，翻译工作是原作品的来世，并不意味着这是其生命的尽头，也不是说翻译作品取代了原来的作品成为了独立的有机体--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:36, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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The relationship of the two can only be understood in the whole purpose of realizing pure language. What Benjamin expects is through constant translation, we can make the referential modes of original work and translation work interflow until we exhaust all the referential modes to realize the final identity of language and spirit in entity. To the relationship of original work and translation work, Benjamin interprets from the perspective of organism and survival.<br />
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我们只有通过实现纯语言意图的总体性才能理解这两者之间的关系。本雅明希望通过不断的翻译，可以实现原作的意指方式与翻译作品的意指方式相互交融，直至用尽所有的意指方式，最终达到语言与精神在实体上的一致。对于原文与译文的关系，本雅明从有机体和生存的角度进行了阐释。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 03:49, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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二者的关系只有在实现纯语言的整个目的中才能被理解。本雅明所期望的是通过不断的翻译，使原作的意指方式与译作的意指方式相互交融，直至用尽所有的意指方式，实现语言与精神在实体上的最终统一。对于原文和译文的关系，本雅明从有机体和生存的角度进行了阐释。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:01, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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Whereas, Benjamin stresses that translation is the continuity and supplement of original life but at the same time, he disapproves the independence of translation work as the effect of translation work is only to promote the growth of “pure language” existing in original work and translation itself contains no organism of pure language so translation work has not been equipped with translatability.<br />
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但是，本杰明强调翻译是对原作的延续和补充，与此同时，他不认可译作的独立性，因为译作的作用仅仅是促进原作中“纯语言”的成长，并且，翻译本身不包含纯语言有机体，因此译作不具有可译性。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:29, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，本杰明强调翻译是对原著生命的延续和补充，但同时他不赞成翻译工作的独立性，因为翻译工作的作用只是促进原著中存在的“纯语言”的生长，而翻译本身又不包含纯语言的有机体，所以翻译工作不具备可译性。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 04:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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Except for paying attention to the elements of translation, translation aims to find out the ways to produce wonderful works and principles in assessing the quality of translation. Generally speaking, Translation Aesthetics does research on translation theory and practice from the perspective of aesthetics. Its major task is to analyze and elucidate the aesthetic principles, with which we can guide translation practices and assess the literary translation. Moreover, a satisfying version needs some other elements, such as the aesthetic experience of a translator, comprehension of source text, and evaluation and reproduction of beauty.<br />
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翻译除了关注翻译要素外，还要弄清楚用什么方法可以创造出精彩的作品，有哪些原则可以用来评价翻译作品的质量。 一般来说，翻译美学是从美学的角度对翻译理论和实践进行研究的。 它的主要任务是分析和阐明美学原则，用这些原则来指导翻译实践，评价文学翻译。 此外，一个满意的翻译版本还需要一些其他要素，如译者的审美体验、对源文本的理解、对美的评价和再现等。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:44, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译除了关注翻译要素外，还要弄清楚用什么方法可以创造出精彩的作品，有哪些原则可以用来评价翻译作品的质量。 一般来说，翻译美学是从美学的角度对翻译理论和实践进行研究的。 它的主要任务是分析和阐明美学原则，并用这些原则来指导翻译实践，评价文学翻译。 此外，一个令人满意的翻译版本还需要一些其他要素，如译者的审美体验、对原文本的理解、美的评价和再现等。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:18, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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In aesthetics, aesthetic subject and aesthetic object are two concepts and two categories that cannot be separated. There is a dialectical relationship between them. Therefore, a qualified translator should possess the dual characters as the translation aesthetic subject: objectivity and subjectivity.<br />
在美学中，审美主体和审美客体是两个不可分割的概念和范畴。两者之间存在一种辩证关系。因此，一名合格的译者应该具备翻译审美主体的双重特征：主观性和客观性。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:29, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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在美学范畴中，审美主体和客体是两个不可分割的概念。主体和客体之间存在一种辩证关系。因此，一名合格的译者应具备翻译审美主体的双重特征：主观性和客观性。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:03, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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If there are no rhymes in the original, translators should not add rhymes. If there is no irony in the original, translator should not add irony. If there is no hyperbole, translator should not add hyperbole, and so on. On the other hand, it has flexibility for aesthetic subject. In some circumstances, we can’t find an appropriate word to translate which is in line with the ST. Under these circumstances, we should translate it in a flexible way.<br />
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如果原文中没有押韵，译者不应自己添加；如果原文中没有讽刺，译者不应自己添加；如果原文中没有夸张，译者也不应自己添加，以此类推。另一方面，出于美学考虑翻译具有灵活性。在某些情况下，我们无法找到合适的与原文相符的词来翻译。在这些情况下，我们应当用灵活的方式来翻译。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:21, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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如果原文中没有押韵，译者不应该添加押韵；如果原文中没有反语，译者不应该添加反语；如果原文中没有夸张，译者（也）不应该自行添加夸张，等等。另一方面，美学主体具有灵活性。在某些情况下，我们无法找到某个合适的与原文相符的词来翻译。在这些情况下，我们（就）应当用灵活的方式来翻译。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 07:40, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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These beauty in various forms is called “aesthetic object”. Translation aesthetic object (TAO) is the source text (ST) which the translator is about to translate. But not every source text can be TAO. For example, if the source text is inconsistent, empty and has no value to translate, it cannot be translation aesthetic object. TAO possesses aesthetic values and is designed to satisfy human's aesthetic needs.<br />
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不同形式的美都是“美学对象”。翻译美学对象（TAO）就是译者需要进行翻译的原文（ST）。但并不是所有的原文都是翻译审美对象。例如，如果原文自相矛盾，语言空洞，没有翻译的价值的话，它就不是一个翻译美学对象。翻译美学对象不仅需要具备美学价值，还需要迎合人类的美学需要。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:37, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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这些形式各异的美被称为“审美对象”。翻译审美对象（TAO）就是译者需要进行翻译的原文（ST）。但并不是所有的原文都是翻译审美对象。例如，如果原文自相矛盾，语言空洞，没有翻译的价值的话，它就不是一个翻译审美对象。翻译审美对象不仅需要具备美学价值，还需要旨在满足人类的审美需要。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:33, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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'''2.1 Beauty in sound'''<br />
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Sound is one of the fundamental forms which carries the aesthetic information of language, either in poetry, drama or fiction. Guided by the principle of preserving the beauty on the phonetic beauty as much as possible without hindering readers’ understanding, Gladys Yang not only reproduces the original rhyme but also tries to preserve the original sound effect of the onomatopoeias.<br />
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2.1声美<br />
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声音是承载诗歌，戏剧或小说中语言美感信息的基本形式之一。 在不妨碍读者理解的前提下，和尽可能在语音美中保留美的原则指导下，杨韵诗不仅再现了原韵，而且还试图保留拟声词的原声效果。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 01:48, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在诗歌，戏剧或小说中，声音是承载着语言审美信息的基本形式之一。在不妨碍读者理解的前提下，格拉迪斯·杨（Gladys Yang）原则上尽可能保持语音的美感，不仅再现了原韵，而且还设法保留了拟声词的原声效果。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 15:27, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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无论是在诗歌、喜剧还是小说中，声音都是传递语言美的信息的基本形式之一。在遵循尽可能保留语音美且不影响读者理解原文的原则上，戴乃迭（Gladys Yang）不仅还原了原本的韵律，还设法保留了原稳重拟声词的声音效果。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:55, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
'''2.1.1 Rhyme'''<br />
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Generally speaking, rhymes are applied into songs and poems. However, it doesn't mean there is no rhyme in fictions. Technical fiction writers also attempt to select word and phrase patterns so as to make their works imbued with a regular beat. In regard to fiction, rhyme refers to the general way in which a passage moves and flows. “Rhythm, the beauty in sound, often takes the form of wave movement in prose”[5].<br />
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韵律<br />
一般说来，韵脚被应用到歌曲和诗歌中。然而，这并不意味着小说中没有押韵。技术小说作家也试图选择词语和短语模式，以使他们的作品充满规律的节拍。在小说方面，韵脚指的是一篇文章移动和流动的一般方式。“节奏，声音中的美，常以散文中的波浪运动的形式” [5]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:57, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.1 韵律<br />
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一般来说，歌曲和诗歌中会有韵律。但这并不意味着小说中没有韵律。技法小说作家也试图选择词句模式，使作品充满规律的节拍。就小说而言，韵律指的是段落迁移和流动的一般方式。"节奏，是声音中的美，在散文中往往以波浪运动的形式出现"。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:49, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
To be specific, rhyme is a linguistic phenomenon referring to the repetition of the same or similar syllable sounds. It is achieved by the means of repetition, phrase structure, sentence structure and pause. The function of rhyme is mainly of the aesthetic aspect and the semantic meaning. On the one hand, the use of rhyme adds musicality to the literary .On the other hand, it arouses the readers' resonance and satisfaction. Since the rhythmic features contribute greatly to the aesthetic flavor, translators should take them into consideration and try to present the rhyme in the source text.<br />
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（中英举例不用翻译）<br />
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Example 1: 无人过渡时，等着祖父又不来，便尽只反复温习这些女孩子的神气，且轻轻的无所谓的唱着：“白鸡关出老虎咬人，不咬别人，团总的小姐派第一……大姐戴副金簪子，二姐戴副银钏子，只有我三妹没得什么戴，耳朵上长年蜜条豆芽菜。”[6]<br />
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Translation: When no one comes she waits for her grandfather, and when he fails to come she compares the looks of the girls and chants softly: The tiger eats the captain’s daughter first; Most girls have gold and silver for their hair; Poor Emerald is the one who comes off worst-No trinkets, nothing but beansprouts to wear![7]<br />
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具体来说，韵律是一种语言现象，指的是相同或相似音节的重复。它是通过重复、短语结构、句子结构和停顿来实现的。押韵的功能主要表现在审美方面和语义方面。押韵的运用，一方面为作品增添了节奏感，另一方面又能引起读者的共鸣和满足。韵律特征大大提高了诗歌的审美性，译者应充分考虑韵律特征，努力体现原文中的韵味。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 08:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
This folk song sings Cuicui’s heart at that moment. The density of the rhythm contributes a lot to the reflection of Cuicui’s mood. Owing to the poor condition in her family, she could only admire the landlord's daughter's dress and ornaments. The sound / i / and / ai / repeat five times and emerge in different positions of the original text.<br />
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这首民歌唱出了翠翠那时的心声。紧密的节奏有助于反映翠翠的情绪。由于家庭条件恶劣，她只能羡慕地主家女儿的衣服和饰品呢。/ i / and / ai / 音重复了五次，并出现在了原始文本的不同位置。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:30, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这首民歌唱出了翠翠那时的心声。紧密的节奏有助于反映翠翠的情绪。由于家庭条件差，她只能羡慕地主家女儿的衣服和饰品呢。/ i / and / ai / 音重复了五次，并出现在了原始文本的不同位置。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 13:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
When singing, people should open and narrow their mouths forming a beautiful rhythmical meter. In Chinese the sound / i / vividly imitates the sound of weeping, and / ai / is like the sound of sighing. So the shift of the rhyme produces a sort of self-mockery effect to the audience, meanwhile arouses deep sympathy toward the pure girl in the readers’ heart.<br />
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唱歌时，人们应张大嘴巴并张开嘴，形成优美的节奏韵律。 在中文中，/ i /生动地模仿出哭泣的声音，/ ai /就像叹息的声音。 因此，押韵的变化对听众产生了一种自嘲的效果，同时引起了读者内心对纯净女孩的深切同情。 --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:35, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''2.1.2 Onomatopoeia'''<br />
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Onomatopoeia means that an object or something is related to some actions which can be imitated by some vivid words. It is one of the rhetorical devices that are widely used in literary works, which makes great efforts to let speech sound vivid and lifelike. There are plenty of onomatopoeias in English and Chinese, though they have different expression forms, they are all used to imitate the sound. Onomatopoetic words can add interest to the work, which also can create aesthetic effect in literary works.<br />
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'''2.1.2 拟声'''<br />
拟声指与能用生动词语来模仿的动作相关的对象或物体。它是文学作品中广泛使用的修辞手段之一，通过不懈努力，让声音听起来生动逼真。 中英文中有许多拟声词，虽然表达形式不同，但都用来模仿声音。 拟声词可以增加作品的趣味性，也可以在文学作品中创造美学效果。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:45, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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拟声是指用一些生动的词汇来模仿某个对象或与动作相关的物体。拟声是在文学作品中广泛运用的修辞手法之一，尽其所能地让演讲听起来更加生动形象。在英语和中文中都有大量的拟声词，尽管它们的表达方式不同，但都用来模仿声音。拟声词能让作品更具趣味性，也可以在文学作品中创造美学效果。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 02:06, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The onomatopoeias in ''The Border Town'' demonstrate readers with a lively picture and put them in the scene by themselves. Meanwhile, the use of the onomatopoeias also enhances the aesthetic effect of Shen’s literal expressions. It is fortunate that in many cases English and Chinese onomatopoeias can be inter-translated.<br />
《边城》中的拟声词将栩栩如生的画面呈于读者眼前，而且能让读者置身其中。同时，拟声词的运用也增强了沈从文文字表达的审美效果。幸运的是，在很多情况下，英语和汉语的拟声词可以互译。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:45, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过使用拟声词，《边城》将栩栩如生的画面呈现在读者眼前，让读者仿佛置身其中。同时，运用拟声词也增强了沈氏文学表达中的美学效果。英汉拟声词在很多情况下可以互译，这实属大幸。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:54, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
However, sometimes it is impossible to achieve. So it is often hard for aesthetic subjects to render the onomatopoeias accurately and appropriately. In some translations, Gladys Yang has selected appropriate onomatopoeias of other appropriate words not only to imitate the sound but also to denote the original meanings. In the end, the description becomes more concrete and vivid, as it is showed in examples.<br />
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'''（中英文举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Example 2: 那黄狗汪汪的吠着，受了惊似的绕屋乱走，有人过渡时，便随船渡过东岸且跑到那小山头向城里一方面大吠。[8]<br />
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Translation: Barking wildly, he dashes round the house. Next time, passengers are ferried across he follows them up the east bank and races up the hill overlooking town, yapping frantically.[9]<br />
然而，有时也很难实现拟声词的英汉互译。因此，对审美主体来说，将拟声词译得精准无误而又恰到好处，这是十分困难的。在戴乃迭的一些翻译中，他会在合适的词语中挑选出合适的拟声词，这不仅模仿了声音形象还传达了原意。最后，这段描写就会更加明确具体，栩栩如生。正如下面例子所示，--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:35, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''（中英文举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Example 3: 黄狗为了表示同主人的意见一致，也在翠翠身边汪汪的吠着。[10]<br />
<br />
Translation: To show his agreement, Brownie sets up a furious barking.[11]<br />
<br />
In the two examples, there are three “吠”(fèi, meaning bark)，which is as a modifier of the verb “叫”. In the first translation, Gladys uses “barking wildly” to show the dog’s scare. And the second one is translated into “yapping frantically”, which shows that it’s on duty. And the third one is “furious barking” to show its anger. In Chinese, we can only use different adverbs to modify the same verb. However, the same character in Chinese is translated into three different expressions. In this way, the target readers can understand the original clearly.<br />
在这两个例子中，“吠”出现了三次，都是作为动词“叫”的修饰词。第一句的翻译里，格拉迪斯用“barking badly”来表示黄狗的害怕，而在第二个翻译中被翻译成了“yapping frantically”，表示黄狗叫是出于看家的职责，第三个翻译则用“furious barking”表示其愤怒。在中文中，我们会用不同的动词表达一个动词的意思，但是一个汉字却可以翻译成几种表达。这样做可以让目的语读者清楚地明白原文意思。<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
'''2.2 Beauty in lexis'''<br />
<br />
Beauty in lexis is associated with word choice, register, and collocation, and there are many rhetorical devices that contribute to the formal beauty on the lexical level, such as euphemism, zeugma, oxymoron, etc. Shen Congwen, with deep affection to his hometown, writes his fiction in a language as genuine and beautiful as the frontier folk songs in his hometown. His language, which has also enriched the modern vernacularism in China, is imbued with metaphors, local jokes and ballads.<br />
<br />
词汇美与词的选择、语域和搭配有关，词汇层面的形式美有许多修辞手段，如委婉表达、对格法、矛盾修饰法等。沈从文怀着对家乡的深厚感情，用家乡边塞民歌一样真挚美丽的语言，撰写了自己的小说。他的语言中充满了隐喻、地方笑话和民谣，也丰富了中国的现代白话文化。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 01:35, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
词汇美<br />
<br />
词美与词的选择、配位、搭配有关，在词汇层面上，委婉语、理喻、矛盾修辞等修辞手段对形式美有很大贡献。沈从文对家乡有着深厚的感情，他的小说创作语言真实而优美，就像他家乡的边民歌曲。他的语言，也丰富了中国的现代魔术，充满了隐喻，地方笑话和歌谣。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:00, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
As for the aesthetic representation on the lexical level, Yang’s English translation have done a satisfactory job in that she attempts to retain the aesthetic features of original lexis as much as possible, though when it comes to the lexis loaded with heavy cultural connotations, due to the cultural untranslatability, the translator has employed domestication to avoid misunderstanding.<br />
<br />
在词汇层面上的审美呈现中，杨的英译做得很好。她尽可能地保留了原文词汇的美学特征。但由于文化的不可译性，词汇有着浓厚的文化内涵，译者采用了归化来避免产生误解。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:13, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''（中英文举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Example 4: 翠翠在风日里长着，故把皮肤变得黑黑的，触目为青山绿水，故眸子清明如水晶。自然既长养她且教育她，为人天真活泼，处处俨然如一只小怪兽。人又那么乖，如山头黄麂一样，从不想到残忍事情，从不发愁，从不动气。[12]<br />
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Translation: Wind and sun have tanned this growing girl’s skin，her eyes rest on green hills are as clear as crystal. Nature is her mother and teacher, making her innocent, lively and untamed as some small wild creature. She has the gentleness of a fawn and seems not to know the meaning of cruelty, anxiety or anger.[13]<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Shen Congwen's description of Cuicui is based on the perfect combination of a pure little girl and nature. Shen Congwen used “dark black” to describe the natural and healthy skin color of Cuicui. She described the clear and bright eyes of Cuicui as “as clear as crystal”. Only through the description of skin and eyes, the youthful image of Cuicui was vivid. In translation, like “small wild creature” and “fawn”, it shows the lively side of Cuicui.<br />
<br />
沈从文对翠翠的描写是基于单纯小女孩与自然的完美结合。沈从文用“黑”来形容翠翠自然健康的肤色。他形容翠翠清澈明亮的眼睛“像水晶一样清澈”。只有通过对皮肤和眼睛的描写，翠翠青春的形象才显得生动。在翻译中，“小野兽”和“小鹿”这样的词，展现了翠翠活泼的一面。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:59, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
沈从文对翠翠的描写是基于单纯小女孩与自然的完美结合。他用“黝黑”一词来形容翠翠自然健康的肤色，用“像水晶一样清澈”来形容翠翠清澈明亮的眼睛。也只有通过对皮肤和眼睛的描写，翠翠青春的形象才显得生动。在译本中，像“小野兽”和“小鹿”这样的表达也展现了翠翠活泼可爱的一面。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 09:25, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Therefore, whether or not the aesthetic value of the source language image can be reproduced in the translation becomes the key to the reader's ability to understand Cuicui’s character. For example, “dark black” Gladys Yang uses “tanned” to indicate that her skin is a natural and healthy beauty after the sun has shined.<br />
<br />
因此，译文中源语言形象的美学价值是否能重现，成为了读者理解翠翠性格的关键。比如，格拉迪斯·杨（Gladys Yang）使用“晒黑的”（tanned）这个词来表示自己的皮肤经过阳光的照射以后产生了一种自然美与健康美。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:57, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，原文中的美学价值能否在译文中再现成为了读者能否理解翠翠性格的关键。例如，格拉迪斯·杨（Gladys Yang）使用 “tanned”一词来表示“dark black"（晒黑的），以描述她的皮肤经过太阳照射后，是一种健康自然的美。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:42, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
'''2.3 Beauty in form'''<br />
<br />
Like sound and lexis transmitting beauty, syntax and paragraphs also carry lots of aesthetic information. There are many differences existing in Chinese and English sentence structures. Chinese sentence is like a bamboo that all structures come out from the base, while English sentence is like a grape tree with branches from the stem and twigs from the branches and the clauses are strictly arranged by the grammatical rules.<br />
<br />
2.3形式美<br />
就像传达美的声音和词语一样，句法和段落也携带着大量的审美信息。汉语和英语在句子结构上存在很大的差异。汉语句子就像竹子一样，所有结构是从地底冒出来。而英语句子就像一棵葡萄树，无论是从枝干到主干，还是从主干到枝干，从句严格按照语法规则整合而成。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 15:25, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.3形式美<br />
正如声音和词汇传递美感一样，句法和段落也携带着大量的美学信息。汉语和英语在句子结构上存在许多差异。汉语句子结构如竹子从其根基长出来一般，而英语句子结构则像是葡萄的主干连着枝干，枝干又连着小分支一样，从句严格按照语法规则整合而成。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 12:12, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Sentences can express a comprehensive meaning and carries certain aesthetic information. The successful translation is always with a figure, and most works have their own way of using figures of speech to form their own characteristic style. Thus the beauty in form came into being.<br />
<br />
句子可以表达一个完整的意思，并带有一定的美学信息。成功的翻译常常具有一个轮廓，而且大多数作品都有各自运用修辞手法的方式，从而形成其独有的风格。因此，形式美变应运而生了。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:52, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
句子可以表意完整，并带有一定的美学信息。成功的翻译通常会运用修辞，大多数作品都有自己适用的修辞手法，从而形成其独有风格。因此，形式美变应运而生。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 14:15, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
Structural balance and harmony is one of the basic aesthetic principles, and it is obtained with the use of right rhetorical devices. Here the author chooses three typical rhetorical devices: antithesis, parallelism and repetition to express the beauty of sentences in translation. What’s more, the three rhetorical devices have been used in Shen’s ''The Border Town''.<br />
<br />
结构平衡与和谐是基本的美学原则之一，它是通过正确使用修辞手法而获得的。在此，作者选择三种典型的修辞手法：对比、排比和反复来表达翻译中的句子之美。此外，这三种修辞手法已经在沈从文的《边城》中得以使用。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:58, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
结构的平衡与和谐是美学的基本原则之一，它是通过正确的修辞手法来实现的。在翻译中，为了表达句子之美，作者选择了三种典型的修辞手法:对偶、排比和重复。此外，这三种修辞手法在《边城》中也有所运用。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 07:45, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
'''2.3.1 Parallelism'''<br />
<br />
Parallelism is to use repetition in equivalent positions to enhance language expression and pay attention to emphasis, clarity and coherence of opinions. In parallel construction, it is necessary for writers to balance word with word, phrase with phrase, clause with clause, and sentence with sentence. At the same time, importance of grammar should be concerned to strengthen coherence of the sentence. In terms of the syntactic level, parallelism is a sprightly succinct rhetorical device.<br />
<br />
排比是在相同位置重复，以加强语言表达，注重意见的强调、明确及连贯。在排比结构中，作者有必要平衡字与字、词与词、段与段、句与句。与此同时，为加强语句的连贯，还需要考虑语法。在句法层次，排比是一种活跃简明的修辞手段。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:36, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
排比会在对等位置进行重复，以加强语言表达，强调观点的中心性，简洁性和连贯性。在排比结构中，平衡词语、短语 短句与句子之间的关系，对作者来说都是必不可少的。与此同时，为加强语句的连贯性，还需重视语法。从句法层面来说，排比是一种高度简洁的修辞手法。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 13:03, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
The identical meaning, structure or tone appeals to the readers’ eyes and ears, and heightens the readers’ aesthetic experience. It is one of the valid ways to satisfy aesthetic demands of language: balance and concordance in structure, while rhythm and harmony in tonality. The aesthetic information in parallelism is largely showed in the reoccurrence of a specific pattern, which carries lots of aesthetic value to make the original more lively and impressive. So it is widely employed in literary works. There’s no exception in ''The'' ''Border Town''.<br />
相同的含义，结构或语调吸引了读者的视线和耳朵，并提高了读者的审美体验。这是满足语言审美要求的有效方法之一：结构上的平衡与和谐，以及音调上的节奏与和谐。 并行性中的美学信息主要体现在特定图案的重新出现上，该图案具有许多美学价值，可以使原始作品更加生动有趣。 因此它被广泛应用于文学作品中。 “ The”“ Border Town”也不例外。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 08:50, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Look at the example:<br />
<br />
Example 5: 这事情在本地人并不希奇，边地俗语说：“火是各处可烧的，水是各处可流的，日月是各处可照的，爱情是可各处可到的。”[14]<br />
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Translation: There is nothing strange in these parts, where folk have a saying, “There is no place on earth where fire cannot spread, water flow, sun and moon shine, or love make its way.”[15]<br />
<br />
In this example, the same concise and symmetric sentence structure reoccurred many times. The repetition “各处可”(meaning everywhere) produces rhythm, making the sentence read like a song. By comparing love to fire, water, the sun and the moon, it vividly depicts the honesty, and straightforwardness of the local people.<br />
<br />
在这个示例中，一个简洁对称的句子结构多次出现。重复的“各处可”产生节奏,使句子读起来像一首歌。通过把爱比作火、水、太阳和月亮，生动地描绘了当地人民的诚实、坦率。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 03:18, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
In Gladys’ version, she transforms the original parallel structure into a simple sentence and an attributive clause. Concise as it is, it isn’t in line with the writer’s intention and obviously disobeys the style of the original. Although it has transmitted the meaning of the original sentences, it fails to render the aesthetic features of this local saying.<br />
<br />
在格莱迪斯的版本中，她将原来的并列结构转化为一个简单的句子和一个归属句。虽然简洁，但并不符合作者的意图，显然不符合原文的风格。虽然它传递了原句的意思，但却没有渲染出这个地方俗语的审美特征。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:15, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在格莱迪斯的版本中，她将原来的并列结构转化为一个简单的句子和一个从属句。虽然简洁，但并不符合作者的意图，显然违背了原文的风格。虽然它传递了原句的意思，但却没有译出这个地方俗语的审美特征。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:18, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在格莱迪斯的译文中，她将原文的平行结构转换成了一个简单句带从属句的句型结构。尽管译文读来较为简洁，但却不符合作者的意图，并且明显违背了原作的风格。虽然传递出了原文的含义，但却没有译出地方俗语的审美特征。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:35, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
'''2.3.2 Antithesis'''<br />
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Antithesis, a rhetoric technique with symmetric form and harmonious tonality, is designed to illustrate different things or aspects of the identical thing by comparison, and the symmetric components can replenish and contrast each other.<br />
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2.3.2 对照<br />
<br />
对照一种形式对称、语调和谐的修辞手法，旨在通过比较来说明同一事物的不同之处或不同方面，对称的部分可以互相补充和对比。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:23, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对照是一种形式对称、语调和谐的修辞手法，旨在通过比较来说明同一事物的不同之处或不同方面，对照部分可相互补充对比。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:43, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
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对立是一种具有对称形式和和谐调性的修辞手法，旨在通过比较来说明不同事物或同一事物的各个方面，并且对称成分可以相互补充和对比。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 08:57, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Look at the example below.<br />
<br />
Example 6: 轻轻的自言自语：“每只船要有个码头，每只雀儿得有个巢。”[16]<br />
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Translation: “Boats have a wharf, birds have a nest.” he murmurs.[17]<br />
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In this sentence, “船”(chuán, meaning boat) and “雀儿”(què ér, meaning bird), “码头”(mǎ tóu, meaning wharf ) and “巢”(cháo, meaning nest) in the Chineses version make an antithesis with each other, and it is well balanced in form. The writer expresses the grandpa’s care to Cuicui. Gladys’s version is structurally well-balanced. However, the utilization of the word “have” in English version fails to show the strong sense of belonging, reducing the aesthetic value of the original. If she use “need” to replace it, I think the aesthetic enjoyment could be realized better.<br />
<br />
请看下面的例子<br />
例6: 轻轻的自言自语：“每只船要有个码头，每只雀儿得有个巢。”[16]<br />
<br />
Translation: “Boats have a wharf, birds have a nest.” he murmurs.[17]<br />
在这个句子中，船”(chuán, meaning boat) and “雀儿”(què ér, meaning bird), “码头”(mǎ tóu, meaning wharf ) and “巢”(cháo, meaning nest) 这几个词都符合对偶的形式，在形式上也非常的平衡。作者用这样一句话体现了爷爷对翠翠的关心。格拉迪斯的版本在结构上很平衡。然而，“have”这个词，在英文中使用时更强调“占有，归属”，这会让句子失去原有的美感。如果作者用“need”一词来代替“have”，橘子便会更赋有美感。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 11:34, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
'''2.3.3 Repetition'''<br />
<br />
From the word of repetition, we know that the same word can be used several times in one sentence. The main function of this rhetoric is to emphasize some things or information. It may help to produce strong aesthetic effect. In The Border Town, Shen Congwen employs repetition deliberately to achieve his purpose of emotive intensification. The intensive repetition can be used as a powerful thematic device.<br />
从重复的单词中，我们知道一个单词可以在一个句子中多次使用。 这种修辞的主要功能是强调某些事物或信息。 它可能有助于产生强烈的美学效果。 在边城中，沉从文故意运用重复来达到他的情感激化的目的。 密集的重复可以用作功能强大的主题设备。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 03:16, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Here is an example:<br />
<br />
Example 7: 老船夫说：“翠翠我看了个好碾坊，碾盘是新的，水车是新的，屋上稻草也是新的！”[18]<br />
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Translation: “Emerald,” he tells her, “I've just seen a fine mill. Brand-new from the millstone and water-wheel to the thatch on the roof.”[19]<br />
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This sentence vividly reproduces grandfather's psychological state after he has visited the new mill. The repetition of “是新的”(meaning new) for three times echoes each other to highlight how the mill knocks the breath out of grandpa, and strengthen his envy and longing for the mill. Gladys translates it into “Brand-new from... to...”<br />
<br />
这句话生动地再现了爷爷参观完新磨坊后的心理状态。“是新的”三次重复，相互呼应，凸显爷爷看到磨坊后的惊讶，强调其对磨坊的羡慕与憧憬。格拉迪斯（Gladys）将其译成“全新的”。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
Though it fails to keep the symmetric form of the original, it still succeeds in recreating the particular aesthetic effect of the original text. The inverted sentence pattern, the shifted perspective and the emphatic words make up for the loss of the repetition to great extent. Meanwhile, the concise and paralleled sentence structure represents the aesthetic information of the original more appropriately.<br />
<br />
它虽然没有保持原本的对称形式，但却成功地再现了原文特有的审美效果。倒装句式、视角的转换以及强调词在很大程度上弥补了重复的缺失。同时，简体和并列的句子结构更恰当地体现了原文的审美信息。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 04:45, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
此句虽未保持原有对称形式，却成功再现了原文特有的审美效果。倒装句式、视角转换以及强调词在很大程度上弥补了重复的缺失。同时，简洁和并列的句子结构更好地体现了原文的美学信息。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 14:22, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
'''2.4 Beauty in image'''<br />
<br />
Image in the literary text refers to the output of the subjective intrinsic emotion of the author and the extrinsic objective substances or the incarnation of emotion produced out of language narration. It is the unity of finity and infinity, the unity of the latent and the outstanding.<br />
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2.4 意象美<br />
<br />
文学文本中的意象是指作者的主观内在情感和外在客观物质的输出，或者是由语言叙述产生的情感的化身。 它是无限与无限的统一，潜伏与卓越的统一。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 16:17, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.4 意象美<br />
<br />
文学文本中的意象是指作者的主观内在情感和外在客观物质的输出，或者是由语言叙述产生的情感的化身。 它是有限与无限的统一，潜在与显著的统一。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 12:48, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Example 8: 翠翠温习着两次过节所见所闻的一切，心中很快乐，好像目前有一个东西，同早间在床上闭了眼睛所看到的那种捉摸不定的黄葵花一样，这东西仿佛明朗地在眼前，却看不准，抓不住。[20]<br />
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Translation: Going over two festivals in her mind, happily savoring what she had seen and heard, Emerald has the same sensation as when she closed her eyes in bed in the morning and sees yellow sunflowers just out of reach. Something exciting lies ahead as yet indistinct and intangible, but too lovely to let go.[21]<br />
<br />
This sentence is a psychological description of Cuicui. She recalled the days of last two Dragon Boat Festivals when she encountered Nuosong. Her heart was filled with unnamable expectation. She wished to see Nuosong again.<br />
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这句话是翠翠的心理描写。当她遇到傩送时，她回忆起前两次端午节。她的心充满不可名状的期待。她希望能再次遇到傩送。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:25, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这句话是对翠翠的心理描述。她回忆起前两次端午遇到傩送的日子。她的心里充满了难以形容的期待。她希望能再见到诺宋。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 01:53, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这句话是对翠翠的心理描写。当她回忆起前两次端午节遇到傩送的情景时，心里满是莫名的期待。她多希望能再次见到傩送啊。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:12, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
The above sentence describes the sprout of love in Cuicui’s heart which is implicit but brings her sweetness and dream.<br />
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这句话描绘了翠翠心中爱意的萌发，这种爱虽含蓄，却能给她带来甜蜜和希望。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:00, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
这句话描述了翠翠心中爱情的萌芽，这萌芽虽然含蓄，却给她带来了甜蜜和憧憬。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:05, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
The image “黄葵花”(huáng kuí huā, meaning yellow sunflower) symbolizes that the love has planted its seed in Cuicui’s heart, and is in full blossoms which brings Cuicui happiness and which she would like to pluck. In the translated versions, Yang makes uses of literal translation by preserving the image of “黄葵花”and puts it into “yellow sunflower”.<br />
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“黄葵花”象征着爱情在翠翠心中播下了种子，这份爱意盛开着，给翠翠带来幸福，让她直想采撷。 在英译本中，杨元庆采用直译的方法，保留了“黄葵花”的意象，将其译为“yellow sunflower”。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:44, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
With the help of the context, it is easy for the target readers to understand the image of “yellow sunflower” and acquire the implicit aesthetic value in it in Yang’s version.<br />
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在语境的帮助下，译文读者理解“黄葵花”的意境以及获取杨的译文中其暗含的审美价值是轻而易举的。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:43, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在语境的帮助下，目标读者易于理解“黄葵花”的形象，并获取杨译文中隐含的审美价值。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:08, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在语境的帮助下，译文读者很容易理解杨的译本中的“黄葵花”形象，并获得其中隐含的审美价值。 --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 06:02, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
It depicts the hope and happiness in Cuicui’s heart and brings the same enjoyment to target readers as it does to the source readers.<br />
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这描述了翠翠内心的希望和幸福，也给目标语读者带来和源语读者相同的感受。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
这描写了翠翠心中的希望和幸福，给目标读者带来和源语读者相同的感受。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:17, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
这体现出了翠翠内心的期望和喜悦，同时也让目标语读者与源语读者有相同的感受。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 11:38, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
'''2.5 Beauty in ideorealm'''<br />
<br />
Artistic ideorealm is defined as an artistic realm in lyric poetry and other literary works, which is an integration of subjective emotion and objective images and feelings.<br />
<br />
2.5意境美<br />
意境是指抒情诗和其他文学作品中主观情感和客观形象、情感结合的一种艺术境界。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:01, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.5意境美<br />
意境是指在抒情诗和其他文学作品中出现的一种艺术境界，是主观情感、客观物体和所感的融合。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:25, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
It is characterized as beautiful and implicit as a traditional Chinese painting, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.<br />
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它有如国画一般美丽而含蓄的特点，能激起读者的联想和想象，超越具体的视觉，提升广阔的艺术空间。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 12:36, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Example 9: 由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这官路将近湘西边境到了一个地方名为‘茶峒’的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只一个老人，一个女孩子，一只黄狗。[22]<br />
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Translation: The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chadong, a small town in the hills. Nearby a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl, and a dog.[23]<br />
<br />
This is the first paragraph of the novel. Like telling a story, it is slow and plain. From what Shen Congwen has described, we can see that he has a special writing style which expresses the beauty of nature.<br />
这是小说的第一段。像讲故事一样，娓娓道来、平铺直叙。根据沈从文的描述，我们发现他对于表现自然之美有着独特的写作风格。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 15:23, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
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这是小说的第一段。就如讲故事一般，娓娓道来。从沈从文的描述中，我们可以看到他有一种独特的写作风格来表达自然之美。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 12:46, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Here, the writer uses seven “一”(yī, meaning one) in all, and every one describes different images. What’s more, “一”represents Shen’s melancholy aesthetic sentiment and creation view.<br />
<br />
作者在这里总共使用了七个“一”（yī，意为一个），每个都描述了不同的图像。更重要的是，“一”代表了沈忧郁的审美情怀和创作观。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 09:05, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在这里，作者总共使用了七个“一”（yī，意为一个），每个“一”都描述了不同的图像。 更重要的是，“一”代表了沈他忧郁的审美情怀和创作观。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 10:22, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作者在这里总共使用了七个“一”（yī，意为一个），每个都描述了不同的图像。更重要的是，“一”代表了沈忧郁的审美观和创作观。<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Shen uses the rhetorical device of anadiplosis which means repeating the ending words of the precedent sentence in the following sentence. This kind of discourse progression mode is not only good for the coherence of narrative and understanding of discourse but also full of interest.<br />
深使用顶针的修辞手法，这种修辞指的是在下一句中重复上一句的尾字。这种语篇推进的模式不仅有利于叙述的连贯和语篇的理解，而且富有趣味。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 02:05, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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沈使用顶针的修辞手法，顶针是指在下一句中重复上一句的尾词。这种语篇推进模式不仅对叙述的连贯性和语篇的理解有益，而且趣味盎然。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:17, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
Gladys thoroughly adverts to the aesthetic connotation and narrative techniques contain in “一” of the original text and strive for “formal similarity” and “spiritual similarity”. In sentence structure, Gladys retains the anadiplosis rhetorical device like “一”.<br />
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<br />
格拉迪斯特别注重审美内涵和叙事技巧在原文中包含于一，努力达到“形似”和“神似”。在句子结构上，格拉迪斯也保留了顶真修辞手法。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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格拉迪斯特别注重原文“一”所蕴含的美学内涵和叙事技巧，力求达到“形似”和“神似”。在句子结构上，格拉迪斯保留了“一”这样的顶真修辞手法。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 08:49, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
More importantly, the static beauty of the original text has been changed into dynamic beauty by the recreation of the translator. To sum up, the whole translation is simple and fluent which correspond to the intangible and solitary artistic conception in the original text.<br />
<br />
更值得一提的是，通过译者的再创造，原文的静态美被转换成了动态美。总的说来，整段译文简洁而又流畅，没有破坏原文孤独朦胧的意境。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:36, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
更重要的是，经过译者的再创造，原文的静态美变成了动态美。总的来说，整个译文简洁流畅，与原文中无形而孤独的意境相对应。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:30, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Example 10: 那首歌声音既极柔和，快乐中又微带忧郁，唱完了歌，翠翠觉得心上有一丝儿凄凉。她想起秋末酬神还愿时田坪中的火燎同鼓角。远处鼓声已起来了，她知道绘有朱红长线的龙船这时节已下河了。细雨依然落个不止，溪面一片烟.[24]<br />
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Translation: This gay, haunting melody has an undertone of sadness, making Emerald feel a pang of loneliness. Her thoughts fly to the bonfires and drumming in the fields to welcome the spirits at the end of autumn. Meanwhile drums sound up in the distance. The long crimson dragon boats will soon be staring their race. A light rain falls steadily, the stream is misted over.[25]<br />
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In this example, Gladys’ translation almost reaches the realm of “spirit likeness”. In the wording, she not only carefully uses some expressive words but blends her own aesthetic attitude and aesthetic ideas into translation. Cuicui has stirred her love since she met Nousong two years ago on Dragon Boat Festival.<br />
在这个例子中，格拉迪斯的翻译几乎达到了“神似”的境界。 在措词上，她不仅小心翼翼地使用一些表达性词语，而且将自己的审美态度和审美观念融合到了翻译当中。 自两年前在端午节遇见Nousong以来，翠翠就爱上了他。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 10:17, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
在这个例子中，戴乃迭的翻译几乎达到了“神似”的境界。在措辞上，她不仅小心翼翼地使用一些表达性词语，而且将自己的审美态度和审美观念融于翻译之中。自两年前翠翠在端午节遇见傩送以来，她就爱上了他。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 08:27, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
Henceforth, she has a load in her mind, which is nothing to do with her grandfather. Dragon Boat Festival comes again, and Cuicui sits alone on the ferryboat, waiting for her grandfather. Then she go to see the dragon boat race together with him in town, where she may meet Nuosong again.<br />
<br />
因此，她便有了一桩心事，这件事不关祖父。龙舟节再次到了，翠翠一人坐在渡船上，等着祖父。然后他们一起进城去看龙舟比赛，在那里她可能再次碰到挪送。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:09, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从此以后，她便有了一桩心事，这事与祖父无关。龙舟节又到了，翠翠一人坐在渡船上等着祖父。然后他们一起进城去看龙舟比赛，或许在那儿，她还能碰到傩送。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:06, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
The example above come about after Cuicui chanted a folk song on the ferryboat. The lonely and gloomy scenic description to some degree symbolizes that Cuicui’s love will end in tragedy. The repetition, though merely a few characters, forms an echo which achieves the artistic effect of inexhaustible sadness and sympathy of the readers toward Cuicui.<br />
<br />
上述例子中的事情发生在翠翠在渡船上吟唱起了民谣之后。这冷清孤寂的景象描写在一定程度上象征了翠翠的爱情将以悲剧结尾。尽管只有寥寥几个字，而其重复引起的共鸣就实现了艺术效果，引发了读者对翠翠无尽的悲伤与同情。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 01:48, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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上述例子发生于翠翠在渡筏上吟唱民谣之后。这孤寂阴郁的景象描写在一定程度上象征了翠翠的爱情将以悲剧结尾。尽管寥寥数语，但这重复引起了共鸣，实现了读者对翠翠无尽悲伤与同情的艺术效果。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 03:20, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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上述例子发生于翠翠在渡筏上吟唱民谣之后，其孤寂阴郁的景象描写在一定程度上象征了翠翠的爱情将以悲剧结尾。尽管寥寥数语，但这重复引起了读者的共鸣，达到了让读者对翠翠的境遇产生无尽悲伤与同情的艺术效果。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 08:47, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''3 Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
After the research and analysis, the author has found that Translation Aesthetics can be regarded as a criteria to evaluate literary works. The unique aesthetic characteristics in literature indicate that Translation Aesthetics is an effective and practical theory to analyze literature translation. A good literary translation should fully express the literary features and artistic connotations of literary works, embody the aesthetic value of the works, and make the readers realize the infinite charm of oriental art and the great vitality of literary works.<br />
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3.结语<br />
通过研究和分析，笔者发现翻译美学可以作为评价文学作品的一个标准。文学独特的审美特征表明，翻译美学是分析文学翻译时有效而实用的理论。一个好的文学翻译应该充分表现文学作品的文学特征和艺术内涵，体现作品的审美价值，让读者认识到东方艺术的无限魅力和文学作品的伟大生命力。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 11:17, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.结语<br />
通过研究和分析，笔者发现翻译美学可以作为评价文学作品的一个标准。文学独特的审美特征表明，翻译美学在分析文学翻译时是有效而实用的理论。一个好的文学翻译应该充分表现文学作品的文学特征和艺术内涵，体现作品的审美价值，让读者认识到东方艺术的无限魅力和文学作品的伟大生命力。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 15:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to reproduce the linguistic features of literary works in a proper and flexible way. On the other hand, it is necessary to take into account the cognitive level and understanding ability of readers in different countries, so as to maximize the aesthetic charm of literary works.<br />
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一来，要用恰到好处，灵活应变的方式再现文学作品的语言特点。再者，要考虑到不同国家读者的认知水平和理解能力，使文学作品的美学魅力发挥到极致。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 09:47, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
一方面，有必要用恰到好处，灵活应变的方式再现文学作品的语言特征。 另一方面，有必要考虑不同国家读者的认知水平和理解能力，使文学作品的美学魅力发挥到极致。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 16:21, 23 October 2020 (UTC)</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201012_trans&diff=11622720201012 trans2020-12-20T05:10:28Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhou Shuyao 周书尧 */</p>
<hr />
<div>Back to course homepage.<br />
<br />
Welcome to the webpage of the homework of 2020 10 12.<br />
<br />
==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
<br />
Harvard Lecture<br />
<br />
On the 20th Century Chinese Essay<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese Literature <br />
<br />
And the Essay Genre: <br />
<br />
A New Perspective<br />
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In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
On the handout, you will find an overview of the structure of my argument.<br />
<br />
1. The unknown genre<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking.<br />
<br />
哈佛大学关于二十世纪中国散文的演讲<br />
<br />
中国现代文学与散文流派：新视角<br />
<br />
在本文中，我将不会赘述任何文章中的内容并作解释，也不会概述中文文章的主要写作主题与风格。不过我想借此机会，对文章流派本身这一现象进行些许反思，并与细心和具有批判性思维的读者探讨一些观点与假设，这些观点与假设十分罕见，EALC绝对是其中之一。你可以在我的讲义中找到我论点结构的概述。<br />
<br />
1.未知流派<br />
20世纪选集和文集所讲述的文学历史叙事体现了中文文学的不完整：散文流派是缺失的。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 14:43, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
哈佛大学关于二十世纪中国散文的演讲<br />
<br />
中国现代文学与散文流派：新视角<br />
<br />
在本文中，我将不会赘述任何文章中的内容或对文章内容作出解释，也不会概述中文文章的主要写作主题与风格。不过我想借此机会，对文章流派本身这一现象进行些许反思，并与细心和具有批判性思维的观众探讨一些观点与假设，这种观众全世界也没有几个，哈佛东亚语言与文明系的各位绝对其中之一。你可以在我的讲义中找到我论点结构的概述。<br />
<br />
1.未知流派<br />
20世纪选集和文集所讲述的文学历史叙事体现了中文文学的不完整：散文流派是缺失的。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 00:27, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
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In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998); whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
Excursion: Defining the essay <br />
<br />
As a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form<br />
本文中，我提出了两个问题：一是文学形势是否保持不变；二是我们是否也将散文考虑在内。做为一种有价值的体裁，散文已经被忽视了很长一段时间（马古烈1949，施寒微1990）或者说被轻视（麦克诺顿1974，莱顿1988-90，麦克杜格尔1998）；然而他的兄长，小说，自早期共和政体的中国时虚构文学的重要性和写作的本土化起就已经受到高度重视，这一结论是从五四运动创立的最重要的记叙文中得出的。现代选集使读者认为诗歌、小说和戏剧三种形式并重成为了现代中国文学输出的支柱。<br />
涉猎：给散文下定义<br />
一种自由形式下的非虚构文学的主观代表--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
在我的文中，我会问，是否文学的图景可以保持不变，并且如果我们也将散文考虑在内。长期以来，该文体作为一种有价值的体裁不受重视（Margouliès 1949，Schmidt-Glintzer 1990）或被忽视（McNaughton 1974，Leiden 1988-90，McDougall 1998）；而另一个题材，小说，自民国初年重视小说文学和写作的白话化以来，一直受到重视，这是由五四运动确立的主流叙事所带来的。现代文选会让读者相信，诗歌、小说和戏剧这三大门类构成了中国现代文学作品的主干。<br />
涉猎:定义散文<br />
将它作为一种自由形式的非虚构文学的主观代表。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 02:57, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
<br />
与国际文学类似，中国文学通常细分为以下三类：叙事类或史诗类作品（包括虚构小说、非虚构散文）、诗歌类、戏剧类（戏曲）。尽管小说和散文没有具备完整的史诗形式，但二者常常用中文术语“无韵文”来表示，而该术语与西方的“史诗”一词相对应。这些类别可根据其特点进行大致区分：在史诗类作品中，重述历史事件，涉猎广泛的故事占据主导地位。在诗歌中，通常鼓励读者感知诗人情感和其内心告解。在戏剧中，所呈现的独白或对话可以直接调动人们的自我参与，通过这种方式，减轻读者或观众对想象进行再创造的负担。作为叙事类（史诗类）作品的题材之一，散文代表了超然的非虚构主观文学，且表现形式自由。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 04:31, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文[ The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopinwen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.], is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
“Eassy”，中国人通常称之为散文。（当然称之为“散文”还是“随笔”还是“小品文”都是随机的，但是还是与现在的惯例有联系。在大约200篇选集和1949到1996的这段历史中，“散文”这种称呼是最常见的表达。在大陆，每25篇“散文”才有一篇被称作小品文，在台湾每14篇中有一篇，在香港地区每时篇中有一篇被这样称呼。）它通常是一种体裁术语，指较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文文本，在这种文本中，作者试图从主观的“我”视角来调解个人对一个对象或一个问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为一种日常使用的文本，而是使用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，但以一种可接近的形式。资源是掌握由散文家主权和主题被看到在一个更大的背景下，甚至可以幽默地提出。形式和内容的自由对这篇文章至关重要。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 17:52, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.<br />
<br />
散文的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分支，通过对文本的分析以进行专门的思考，同时能够更加容易地对相似的文本进行比较。另一方面，许多小的字符实体都存在次范畴化，以郑明礼处理文章为例，他对那些有关于文本解释的分支所得到的发现的合理性提出质疑。人们也必须要意识到文学本身不断变化的特征以及科学观点的相对性，及时已经为国际所接受，这一观点仍然具有时间局限性。对于散文来说，地域偏差的重要性似乎比诸如短篇小说、长篇小说等既定体裁的重要性要小，其对诗歌的重要性就更小了--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 04:26, 16 October 2020 (UTC)。<br />
<br />
就散文的体裁而言，国际上存在不同的观点。体裁主要是文学的分支，其凭借文学知识进行专门的思考，以便能更加容易地对相似的文本进行比较。另一方面，以郑明礼对散文的处理为例，许多小实体的次范畴化对解释性发现的细分的意义提出了质疑。人们也必须意识到文学本身不断变化的特性以及科学观点的相对性，即使已经为国际所接受，也仍然具有时间局限性。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 08:12, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
就散文的国际体裁而言有着不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分支，通过自身的文学知识进行专业的思考使得更加容易地对比相似的文本。另外一方面，许多小实体的次范畴化，以郑明礼处理散文方式为例，对解释性发现的细分提出了质疑。人们也必须意识到文学自身的变化特性和科学观点的先对性，这一观点仍具有时限性，虽然已经被国际社会所接受。相对于散文来说，地域差异的重要性对于短篇小说和长篇小说更加重要，而对于诗歌来说就没那么重要了。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:25, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
散文的国际体裁有不同的方面：体裁作为文学的分支，通过对文学研究，以便进行专门的思考和更好的相似文本比较。另一方面，存在于许多小实体的次分类，就像郑明理处理散文那样，就注释学发现方面对其的合理性产生了质疑。人们必须意识到文学本身和相关科学方面的改变，即使被国际化的接受了，它们也很容易发生变化。<br />
<br />
对于散文而言，其地域性差异相比于已存在的体裁，比如短篇小说，长篇小说等等就略逊一筹了，与诗歌相比那就更不用说了。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 14:35, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' 短篇小說 with short stories is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart.<br />
所有其他体裁都被视作国际体裁。我认为中国散文和西方散文属于同一国际体裁，或许这一点能够通过其形式和内容的跨文化多样性来证明。<br />
在全球化发展的21世纪，文化主要由现代化的程度决定。当今报纸上的中国散文采用西方散文的形式和内容，其目标人群也类似。这再次暗示了中国现代散文属于散文的国际体裁。即使中国短篇小说的翻译和西方短篇小说是被广泛接受的，但相较于西方散文和中国散文而言，它们之间的联系没有那么紧密。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 11:35, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其他所有体裁都被视作国际体裁。我认为中国散文和西方散文同属国际体裁，这一点或许能够通过二者在形式和内容上的跨文化关系来证明。 在21世纪，世界各地的关联更加紧密，文化主要由现代化程度决定。如今报纸上中国散文的形式和内容与西方散文一致，目标人群也类似，这再次证明了中国现代散文属于散文的国际体裁。尽管短篇小说的译作被广泛接受，但不如西方散文和中国散文联系紧密。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:15, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其他的所有体裁都属于国际体裁。从形式和内容的文化多样性来看，我认为中式散文和西方散文同属国际体裁。21世纪世界的全球化也导致了文化主要由现代化程度来决定。从当今的报纸上我们不难发现中国散文采用与西方散文相同的形式和内容，其目标人群也类似。这再次证明了中国散文属于国际体裁。不过，中国短篇小说及其译文虽然被大众广泛接受，但它还是不如西方散文和其中文副本。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 03:48, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br />
<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
我从5000多篇现代中国散文的样本中得出这一定义，而其也同样适用于对散文的国际化角度的特殊理解（紧随Bolz 1992 13:269-271 关于西方散文的发展；Butryn 1985 关于西方散文的理论）<br />
社会全球化这一趋势在周作人采用英文散文风格的号召中首次提出，除此之外，中国散文还具有一些特别的当地特色。中国散文如何确定文化背景，是什么使之中国化？相比之中国散文，形式在西方散文中似乎是一种更为重要的区分标准。在中国散文中，即使是那些只是内容相仿但不在形式通用框架范围内的文章也包含在内。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 14:44, 16 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
我从5000多篇中国现代散文的例子中得出这一定义，它也同样适用于特殊国际视角下的散文。（Booz 1992 13:269-272 西方散文的发展；Butrym 1989 西方散文理论）<br />
除了社会全球化的潮流之外，中国散文有其独特的地方特色这一观点首次在周作人关于采用英语散文风格的号召中被提出。中国散文如何确定其文化背景？是什么使之“中国化”？相较于中国散文，西方散文中形式似乎是一种更加重要的区分标准。在中国，那些内容相似的文本，即使它们的形式框架并不相同，也算在同一类中。<br />
By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:40, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays. <br />
<br />
The Chinese understanding of the genre <br />
<br />
Is tendencially broader<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' 無韻文 "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".<br />
<br />
郑明礼表明了这一点，并对“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”进一步进行了分类。在西方的语境中，那些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此也属于非小说性散文作品。这些文本只有在被改成散文之后（郑明礼：“日记形式的散文”和“信件形式的散文”），才能作为散文为人们所接受。<br />
中国对于体裁的理解偏泛化<br />
在中国，对散文的这种偏泛化的理解可以追溯到中文中“散文”这一术语的内涵意义。散文，即无韵文，原本表示所有的非小说性散文，从广义上来看，也包括个人使用或日常使用的文本。然而，我只涉及狭义上的散文，即“短篇文学散文”。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 08:11, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings. <br />
<br />
The Chinese essay is booming again <br />
<br />
In the 1980s and 1990s<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'' 報告文學).[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
<br />
其差异进一步体现在，中文散文常包含一些与意识形态相关的内容，且显现出许多文体特征，如重复和格言的使用。<br />
<br />
中文散文再度繁荣<br />
<br />
二十世纪八九十年代<br />
<br />
据分析，1979年后，散文出版量大幅增加，文革后散文出版量两次创下新高。1990年，散文出版量显然达到了一个新高度。二十世纪二三十年代，散文出版量出现了第一次增长。此后，报告这一文学体裁（报告文学）的地位俨然盖过散文。作为当代散文家和许多“散文丛书”宣扬思想的主要工具，新杂志纷纷涌现，这在一定程度上促成了二十世纪二三十年代、二十世纪八九十年代散文出版的两次繁荣景象。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 11:13, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging ''xiangtu'' 鄉土 literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
<br />
Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political ''zawen'' 雜文 of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996.<br />
<br />
为什么散文的发行量达到了小说的水平？ <br />
<br />
下面我阐述几条原因说明为什么散文和其它无韵体如小说，有韵体如诗歌一样盛行，以及为什么一定要高度重视散文。<br />
<br />
纵观中国历史，散文对于中国社会有着直接影响（涉及从清末到五四时期的改革思想的书籍，如鲁迅的文学理论著作及日政杂文，直到今天大多以散文形式呈现）。散文对文学反思和文学理论的影响可见1996年出版的《现代中国文学思想读本》丛书。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 07:31, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
为什么散文的发行量达到了小说的水平？ <br />
<br />
为什么散文和其它无韵体如小说，有韵体如诗歌一样盛行，以及为什么一定要高度重视散文这些问题的看法？<br />
<br />
以下是我对于这些问题的看法。<br />
<br />
纵观中国历史，散文对于中国社会有着直接影响（涉及从清末到五四时期的改革思想的书籍，如鲁迅的文学理论著作及日政杂文，直到今天大多以散文形式呈现）。散文对文学反思和文学理论的影响可见1996年出版的《现代中国文学思想读本》丛书。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 13:46, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
为什么散文的发行量达到了小说的水平？<br />
下面我阐述几条原因说明为什么散文和小说这类无韵体、诗歌这类有韵体一样盛行，以及为什么一定要高度重视散文。<br />
纵观中国历史，散文对中国社会有着直接影响（直至今天，从清末到五四时期改革思想的书籍，如鲁迅的文学理论著作及日政杂文，大多以散文形式呈现）。散文对文学反思和文学理论的影响可见1996年出版的《现代中国文学思想读本》丛书。-<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
<br />
The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of ''novel'' and ''opera'' in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
<br />
<br />
散文体裁的影响体现在其直接的语言，与生活的联系（例如，在文化大革命中的作用）和通过报纸直接接触个人读者的特性中。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 诗歌是一种不涉及社会生活，政治问题和时间参照的体裁。<br />
胡适认为，“诗”在现代化中最为重要，因为诗引起人们的情感。但是它也依赖于图像和语言节奏。梁启超强调了“小说”和“歌剧”在不断变化的社会中的作用。但是“散文”是能够命名事物的，它反映了生命，是千变万化的。现代主体性是由散文工具建构的。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:47, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
散文体裁的影响体现在其直接的语言，与生活的联系（例如，在文化大革命中的作用）和通过报纸直接接触个人读者的特性中。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 诗歌是一种不涉及社会生活，政治问题和时间参照的体裁。<br />
胡适认为，“诗”在现代化中最为重要，因为诗引起人们的情感。但是它也依赖于意象和语言韵律。梁启超强调了“小说”和“歌剧”在不断变化的社会中的作用。但是“散文”是能够命名事物的，它反映了生命，是千变万化的。现代主体性是由散文工具建构的。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 17:58, 15 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
<br />
- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed. <br />
<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply ''the'' genre of today.<br />
<br />
-比起诗歌和小说，散文也能更好地反应社会潮流：不像诗歌那样拘泥于内容和形式，在散文中，个人主义得以以一种更为直接方式表达出来。短暂性体现在散文短小的篇幅上，在乘坐地铁上班的途中，读者可以对之进行阅览，这是需要细细品读的诗歌无法做到的。<br />
<br />
-比起诗歌，散文的受众更广，人们花在阅读小说上的时间也在减少。如果散文的体裁不是像如今这么简单的话，它本身就是极具现实性的。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:39, 17 October 2020 <br />
<br />
相比诗歌和小说，散文更能反映社会潮流：诗歌多半拘泥于其形式和内容，而散文能更直接地表达个人主义思想。另外，散文篇幅比较简短，让读者即使是在乘坐地铁上班时，也能读上几篇。而如果这时阅读的是诗歌，就无法体会到那一份即时的快乐了。<br />
<br />
比起诗歌，散文的受众更广，人们花在阅读小说上的时间也在减少。如果散文的体裁不是像如今这么简单的话，它本身就是非常反映现实的一类问题。<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' 小說 production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' 雜感 (from which Lu Xun developed his zawen), ''suibi'' 隨筆 or ''suixiang'' 隨想 (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' 隨想錄 derived).<br />
<br />
比起向我们介绍科幻小说或者诗歌，这篇散文更多的是让我们了解到了作者以及他的生平，因为在这种类型的文章中，我们可以充分的了解并认识到作者本人，（可以）透过他的眼睛去看当时他所处的社会。许多作者，比如鲁迅、巴金和王蒙，在晚期都倾向于散文写作。<br />
散文作品的产量超过了小说：自19世纪70年代以来的中文报纸，（比如申报、时报等等）。梁启超认为报纸的功能具有自由性及权威性的特点：（一方面）他认为出版社是一种可以约束政府的机构，另一方面，也是种审查机构。同时，自20世纪早期以来，作为大众媒体，出版社（虽然）只以连载的形式发表了一到两篇科幻小说，但是却创造出了许多散文类型，比如“雜感”（鲁迅由此发展了他的杂文集）、“隨筆”或者“隨想”（最著名的收藏集比如巴金的“ 隨想錄”，就是来源于此）。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 13:35, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
<br />
Let us assign the essay its proper place<br />
<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun.<br />
<br />
让散文用于用武之地吧。<br />
上述中，散文价值与重视散文程度之间，反差明显，这势必导致一个结果：散文要有用武之地！接下来我将阐述散文是如何开始受到重视的。<br />
<br />
尽管从1979年起，散文写作量有所增加，但首次从理论上反思这一现象思却花了十年时间，然后又花了十年，国际中文学术界才开始意识到散文现象。<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界通过写散文历史，征集论文的形式，第一次反思散文文学。这首先集中体现在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品中。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:53, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
让散文处在它应在的位置吧。<br />
上述中，散文价值与重视散文程度之间，反差明显，这势必导致一个结果：让散文处在它应在的位置吧！接下来我将阐述散文是如何开始受到重视的。<br />
尽管从1979年起，散文写作量有所增加，但首次从理论上反思这一现象思却花了十年时间，然后又过了十年，国际中文学术界才开始意识到散文现象。<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界第一次以写随笔史、征集论文的方式来反思散文文学，这首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:39, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
<br />
Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on xīnyučpài 新月派 Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature 1995, Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
<br />
90年代的两次论文会议也没有显示出国际学术的发展趋势。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用通用的语言学方法来研究单个散文家(1995年盖洛德梁(梁西华)•顾宾,王蒙•沃斯勒,刘再复•曼斯堡(未发表))或者散文学派(1996年新月派)。<br />
<br />
直到二十世纪九十年代中后期，用西方语言学撰写中国散文的历史才开始（开拓者沃斯勒1998年），散文也第一次作为一种与小说、诗歌并列的文学体裁被收录到西方文学选集中（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集1995年版》《现代中国文学思想1996年版》）。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 00:55, 16 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu <br />
二十世纪九十年代末的两次论文会议也没有显示出国际学术界会朝什么趋势发展。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始用通用语言学的方法来研究每一位散文家(1995年盖洛德梁(梁西华)•顾宾,王蒙•沃斯勒,刘再复•曼斯堡(未发表))或者散文学派(1996年新月派)。 <br />
直到二十世纪九十年代后半叶，根据西方语言学理论而撰写的中国散文才初次登上历史的舞台。（沃斯勒1998年），散文也第一次作为一种文学体裁收录到西方文学选集中，和小说、诗歌并列。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集1995年版》《现代中国文学思想1996年版》）。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 04:48, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
中国大陆、台湾和西方国家在散文评价上存在着地区差异：在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的品味来选择的，因此完全不知名的作者得到了和老牌作家一样多的空间。鲁迅的作品在台湾长期被禁，但今天，在我的调查中，鲁迅的作品在90年代印刷最多，在中国散文家中排名第16位。如果只考虑现代作家，他甚至排在第12位。 香港文学对余光中的评价受以黄维梁为首的批判（见林燿德1989∶50）。王蒙的文学地位因其在中华人民共和国的政治职务而被高估。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 14:57, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国大陆、台湾和西方国家在散文评价上存在着地区差异：在美国，人们往往是根据自身西方人的品味来选择散文的，因此完全不知名的作者可以和老牌作家享有一样的地位。在台湾，鲁迅的作品曾长期被禁，但今天，根据我的调查，在20世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量的排行榜中，鲁迅排名第16位。如果只考虑现代作家，他甚至排在第12位。 余光中受到以黄维梁为首的香港文学的批判（见林燿德1989∶50）。王蒙的文学地位因其在中华人民共和国的政治职务而被高估。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:37, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br />
不过，把最重要的中国散文译成西文，仍然是一个迫切的要求。目前，至少有三本英译本散文集正在审稿中（谭景辉、沃斯勒）或已经出版（波拉德1999）。波拉德的选文主观性很强，不拘一格，甚至涵盖了前现代散文。今年，学者们将在第一次国际散文会议（德国阿赫恩，8月25-26日）上会面。在未来几年，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给予散文应有的地位，有两到三卷，只专门介绍《传习录》、《游记》等散文。--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 12:11, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Gudongfang<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the essay <br />
<br />
将散文考虑在内<br />
<br />
Will rewrite the history of Chinese literature<br />
<br />
这将会改写中国文学的历史<br />
<br />
I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
我将会为大家提供一些思路：在夏志清、普实克和安德森这些大家的眼里，散文至今掩盖在小说的光芒之下。那么这篇文章又能为中国文学带来怎样的惊喜呢？<br />
<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place.<br />
<br />
正如五四文学的出现且大获成功，我们已经习惯了叙述既定的事实。但是这个观点忽视了本世纪初像“鸳鸯蝴蝶派”等的这些学派在“百家争鸣”中所起到的重要作用。当时的五四派只是众多派系中的一个，他们之所以成功，是因为他们擅长于在公共场合鼓动群众，引发争议。因此，要正确定位中国散文，我们必须采取新的方式。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:19, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
<br />
We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
从简明的记叙中我们我们得出经验，区分和重建复杂的时间背景是绝对有必要的。 我们对中国文学的认识仅取决于小说和诗歌的发展，而更广泛的理解将改变中国文学的整体面貌。 学术尝试就是对这种文学体裁运用现代文学理论的一种方法。<br />
<br />
在下文中，考虑到本文的内容将改写中国文学史，还会改变我们目前对它的理解，我将提出三个方面（按过去，现代和当前的时间顺序排列）来论证。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:24, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从简明的记叙中我们可以得出结论，区分和重建复杂的时间背景是绝对必要的。 我们对中国文学的认识仅限于小说和诗歌的发展，而更广泛的理解将改变中国文学的整体面貌。 学术性尝试就是运用现代文学理论的方法分析这种文学体裁。<br />
<br />
在下文中，考虑到本文的内容将改写中国文学史，还会改变目前我们对它的理解，我将通过三个方面的内容来论证（按过去，现代和当代的时间顺序）。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:21, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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The classical and premodern essay <br />
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Documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity <br />
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And still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned<br />
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How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
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这篇经典现代前文章记录了中国哲学、早期主观性以及曾受质疑的中国传统。<br />
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该文章如何遭到了人们的质疑？它是如何出现，又有着怎样的背景呢？从背景上看，文章来源于国内外记录在书中的笔记，其中不仅包括文学类，还包括游记类。笔记采用非正式文体，与当时盛行的文学风格大相径庭。同时，笔记还具有独立性及主观性，比中国第一部自传体小说《红楼梦》出现得更早。<br />
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:43, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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前现代经典散文记载了中国哲学、早期主体性以及遭受质疑的本土传统<br />
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中国散文的历史地位如何？它是如何出现，又有怎样的背景呢？一般而言，散文的原型是国内外记录在书中的笔记，还包括信件和游记。与备受推崇的文学作品不同，这些笔记采用的非正式文体，表达上突出个体和主观性。而在表现主观性上，这些笔记比中国第一部自传体小说《红楼梦》出现的更早。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:00, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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近代经典散文记录了中国哲学思想，体现了早期主观性。中国本土的传统也因此遭到质疑。<br />
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中国散文的历史地位如何？它是怎样产生的？其产生的属类背景是什么？一般来说，中外的散文皆始源于记录在书籍空白处的笔记。这些笔记都是一些信件和游记。与文学正典相比，这些笔记不同之处在于它们都采用非正式文体，都表达了个体性和主观性，且这种主观性的表达比中国第一部自传体小说《红楼梦》更早。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 06:46, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
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From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference[ This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.] this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's statement from 1240: "詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促 Shī sāo miào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù" (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
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在最初期，相比于诗歌小说并没有受到太多的重视：最早的参考【这要比在诸桥辙次（时间未知）版的《大汉词典》中还有在1966版《中国语言百科词典》提到的还要早】。“散文”一词在罗大经的1240年评述中写道：“诗骚妙天下，而散文颇觉琐碎局促”（诗歌可以惊奇的让人们产生感动，而散文则限制在围绕一些不连贯的琐事当中）《鹤林玉露》。 另一个罗大经比较正式的评论是：相比于具有极高艺术性和悠久历史传统的诗歌创作，这种直接而又口语话的散文在他眼里分量明显就轻了。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 04:50, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从一开始，文章的价值就低于诗歌：最古老的参考文献（这比《汉语大词典》（森桥无日期）和《汉语大百科全书》1966年提到的要早。 ）“散文”一词在罗大经的1240年评述中写道：“诗骚妙天下，而散文颇觉琐碎局促”（诗歌可以惊奇的让人们产生感动，而散文则限制在围绕一些不连贯的琐事当中）《鹤林玉露》。罗大经提到另一个正式性的评论：与高度艺术化的百年诗词创作传统相比，他眼中直接的、往往是白话的文章语言，价值不大。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 08:07, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
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In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge. The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
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In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises.<br />
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在西方，一种真正的散文写作艺术在16世纪末，作为一种新型重组知识的一种媒介被提出。这种重组的知识源于哥白尼的观察，并且摧毁了整个中世纪世界的概念。<br />
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在中国，尤其是公元前四、五世纪关于佛教的辩论见证了传统文学的起源。中国传统的散文（“散”的意义可以理解为消散、悠闲、松散、放松、不规律、独立风格、自由散文）在脱离对话或格言之前没有被探知，在哲学“论语”中仍然是非常明显的。荀子用他的哲学思想塑造了后来散文的原型。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:49, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在西方，一种真正的“散文写作艺术”出现在16世纪末，作为一种新的知识重组的媒介。这种重组源于哥白尼的观察，它摧毁了整个中世纪世界的概念。<br />
在中国，尤其是公元4、5世纪的佛教论争，开创了一种文学传统。然而，中国传统的散文在理解“散、不规则、独立文体、自由散文”之前，可以看到不可脱离的对话或格言，这在哲学论语中仍然可见。荀子以他的哲学论著为后文提供了原型。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:14, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在西方，真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种知识重组的媒介，出现于16世纪末。哥白尼的观察与发现摧毁了中世纪对于世界的整体认知概念，促成了知识体系的重组。<br />
在中国，尤其公元4世纪至5世纪关于佛经的争论，见证了文学传统的起源。但是，中国传统意义上的散文（“散”可理解为“驱散，闲散，松散，舒散的”）是一种无规律的独立体裁，自由体散文，接近于对话体，亦或格言体，在《论语》中仍可见。而后来的散文则以荀子的哲学论著为原型。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 08:37, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
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They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
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During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' 筆記 (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty. The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a ''genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
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它们是一种早期的哲学说教文章形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于对经典著作的引用，而且史无前例的是，也从作者个人经验中得出。个体性至今仍是散文的主要特征。<br />
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在历朝历代，散文进一步表现为某些子类。从过在书本空白页做笔记发展而来的“笔记”（偶记），在明代这种形式蓬勃发展。 旁注是西方和中国早期文章传统的联系。偶记可以包含私人的历史笔记、轶事、交流和沉思。 然而，对散文作为一种''自成体裁''的认识，起源并非在清朝之前，那一时期人们编纂出大量的散文选集。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 00:06, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
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Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences. Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
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Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive baguwen. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
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从社会历史背景来看，与短篇小说和小说不同，散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。到目前为止，中国前红楼梦的个人文学只能通过间接的诗歌语言向我们讲述。重新发现这些文章，我们有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
前现代随笔文学包括的远不止它最著名的例子，形式上的限制性八股文。鲁迅自己也写了一些八卦文，但另一方面却把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为“八股文”的语言节奏和“做鸦片的乐趣”一样吸引人，令人陶醉。（周作人1932:148）。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:09, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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考虑到社会历史背景，与短篇小说和长篇小说不同，散文更贴近现实生活，因为短篇小说表达了个人的众多问题和经历。直至目前，中国前红楼梦的个人文学只能通过一些诗歌的间接语言向我们表达。重新发现散文，我们就有一个极好的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
前现代散文文学不仅仅只有最著名的例子，也就是形式上的限制八股文。鲁迅自己也写了一些八股文风格的散文，但另一方面却把八股文作为古代社会的同义词。周作人认为“八股文”的语言节奏像“做鸦片的乐趣”一样吸引人，使人陶醉。（周作人1932:148）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 12:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
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But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
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Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the dao (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
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Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
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但是他认为这也是现代著作中隐含的一种流行类型，如洋八股和党八股（借自吴志辉，周元流：71）。<br />
新儒家强调文（散文）是传播道（道）的最重要工具：文艺在道（文学是道的载体）。 如果我们从体裁的角度重新解释该词典，可以说，论文被认为是表达真理，主观性和自我的重要工具。<br />
梁启超发展了一种受西方语言影响的新文体（新文体），但是这篇论文并没有在报纸成为大众媒体之前就流行了，这种语言也变成了白话。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:39, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但是他认为这也是现代著作中隐含的一种流行类型，如洋八股和党八股（借自吴志辉，周元流：71）。<br />
新儒学强调文（散文）是传播道（道）的最重要工具：文以载道（文学是道的载体）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解释这个词，我们可以说，当时的散文被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
受到西方语言的影响，梁启超发展了一种“新文体”(新散文风格)。但在报纸成为大众媒体之前，这篇散文就已经流行起来，因此语言变成了“白话”。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:21, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
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The essay as the medium of modernity, <br />
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The questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay<br />
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To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only.<br />
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散文是现代的媒介，<br />
以下是对中国散文的质疑。<br />
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首先，中国散文究竟是起源于本土传统还是受西方翻译作品的影响，为了解决这一争议，人们发现两者都言之有理：从1907年起，随着文学改革运动的兴起，西方英文散文通过翻译成中文后介绍给中国作家(林纾:《欧文》，1907年，《爱迪生》，1911年)。这种体裁目前的形式受西方散文翻译的影响。首先发展了一种中国传统散文，这种散文在语言、形式和术语上有意识地依赖西方模式，其拥护者很快就屈服于诱惑，不再只从中国历史中汲取中国散文的传统。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:02, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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散文是现代性的传播媒介，<br />
关于中国散文起源的质疑。<br />
首先，中国散文是否生长于本土文化还是受西方翻译的影响，为解决这一争议，人们最后发现这两种起源的说法都合理，从1907年开始，西方散文通过翻译成中文后介绍给主张文艺改革运动的中国作家们（林纾：《欧文》，1907，《爱迪生》，1911）。这种文章体裁的现有形式大部分是受西方散文翻译的影响。最先形成的散文模式在语言组织，文章形式和文章术语等方面是人们有意借助西方散文模式形成的，之后不久，掌握了这种模式写作的人禁不住诱惑，便只遵从中国历史的散文传统了。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:49, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
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A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
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中国教科书(于再春，1978-82，李喜尚，1985)展示了一个看似完整的中国本土传统《文言散文》。<br />
然而，本土散文写作传统的价值是什么，西方对这一传统的影响起到了什么作用，学者们对此争论不休。有些人认为，西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中发挥了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;<br />
西方的影响大致可见Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971。还有一些学者认为，我们高估了西方的影响——Denton 1996表明，在中国理解西方文学理论缺失了理论背景，—并建议我们理解一篇散文要先从它的民族传统出发。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 10:57, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国的教科书中展示了一个看似完整的中国本土文化传统：文言散文。（于再春，1978-82，李喜尚，1985）但是，对于中国本土散文的价值和西方散文对于这一传统的影响，学者们仍有争论。有些学者认为西方散文对于我们现在理解中国散文起到了至关重要的作用（王斌1992，范培松1993）；西方的影响大致可见（Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971）。还有一些学者认为，我们高估了西方的影响——Denton（1996）表示，中国理解西方文学，缺少了理论背景，并建议我们在理解散文时要从它的民族传统出发。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 05:00, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition: for example, Lu Xun with his theory "“Zhǎnkāi” shuō yǔ “méngyá” lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "公安派與英國小品“合成”論 Gōng'ānpài yǔ Yīngguó xiǎopǐn “héchéng” lùn" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br />
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五四运动中的传奇作家可以体现，个人的意见也可能会影响历史的方向。这些作家都认为英语散文是中国散文的老师，其中包括周作人（1921），鲁迅（1933）和无政府主义者，后来的国民党成员吴志辉（1934）。后来，一些学者转变了态度，寻找中国传统文化中存在散文的证据，来支持自身对于散文的理论，例如，鲁迅通过他提出的“展开说与萌芽论”，认为晋朝（265-420）出现的关于人物的批判是中国散文的起始之处，另外，虽然周作人尝试将英语散文融入他的公安派英国小品合成论，但是也从一开始的支持英语散文（1921），转向认为明朝的笔记是中国散文的例证。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 04:41, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
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Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
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When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller[ Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "''Mai tang'' 賣糖" (Über Bonbonverkauf), in: ''Yao wei ji'' 藥味集 (Sammlung bitterer Geschmack), Peking 北京: Beijing xinmin yinshuju 北京新民印書局 (Pekinger Buchladen Neues Volk) 1942.3.20, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1973.6, S. 126 - 131, englische Übersetzung u.d.T. "Candy selling" von Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 92 - 95 [Datiert auf 25.2.1938 mit einem Nachspann vom 28.]] (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).[ Vgl. Lu Xun: "''Die Krise des freien Essays''" 1934 und Zhu Zhaoluo: "''Tan xiaopinwen'' 談小品文" (Über den freien Essay), in: ''Yiwen zazhi'' Bd 1 (1943.8, Heft 2).]<br />
汪曾祺感到遗憾的是，五四时期的中国散文传统并没有重新拾起，也没有在当代散文中延续（汪曾祺，1993）。中国散文是一个包容的研究对象，因为人们可以用它来证明散文的任何理论。人们几乎可以在每个时期找到针对每个主题的示例，这仅仅是因为文章的主题范围很广泛。当周作人表现出在马可波罗桥事件后仅7个月就又可以写一个卖糖的人[见周作人：《麦堂卖糖》，载：《姚圩集药味集》(集苦味)，北京：北京新民印书局1942.3.20，重印：香港：使用书局（Praxisverlag）1973.6，第126-131页，英译及部分 "卖糖果 "沃尔夫著：周作人1971年，第92-95页[1938年2月25日，有28日的预告片]。 (1924年)，他被批评为 "麻痹"(鲁迅1934年、朱兆洛1943年)[参见鲁迅：《自由散文的危机》1934年、朱兆洛：《谭效平文谈小品文》，载：《艺文杂志》Bd 1(1943.8，第2期)]。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 09:05, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
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When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
<br />
他曾在《Fly》上登过一篇文章，却被指责文章主题不深刻。类似的指责体现了这一流派的本质，因为这类文章的实质是边际主义。之前提到的对罗大经的公开指责在90年代重演了，香港学生批评巴金《随想录》的文学风格，认为其平直有余，艺术不足，但这一观点并未抓到这篇文章的本质。《随想录》表达的是作者的个人思想，不受传统的桎梏，故而在内容上更加自由。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:56, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他曾在《Fly》上发表过一篇文章，却被指责文章主题不深刻。类似的指责体现了这一流派的本质，因为这类文章的实质是边际主义。之前的对罗大经的公开指责在20世纪90年代再度重演，香港学生对巴金《随想录》中的文学风格提出质疑，认为其平直有余，艺术不足，但这一观点并未抓到这篇文章的本质。《随想录》表达的是作者的个人思想，因其不受传统风格的桎梏，故在内容上更加自由。<br />
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:49, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
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The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
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The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within.<br />
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这篇文章本质上是自由独立的，但却在文化大革命时期几近消失了。仅留有一些受意识形态影响的文章，艰难生存于延安与1989年领导层道德沦丧的夹缝中。<br />
这篇文章是20世纪初现代化社会的“流派”。 为了应对战争和军阀主义，许多作家不得不定义并经常重新定义他们的立场和自我理解。后来在现代化的社会中，他们经常埋葬自己的理想，从更大的角度来看社会所谓的“需求”，作者也成为了其产品之一。但是从本质上说，这篇文章在形式和内容上设定了新的界限，因此不仅在意识形态限制中幸免，而且还形成了自己的批判亚文化。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 01:31, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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本质上来说，散文具有自由和独立的特点。文革时期，除了那些深受意识形态影响的散文，其他类型的散文几乎绝迹，艰难生存于延安与1989年领导层道德沦丧的夹缝中。<br />
散文是二十世纪早期促进社会现代化的一类体裁。许多作家为反抗战争和军阀主义不得不定义并经常再定义其立场和自我认知。随后，在促进社会现代化的进程中，作家们为了满足所谓的“社会需求”常埋葬自己的理想。如此，我们也可以说作家就是其作品之一。可究其本质，散文界定了形式与内容的界线，因此不仅在意识形态限制中幸免，而且还形成了批判性的亚文化。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:39, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
这种散文，从其本质上来说，自由独立，但在文革时期，几近消失，仅留存一些受意识形态影响的散文在延安和1989年领导层道德沦丧的夹缝中苦苦挣扎。<br />
这种散文是20世纪初促现代化社会的一种体裁。为了应对战争和军阀统治，许多作者不得不定义并且经常重新定义他们的立场以及自我理解。随后，在促现代化社会中，他们经常为此埋葬自己的理想。从更大的层面上来看，社会表面的“需求”也指出作家是它的产品之一。但是从其本质上来说，这类散文为形式和内容设置了新的界限，因此，它不仅在意识形态限制中幸免，而且在当中还形成了批判亚文化。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 07:50, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
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The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.[ I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).]<br />
这类散文属于自省的体裁，今天，这类散文对我们来说不仅是讨论的媒介和社会政治背景的文献记录，它也是作者个人奋斗的记录，记录了作者在一个动荡的环境下寻找位置的过程。有些散文甚至解构了像左翼思想这样的主流叙事，往往只是简单地用主观经验、现实或艺术来处理它。【我想提及文学中的另一个观点，它强调了文学对生活的影响，特别是对革命前夕的影响-此前，有观点称，文学服从于政治 (詹姆斯) 。】--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:48, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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今天，这类散文对我们而言不仅是讨论的媒介和对当时社会政治背景的记录，它还是对作家们在变动环境中找寻自身位置的过程中，个人挣扎的记录，因为散文是一种自省的体裁。往往仅通过让它与主观经验，现实或艺术对抗，一些散文甚至解构了诸如左翼意识形态的主流叙事。[特别是在革命的前夕，我想提及另一个对文学的看法，它强调文学对生活的影响—依照这一观点，所有文学都是政治的（詹姆森）。]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 10:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这类散文属于自省的体裁，今天，这类散文对我们来说不仅是讨论的媒介和社会政治背景的文献记录，它也是作者个人奋斗的记录，记录了作者在一个动荡的环境下寻找位置的过程。有些散文甚至解构了像左翼思想这样的主流叙事，往往只是简单地用主观经验、现实或艺术来处理它。【我想提及文学中的另一个观点，它强调了文学对生活的影响，特别是在革命前夕-从这个观点来看，文学服从于政治 (詹姆斯) 。】--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 13:51, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
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Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him[ Like for example Zhu Ziqing and Ba Jin.] spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
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如果考虑这篇文章的话，我们不仅会对文学的理解发生变化，对单个作家的看法也会发生改变，如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，还看到他们的文章。在此我只提到周作人。周作人的思想把他与其他欧洲、日本和美国的当代作家联系起来（朱自清和巴金也是如此）。但是中国并未准备好接受这些思想。因为当时的中国，走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如果将散文也考虑在内的话，我们对文学这个整体概念的认识会发生变化，如果除了小说和诗歌，还阅读作家的散文，我们对单个作家的看法也会发生变化。在此我只提到周作人。他的思想将他与他同时期的欧洲、日本和美国的同僚们相连接，但对此的结果是中国还未能接受。在当时，中国所走的路，是与进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙背道而驰的。后果都在等着他们去解决。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 04:36, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
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''In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'.[ The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.] The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s.''<br />
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1927年，中国文学采用了“从事文学”的形式。[主流作家在创作中对该形式采取肯定的态度，而其他持否定态度的作家只有一小部分。个体作家创作生涯中并不是必须属于其中一种文学团体，但是可能在这些团体间移动。因为散文能够直接抒发个人的思想，所以这篇文章中提及的作家可以按照他们的思想立场进行分类。]政治散文的主题发展经历了从1907年启蒙教育到1920-30年间的日常政治主题，从1940年的反日宣传到1950s和1960s年间的意识形态传播的主题转变。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 13:24, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1927年，中国文学出现了“介入文学”的形式。“主流”作家采取一种积极的态度写作，其他采取消极态度的作家则占少数。而个体作者可以不属于这两个群体中的任何一个，但他们可能会在这两个群体之间流动。由于散文是一种直接表达思想的媒介，所以这篇文章中提及的作家可以按照他们的思想立场进行分类。政治散文的主题发展经历了一系列转变，从1907年的启蒙教育散文，到1920-30年代的日常政治散文，再到1940年代的抗日宣传和50 - 60年代的意识形态宣传。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:45, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
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''In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses.[Yu Guangzhong's essay "The wolves are coming" shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.] The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".''<br />
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在20世纪80/90年代，与20世纪20/30年代相比，对日常关注的政治的讨论只占了一小部分。在20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有体裁都被用来批判共产主义的总体叙事或毛派对艺术作为意识形态服务的理解。在20世纪80年代，关于最佳社会制度的讨论（包括一般文学和电影方面）正在复苏。到20世纪90年代，纯粹是非政治性的和更为哲学的--道德主题谱，散文家定义了他们的主题。角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的“狼来了”一文表明意识形态视角不仅仅损害大陆散文写作。）这篇散文似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但被称为“艺术宝库”的散文除外。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:41, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在20世纪80/90年代，关于日常利益的政治讨论比20/30年代少了一部分。在80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被用来批评共产主义的主要叙事,或者批判将毛派艺术为服务意识形态。虽然在20世纪80年代，关于社会最佳制度的讨论（包括一般文学和电影），但到了90年代，散文家们定义了他们的角色，政治议题又重新回到了一个非政治的、又一次更具哲理性的道德主题谱系中，首先要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光中的《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅伤害了大陆的散文，而且似乎是中国唯一一个保持教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术散文”的除外。<br />
--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:34, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
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''The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.''<br />
“非政论文章的发展始于1917年朱自清（《说梦》1928年）和周作人（《自己的园地》1923年9月出版，《苍蝇》1924年出版，《入厕读书》1936出版）的每日话题集，在1927年，发展有短暂停止，在当时政治文章成为了主流，到1930年代末,抗日运动完全清除了非政论文章的存在。直到20世纪70年代，它才恢复过来，那时生活恢复了正常，因为长期缺乏正常生活，这些看似平常的事物成了人们感兴趣的话题。在20世纪90年代，非政治性的文章再次蓬勃发展，也是因为人们对政治问题的兴趣减少，以及在大众消费主义这个新发现的世界需要一个新的方向。”--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 07:16, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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“非政论文章的发展始于1917年朱自清（《说梦》1928年）和周作人（《自己的园地》1923年9月出版，《苍蝇》1924年出版，《入厕读书》1936出版）的每日话题集，在1927年，发展有短暂停止，当时政治文章成为了主流，到20世纪30年代末,抗日运动彻底消灭了非政论文章。直到20世纪70年代，当生活恢复正常，并且平常事物因为长期不在而变成了有趣的话题，它才恢复过来。在20世纪90年代，非政治性的文章再次蓬勃发展，也是因为人们对政治问题的兴趣减少，以及在新的大众消费主义世界里需要一个新的方向指引。”--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:17, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
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I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts.<br />
我提及过在西方语言中缺乏翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者认为中国许多文章只是为了宣传。在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今这种情况已经改变了，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样。这需要更近距离的调查:自1949，政府大力倡导政治立场坚定的文章，这引起了一项统计悖论：在20世纪90年代，人们阅读的文章大部分并不是出自于那些政治立场坚定的作家而是那些文学批评家-通过他们的非政治性文章甚至他们笔下偏激的人物来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，20世纪20年代/ 30年代的中华民国文本仍然像当代文本一样经常被重印。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:47, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
正如我之前提到过的，西方语言缺少翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者留下的印象：中国散文仅仅是用于宣传的。这对于二十世纪四十年代甚至五十年代来说是真实的，但是今日已不同往日，这在势不可挡的多数的出版物中得以证实。这要求我们进一步地观察：自1949年起，政府鼓励支持政治立场的文学，这就导致了一个充满讽刺性的悖论：人们读得多的不是支持政治的作者和他们的文章，反而是批判的散文家，他们的文章与政治无关，甚至有时含有蔑视的特点。在二十世纪九十年代时，二、三十年代民国的文章仍然像同时代的刊物一样被重复印刷。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:05, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
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Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
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Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist:ZHOU ZUOREN.<br />
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I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor".<br />
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显然，我们可以得出这样的结论：20世纪50年代的政治肯定性文章只存在于专门的政治散文集中，而在21世纪初，著名作家不会去写这些文章，观众也不会阅读这些文章。<br />
考虑到一个体裁的变化，会影响总体的文学观点，考虑到一个作家的散文作品，也改变了这个作家的观点。我只为现代的散文列举一位作家：周作人。<br />
我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但是直到80年代，他的散文一直被忽视，原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。《中华人民共和国官场文学史》对周作人的主要叙述是：五四理论天才“堕落”，后来沦为“叛徒”。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:13, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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显然，我们可以得出这样的结论：20世纪50年代的政治肯定性文章只存在于专门的政治散文集中，而在21世纪初，当代著名的作家不会去写这些文章，观众也不会阅读这些文章。 考虑到体裁的变化，会改变总体的文学观点，而作家的散文作品，也改变这个作家的观点，因此我只列举一位作家作为现代散文家之例：周作人。 我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但是直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视，原因不在于其文学品质，而在于其政治价值。《中华人民共和国官场文学史》对周作人的主要叙述是：五四理论天才“堕落”，后来沦为“叛徒”。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 14:13, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
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Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'', and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).<br />
在日本主办的杂志《追忆》和《中国文学》上发表文章，他被指责与朱璞和袁熙合作。一个悬而未决的问题是，为什么在那里发表文章的另一位作家张爱玲从未因合作而受到指责。二者的不同之处在于，张爱玲试图逃避政治委员会，而周则感到内疚，朱则为之辩护，袁则干脆接受了。在他的文学小短篇中，周试图从私人空间的主观体验中，将日常生活中的琐事审美化。周作人的主要贡献在于，通过号召写文学短篇，开创了中国散文创作的转折点。（美文1921）。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:30, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因为在日本主办的杂志《追忆》和《中国文学》上发表了文章，他受到指责与朱璞和袁熙合作。一个悬而未决的问题是，为什么在那里发表文章的另一位作家张爱玲从未因合作而受到指责。二者的不同之处在于，张爱玲试图逃避政治委员会，而周却感到内疚，朱则为之辩护，袁是干脆接受了。在他的文学小短篇中，周试图从私人空间的主观体验中，将日常生活中的琐事审美化。周作人的主要贡献在于，通过号召写文学短篇，开创了中国散文创作的转折点。（美文1921）--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:31, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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在日本主办的杂志《追忆》和《中国文学》上发表文章，他被指责与朱璞和袁熙合作。一个悬而未决的问题是，为什么在那里发表文章的另一位作家张爱玲从未因合作而受到指责。二者的不同之处在于，张爱玲试图逃避政治委员会，而周恩来则感到内疚，朱镕基则为之辩护，袁则干脆接受了。在小品创作中，周作人试图从私人空间的主观体验中，将日常生活中的琐事审美化。周作人的主要贡献在于，他以《文学短篇》的号召，开创了中国散文创作的转折点（梅文1921）。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:21, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 07:52, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批评 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
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With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".<br />
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在外国文献中，所谓的“论文”大概分为两类：一类是反思批评性质的科学文章，另一类是具有艺术性的记述文章（也叫做“美文”）。我们能够区分叙事文和抒情文，但也有些文章抒情与叙事两者兼而有之。我希望美文能够重新焕发光彩，为新文学的发展开创新局面。何乐不为呢？<br />
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在这篇文章中，“美学”有了新的定义。这一出发点为中国论文写作开创了一种全新的写作传统。当代作家们将此文称为“论文之王”。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 09:00, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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外国文学把“论文”大概分为两类：一类是反思批评性质的科学文章，另一类是具有艺术性的记述文章（也叫做“美文”）。我们能够从中区分叙事和抒情，但也有些文章抒情与叙事两者兼而有之。我希望美文能够重新焕发光彩，为新文学的发展开创新局面。这岂不妙乎？<br />
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在“美文”这篇文章中，它有了地道的定义。这一出发点为中国论文写作开创了一种全新的写作传统。当代作家称这种手法为“论文之王”。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 07:52, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
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In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the baguwen and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
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为了把这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图寻找其与明代小品文的相似之处。他在自己的散文理论中进一步论述了这些思想，而他的散文从古代“随笔”中受益颇多。后来，他又进一步发展了自己的文学理论，并在两个倾向间摇摆不定。在现代化社会进程中，他主张妇女解放，并要求“把儿童看做一个有其自身的外在生命和内在生命的完整主体”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的精髓”（周，1923年）。他提倡八股文和文学之于政治的独立性，这影响了文坛和1917年至1938年间中国近代社会的发展。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 03:01, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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为了将这种新的文学形式带给他的同胞，他试图找出其与明代小品文的相似之处。 他在自己的散文理论中进一步论述了这些思想。他从古代“随笔”中受益良多，这也体现在他的散文之中。随后，他又进一步发展了自己的文学理论，使其朝着“向上”和“向下”两种趋势发展。 对于一个处在现代化进程中的社会，他主张解放妇女，并要求“将儿童当作具有自身外在和内在生活的完整主体来对待”，并“使儿童成为儿童文学的中心”（周1923年）。 他提倡八股文，主张文学独立于政治，这极大地影响了文学领域并促进了特别是在1917年到1938年之间中国社会的近代化进程。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:36, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
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With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art", for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. <br />
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Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
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基于这种理论基础和自己的"窥探性"散文作品，周作人以他自己在该题材的短篇文学作品为例,在他的文学理论发展阶段,像130年前法国的邦雅曼·贡斯当为“为了艺术的艺术“奋斗一样，周作人为作家的个性和独立，为人的文学而奋斗。并不能用周作人的散文证明他是个无政治性的作家，相反,他倒是希望自己对政治言论的禁欲本身被理解为政治言论。<br />
注释:邦雅曼·贡斯(1767-1830)是法国文学家和政治思想家，近代自由主义的奠基者之一。在法国大革命后，除了艺术自由之外，还要求以英式先例为基础引入宪法君主制。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 00:13, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
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Siehe Journal (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: Chou Tso-jen 1971, S. 84.<br />
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Siehe Zhou Zuoren: Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
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For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual.<br />
参见日志（02/10/1804）。 “为艺术而艺术”传播了艺术脱离目的的自由。 相反，忠实的文学可以自我理解。 沃尔夫也将周作人对文学的理解与“为艺术而艺术”的概念相提并论：Chou Tso-jen 1971，第84页。<br />
参见周作人：《中国新文学的起源》，1934年，第95-98页； 看到。 陈子战：《中国文学史讲义》（1937年），第3卷，pp。 416-422，特别是第422页。注：H.马丁：《梁启超论诗歌改革》，1996年，第1卷，第213页。<br />
对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是抵抗的手段（周1929：180-181）。事实上，在一起针对他得谋杀事件里，当他的司机丧命后，周把自己视为“地下爱国战士”，并认为被强制与日本傀儡政权合作。他论文写作的理念越来越少地表达民族国家的构建，而更多地展现了个人的理想。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
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How broadly his enlightenment concept might have been accepted in the West, China was simply not ready for this modern concept then, instead it had to give way to a politically manipulated literature and to a dark period first under different warlords, then in the civil and Anti-Japanese war, finally under communist regime, which lasts until the 21st century. <br />
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"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown."<br />
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不管他的启蒙观念在西方可能被如何广泛地接受，当时的中国却没有做好接受这种观念的准备。相反的，这种观念不得不让位于一种被政治操纵的文学，让位于一个黑暗时期。这个时期首先由军阀统治，再陷入内战和抗日战争，最后政权落入共产党手中，一直持续到21世纪。<br />
“我并不确切地知道原因，但我觉得好像我生来就在一个黑暗的时代。我承认，我们的丛林之中并没有栖息着龙，虎和狼，但是不成样子的“怪物”和“妖精”仍然四处游走，伺机吞噬我们的灵魂…最警醒我的是在这牢笼里是没有自由的，而我们这些作家就被扔进了这牢笼。”--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 06:18, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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不管他的启蒙观念在西方可能被如何广泛地接受，当时的中国却没有准备好去接受这种观念。相反的，这种观念不得不让位于一种被政治操纵的文学，让位于一个黑暗时期。这个时期一直延续到21世纪，最先由军阀统治，再陷入内战和抗日战争，最后政权落入共产党手中。 <br />
“我并不确切地知道原因，但我觉得好像我生来就在一个黑暗的时代。我承认，我们的丛林之中并没有栖息着龙、虎和狼，但是不成样子的“怪物”和“妖精”仍然四处游走，伺机吞噬我们的灵魂…最警醒我的是这没有自由的牢笼，而我们这些作家就被扔进了这牢笼。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 23:54, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
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Confronting tradition and progress in the essay ''"Ancestor Worship"'', he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
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Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
《祖宗崇拜》一文中，面对传统与进步，他更倾向于后者，改变是过去变成现在的唯一道路（周 1919：7-8）。<br />
我想更正一下中国官方对周作人的评价，即1938年，他中断了写作。1937年他反对宣传建立民族英雄以及1937年的通敌行为，官方说法称：当时他的思想堕落了（朱金顺 1990：59）。事实上，这次中止发生在毛泽东对其软禁(1942)及国民党对其的逮捕(1945)之后，在此期间他的文学作品，艺术作品等主题和风格生了改变，变的正经和闲适。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《祖宗崇拜》一文中，面对传统与进步，更倾向于后者，改变是过去变成现在的唯一道路（周 1919：7-8）。我想更正一下中国官方对周作人的评价，即1938年，他中断了写作。1937年他反对宣传建立民族英雄以及1937年的通敌行为，官方说法称：当时他的思想堕落了（朱金顺 1990：59）。事实上，这次中止发生在毛泽东对其软禁(1942)及国民党对其的逮捕(1945)之后，在此期间他的文学作品，艺术作品等主题和风格生了改变，变的正经和闲适。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 07:52, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
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Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
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Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on ''"The Fly"'', where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ''”The fly”'' shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them.<br />
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因此，该为这位伟大作家的转变负责的，不是日本压迫者们，而是他的中国同胞们。背负着“叛国贼”的污名，时至今日，他都不受重视。在20世纪90年代，其著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地被出版，这表明他的作品最终在读者中得到了更积极的文学评价，关于这一点变化现在也必须由学者记录下来。周作人被误读的另一个例子是他的短文《苍蝇》，其中描述了他对苍蝇的态度变化，孩提时逗玩苍蝇，但得知苍蝇会传播疾病后却厌恶不已。《苍蝇》展现了周作人深厚的文学功力，即通过回忆的追溯或情感态度的转变去刻画细节并使之成为真实的话题。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:10, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
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Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨報副鐫 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zusammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
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Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. The official reading reproaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos", a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
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Siehe ''Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.<br />
见周作人：《仓皇传》，载《晨报附录》（1924.7.13）。其内容摘要见：于大祥：《汉语散文选词与内容分析》，1993年。 <br />
周恩来总结了他从中学到的哲学智慧：人们并不客观地评价事物，而是通过褒贬。官方的解读指责周恩来“只看到苍蝇，没有看到宇宙”，这是年轻的周恩来关于他自己明确反对的立场的一句话。 《中国科学全集-中国文学》1988年，第2版，第1300页。这是在散文《苍鹰》（短篇小说）上演的，在：周作人：“智堂”。1933年收藏。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:14, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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见周作人：《仓皇传》，载《晨报附录》（1924.7.13）。其内容摘要见：于大祥：《汉语散文选词与内容分析》，1993年。 <br />
<br />
周恩来总结了他从中学到的哲学智慧：人们并不客观地评价事物，而是倾向于褒贬事物。官方的解读指责周恩来认为他“只看到苍蝇，没有看到宇宙”，这是年轻的周恩来关于他自己明确反对的立场的一句话。 <br />
<br />
《中国科学全集-中国文学》1988年，第2版，第1300页。这是在散文《苍蝇》（短篇小说）上演的，1933年藏于在周作人《知堂文集》。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:55, 15 October 2020 (UTC)许鹏飞<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
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His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”Peking ''cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
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His piece ”Bitter rain” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ''”On tea drinking”'' (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ''”First love”'' is more hilarious.<br />
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他的随笔《鸟声》，《北京的茶食》，《我故乡的野菜》中体现了他的那种谈论生命中更为有趣的事物的能力，在这些作品中周作人通过描写当地的风土人情和特色食物，让读者有一种宾至如归的感受。<br />
他的作品《苦雨》中也表现了这种氛围，以至于他的作品被贴上了“苦茶”的标签，也就是说他的作品在读后如茶一般让人回味无穷。如果你把鲁迅的《论饮茶》与他的同名作品比较，你就会发现“短而中肯”和“雄辩而博学”的区别。“初恋”则更搞笑。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:39, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
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The essay ''”Three different ways to die”'' shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight. Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ''”The awning bunk boat”'' Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
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''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
文章《三中不同的死亡方式》表明，鲁迅的嘲讽与他的哥哥不相上下。鲁迅同一主题的论文，即《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》，也证明了这一点。鲁迅在寻找一种最好的”死亡方式，并主张短暂而无痛苦的死亡方式。 在《饮酒论》和《遮阳棚双层船》中，周作人延续了明末笔极的传统。<br />
那么中国当代写作的现状应该是是怎样的？它应与最新的方法，观点和术语（如后现代主义元素，后殖民思想，解构主义等）形成一种合理的关系。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 13:18, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
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The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth. The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society.<br />
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“文化大革命”后散文创作的增加可能与散文的能力有关。由于其对历史真相的内在要求，相比于其他体裁，它能更真实地表达个人经历。但是散文并不能保证事实的客观性，它同样具有主观性：散文家会下意识地调解自我形象。那么，这就将已报道的事实限制在一个主观范围内，它同时也承担着下意识地纠正事实的风险。共和国时期的个人主义处于一个历史转折点，它基于共同情感指向共同的目标，如创作新文学，创造一个全新的中国社会。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:19, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“文化大革命”之后散文创作的增加可能与散文的功能有关。由于散文对历史真相的内在要求，相较于其他体裁，它能更真实地表达个人经历。 但是散文并不是客观真理的保证，它同时具有主观性：散文家会有意识地调整自我形象。这就使已报道的事实带有主观性，并承担事实被有意识地“纠正”的风险。 民国时期的个人主义基于处于历史转折点这种同感的基础上建立，并朝着建立新文学和新中国社会等共同目标迈进。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 16:25, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
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In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安詳" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的 事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
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Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (''"Shanxi opera"'', Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (''"The nightmare"'', Si Yu 1995).<br />
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二十世纪80年代，特别是90年代，个人主义要求对满足个人消费需求的思想进行批判性反思，并努力寻求个人目标。小说家提倡道德美德，(王蒙: 安详1992，做好你自己的事，1994)。这些文章主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在当时激荡、虚幻、疏远和消费主义盛行的大众文化氛围中，被读者广泛阅读。这一时期的其他作品，出现了一种新的主观主义色彩，它们逃避当下的矛盾，给读者营勾勒出由积极色彩(《秦腔》, 贾平凹 1984)和消极色彩(《噩梦》,思域 1995) 共同构成的世界。<br />
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在20世纪80年代，尤其是90年代间，个人主义要求对满足个人消费需求进行批判性评价，并且尽量表现出个人意向，评论家讲究道德品质。（王蒙: 安详1992，做好你自己的事，1994)。这些散文主要在报纸和杂志出版，为生活在迅速变化、陌生疏离且以消费为主的大众文化社会中的人们广泛阅读。同期其他的散文作品是以崭新面孔出现的、规避时下矛盾的主观主义，却能给读者创造出或积极(《秦腔》, 贾平凹 1984)或消极的世界。(《噩梦》,思域 1995)--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:17, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪80年代，尤其是在90年代，个人主义要求对满足个人消费需求这方面进行批判性反思，并试图给予人物定向，散文家提倡道德美德（王蒙《安祥》1992，《做好你自己的事》1994）这些散文主要发表于报纸和杂志上，在当时瞬息万变、陌生疏远且消费主义盛行的大众文化社会中，为人所广泛阅读。<br />
同期的其他散文呈现出一种新的主观主义色彩，目标不在于当下的矛盾，而是通过给读者们创造积极（《秦腔》，贾平凹1984）或消极世界（《噩梦》，思域？1995）关注读者的感受。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 04:04, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
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From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
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- The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
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- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
从这篇论文来看，我们可以了解到现代文学的趋势: 不断变化的现代中国社会需要多样的短文，我们生活在艺术展览会的年代，这一趋势也是20世纪90年代散文创作不断增加的原因。<br />
个人意识的崛起使得散文成为主观表达最直接的方式，散文比有格律和形式要求的诗歌更为直接。<br />
在20世纪20-30年代通过散文讨论社会政治议题的兴趣增加。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 23:46, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
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- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
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- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.[Ba Jin for example complains in "Remembering Xiao San" about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.]<br />
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平庸的日常生活因为变成了文学话题而变得有意思，最常见的就是日常生活体裁，即论文。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:46, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活体裁，即论文。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:10, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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-中国社会的去意识形态化。 今天，不是政府要求的平权文本站在最前列，而是非政治性文章，主要是共和时代，尤其是1923年至1928年。上述统计分析结果支持这项研究。 1949年后最受欢迎的政治文章是批判性文章。例如，巴金在“纪念萧三”中抱怨“文化大革命”中妻子的去世。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:46, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国社会的去意识形态化。 今天，不是政府要求的平权文本站在最前列，而是非政治性文章，主要是共和时代，尤其是1923年至1928年。这篇观察得到上述统计分析结果的支持。 1949年后最受欢迎的政治文章是批判性文章。例如，巴金在“纪念萧三”中抱怨“文化大革命”中妻子的去世。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:10, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
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- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay ''"The Back View"'', filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "The Moonlit Lotus Pond", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in ''"Wild vegetables of my home region"'' by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
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有关散文集的编纂:对于中华人民共和国(包括台湾和香港在内)的常选散文来说，其大部分的道德和美学标准似乎都有所隐藏。这是一个信号，意味着散文选集的编辑者在摆脱政府或者意识形态上的阻碍，独立性变得越来越强，也意味着出版社以客户(之前称之为“读者”)为导向，逐渐商业化。<br />
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中华人民共和国的畅销散文标准如下:常选印刷散文《背影》，孝顺主题是其畅销的主要原因。《荷塘月色》的内容氛围朦胧，文章结构具有平行性和重复性。这两本书的作者都是朱自清，他的写作风格对于西方读者来说易被视为矫揉造作。思家情绪是汪曾祺的《故乡的野菜》一文中的感情特征元素。因此可以说，畅销榜首均为感人散文。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:32, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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-关于文集的编纂：对于最常入选文集的中国(包括台湾和香港)散文，似乎存在着潜在的道德和美学标准。这是文集编辑越来越独立于政府或意识形态障碍的标志，也是出版社以客户(之前称之为“读者”)为导向，日益商业化的一个标志。<br />
-在中国，畅销文集的标准是：常选印刷散文《背影》中，孝道是驱动因素，同样是朱自清作品的《荷塘月色》，氛围朦胧中的平行重复结构，在西方读者看来似乎很矫揉造作。怀旧的故乡情怀是汪曾祺《故乡野菜》中的情感认同元素。因此，我们可以说，感人肺腑的文章位居畅销榜首。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:35, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
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- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No!'' 1996).<br />
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- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
“在九十年代后半期，主人公他似乎迷失在个人主体性、每天的亵渎和平庸中以及组织越来越正式而实质越来越空洞的城市生活中。越来越多的日常活动充斥机械化和孤僻的行为，时间便渐渐没有了价值。八十年代的政治批评主义在九十年代的文章中已经消失了，唯一留存的政治批评就是爱国主义，比如1966年发表的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（1966）。<br />
<br />
我们找不到后现代主义小说意义上的后现代主义散文的原因在于散文的直接性：作为一种体裁，散文是作者和读者之间的一种对话，而不是诠释不同的艺术目标，也不是一种为了使其与众不同而依赖于特殊的形式或内容甚至引用前年代主义特点的艺术目标。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:30, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
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''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993'' (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness[''Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo'' 新狀態小說 (''new borderless fiction'') with Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.] ''since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.''[Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.]<br />
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“还有一些趋势，如在1993年以后的小说中发现的日常语言的使用”("贾平凹",《废都》;“顾城”,《英儿》)和新无边界化【陈东,鲁羊,朱文,林白,陈梁,张梅新狀態小說(“新小说无国界”)】，自1995年以来，就无法在论文写作中得到证实。[后殖民主义思维(Williams et al. 1994)，被视为社会政治话语的一部分，出现在散文中，特别是在20世纪90年代不那么具有批判性的政治但爱国主义的散文中。卡夫卡主义帮助我们理解了《噩梦》这篇文章，在这篇文章中Si Yu似乎是一位解构主义者，第一人称叙述的我甚至几乎自杀。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:57, 16 October 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
''小说作品中还可找到一些趋势，比如1993年出现的日常用语的使用'' （''贾平凹''，《废都》；''顾城''，《英儿》）''以及1995年以来的新无边界派'' [ 陈东,鲁羊,朱文,林白,陈梁,张梅的''新状态小说'' ] ，''而这些趋势在散文中却未得到证实'' [ 后殖民主义思维（威廉姆斯等，1994年）被视为社会政治话语的一部分，在散文中，特别是在20世纪90年代那些少有政治争议的爱国主义散文中，这种思维得以体现。卡夫卡主义可帮助我们理解“梦靥”这一散文作品，斯妤以解构主义的方式进行创作，第一人称视角近乎消失 ]。--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being ''"The Small Dog Baodi"'', written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (''"In memoriam of Xiao Shan II"'', Ba Jin 1984). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's ''"Rain in Kunming"'' as well as for Jia Pingwa's ''"Shanxi opera"''.[And maybe for Xie Bingxins reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .]<br />
<br />
王德威认为，老舍、矛盾以及巴金的虚构现实主义作品能让读者更好地理解其他文章。1981年，巴金写下《小狗包弟》，以讲述者视角、寓言般语言描述了文化大革命这段历史往事；而在《再忆萧珊》（1984年）中他却多用描述性语言。想象的乡愁概念也是如此。王德威认为沈从文作品中的虚构现实主义有助于阅读汪曾祺《昆明的雨》以及贾平凹《秦腔》。（或许这还有助于理解谢冰莹入选黄埔军校后对军旅生活的反思：立志当一名终生“女兵”。）--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:02, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
<br />
-施瓦茨在“隐喻性话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”的这一概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服令他出名的“存在的真理”的，结果却通过分析巴金在《小狗包弟》中的隐喻，得到了一个更具说服力的“虚构真相”这一概念。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:28, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
DISCUSSION: IS THE GENRE OF THE ESSAY THE FORM OF LITERARY EXPRESSION IN 21ST CENTURY CHINA?<br />
<br />
讨论：该文章的体裁是21世纪中国的文学表现形式吗？--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:28, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
关于中国文学的未来，我们只能推测。但是，冒着变得狂野与挑衅的风险，我想提出一些问题，以考虑这篇文章在中国文学和文学研究领域的地位。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:28, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
<br />
- 人们鲜有时间阅读，并且已经习惯于通过互联网来重复视觉化的信息。一篇散文很简洁，这就会使得它成为理想的媒介吗？<br />
如果中国人不断发现他们的个性，那么散文会使得他们更加直接的表达他们的想法吗？<br />
- 部分原因是美国这个国家文化的影响，现代社会最典型的的特点就是电视文化，大众消费以及个人自我意识的丢失。相较于诗歌，散文更少受到传统的约束因此会更符合现代的大众消费吗？--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
-人们鲜有时间阅读，并且习惯通过互联网减少可视化信息。短文是否会成为理想的媒介？<br />
-如果中国人重新发现自己的个性，短文会让他们更直接地表达个人的思想吗？<br />
-由于美国对民族文化的影响，现代社会的特点是电视文化、大众消费以及传统自我意识的丧失。尤其是与诗歌相比，短文是不是少了传统的束缚，而更能符合现代的大众消费的现象呢？--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:16, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
-人们鲜有时间阅读，并且已经习惯于通过互联网减少可视化信息。简洁的散文是否会成为理想的媒介？<br />
- 如果中国人能重新发现自己的个性，那么散文能让他们更直接地表达个人的想法吗？<br />
- 现代社会的特点是电视文化和大众消费为主，同时传统自我的意识的丧失。相较于诗歌，散文是否会因为少了传统的束缚而更符合大众消费的现象呢？--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 14:31, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, March 14, 2000<br />
<br />
REFERENCES<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1981 Ba Jin, "''Xiao gou Baodi'' 小狗包第" (The small dog Baodi), in ''Tansuo ji'' 抻坰摩 (Inquiries), Hong Kong 香港 4.1981 [Series ''Suixiang lu'' 隨想錄 (Thoughts) vol. 2]<br />
<br />
在全球范围内城市生活的疏远性与匿名性，则与意识形态、家庭、集体荣誉感等传统价值观的缺失相联系，是以个人利益至上的观念为基础的。如果其产生了对某种新方向的渴望，那它的内容会是引领道德观念的文章和民族主义思想吗？<br />
来源：MA USA，剑桥，在哈佛大学的演讲，2000年3月14日。<br />
引：巴金，1981，《小狗包弟》，抻坰摩，香港，1981，《随想录》。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 17:51, 15 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
<br />
在中国，全球范围内都存在的城市生活的疏远性与匿名性，则与意识形态、家庭、团结等传统价值观的缺失相联系，这些价值观是支持个人利益至上的观念的。如果其产生了对某种新方向的渴望，那它的内容会是引领道德观念的文章和民族主义思想吗？<br />
来源：MA USA，剑桥，在哈佛大学的演讲，2000年3月14日。<br />
参考：<br />
巴金，1981，《小狗包弟》，抻坰摩，香港，1981，《随想录》系列，卷2。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
全球范围内城市生活出现疏远性与匿名性，在中国，这种疏远性与匿名性与意识形态、家庭、团结等传统价值观的缺失相联系，是支持个人利益至上的。如果这种状况促成了对新方向的渴望，那它会造成引领道德观念的文章和民族主义思想的迸发吗？<br />
来源：MA USA，剑桥，在哈佛大学的演讲，2000年3月14日。<br />
参考：<br />
巴金，1981，《小狗包弟》，抻坰摩，香港，1981，《随想录》，卷2。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 11:15, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
<br />
Bolz 1992 Norbert Bolz: ''"Essay"'', in Walther Killy, ed., ''Literaturlexikon'', 15 vols., München: Bertelsmann 1992<br />
<br />
Butrym 1989 Alexander J. Butrym, ''"Introduction"'', in Butrym, ed., ''Essays on the Essay - Redifining the Genre'', Athens etc.: The University of Georgia Press 1989<br />
<br />
Denton 1996 Kirk A. Denton, ed., ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought. Writings on Literature 1893 - 1945'', Stanford University Press 1996, 554 S.<br />
<br />
Fan Peisong 1993 Fan Peisong 範培松, ''Zhongguo xiandai sanwen shi'' 中國現代散文史 (History of the Modern Chinese Essay), Nanking 南京: Jiangsu jiaoyu chubanshe 江蘇教育出版社 (Paedagogic Press Jiangsu) 9.1993, 626 S.<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
<br />
Gálik 1966 Marián Gálik, "''On the Influence of Foreign Ideas on Chinese Literary Criticism, 1898 1904''", in ''Asian and African Studies,'' Bratislava: Department of Oriental Studies of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, 2 (1966) 38-48<br />
<br />
玛丽安•盖利克.论外国思想对中国文学批评的影响：从1989到1904.亚非研究，1996(2):38-48.伯拉第斯拉瓦：斯洛伐克科学院东方研究系.<br />
<br />
Hall 1984 Donald Hall, ''The contemporary essay'', New York: St. Martin’s Press 1984, 488 pp [In this textbook, Hall has chosen a wide range of contemporary american essayists (34, each is presented with one text), among them many women writers like Alison Lurie, Frances FitzGerald, Diane Johnson and Annie Dillard. The authors presented with a short biographical overview. In his introduction, Hall applies for clear writing, and active reading.]<br />
<br />
唐纳德•霍尔，1984.当代散文.纽约：圣马丁出版社1984：488.<br />
在这本教科书中，霍尔介绍了很多当代美国散文家（34个散文家，每个人都用一篇文章介绍），其中也包含了很多女性散文家，如艾莉森·卢里、弗朗西斯·菲茨杰拉德、黛安·约翰逊和安妮·迪拉德。通过一篇篇简短的传记，霍尔一一介绍了这34位散文家。在他的介绍中，霍尔倡导清晰明了的书写方式和积极充分的阅读习惯。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:29, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
Jia Pingwa 1984 Jia Pingwa, "''Qin qiang'' 秦腔" (Shanxi opera), in ''Renmin wenxue'' 人民日報 (Folksliterature) (5.1984)<br />
<br />
Kubin 1995 Wolfgang Kubin, "Das aschene Herz oder Der Sieg des Lebens. Der Hongkonger Essayist Gaylord Leung (The Ashen Heart or The Victory of Life. The Hong Kong Essayist Gaylord Leung)", in ''minima sinica'' 1 (1995) pp. 100-114<br />
<br />
Leiden 1988-90 ''A Selective Guide to Chinese Literature. 1900 - 1949'', 4 Bde, Leiden 1988 - 1990 [Only on novels, fiction anthologies, poetry collections and drama.]<br />
<br />
贾平凹 1984年，秦腔，人民日报，1984年5月版<br />
<br />
沃尔夫冈·库宾，《灰心还是生命的胜利》，1995年，香港散文家梁家辉（灰心还是生命的胜利），《袖珍汉学》，第100-114页<br />
<br />
莱顿，1988-1990《中国文学精选指南》，1900 - 1949，[仅限小说、小说选集、诗集和戏剧。]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 02:14, 16 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
<br />
贾平凹. 《秦腔》, 人民日报, 1984.5.<br />
<br />
沃尔夫冈·库宾. 《灰心还是生命的胜利---香港散文家梁锡华》，1995年，袖珍汉学，第100-114页<br />
<br />
莱顿. 《中国文学精选指南1900-1949》. 1988-1990 [仅限小说、小说选集、诗集和戏剧。]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:45, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
贾平凹. 《秦腔》, 《人民日报》, 1984年5月.<br />
<br />
沃尔夫冈·库宾. 《灰心还是生命的胜利---香港散文家梁锡华》，1995年，《袖珍汉学》，第100-114页<br />
<br />
莱顿. 《中国文学精选指南 1900-1949》. 1988-1990年 [仅限小说、小说选集、诗集和戏剧。]-- Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
<br />
Lin Yaode 1989 Lin Yaode 林耀德, ''Shuangmu he . shi nai de'' 雙目合．視乃得 (You need two eyes to see), in ''Guannian duihua'' 觀念對話 (Dialogue of ideas), Taipeh 臺北: Han'guang wenhua shiye gufen youxian gongsi 漢光文化事業股份有限公司 (Shining Chinese Cultureworks Corp.) 8.1989, 266 pp, p 49-77 [A very critical interview with the Taiwanese author Yu Guangzhong.]<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 1933 [missing, will be added in a later edition]<br />
林耀德. 双目合，视乃得, 对话台湾作家余光中[A]，《观念对话》[M]. 台湾：汉光文化有限公司, 1989: 49-49.<br />
林耀德. 双目合，视乃得, 对话台湾作家余光中[A]，《观念对话》[M]. 台湾：汉光文化有限公司, 1989: 49-49.<br />
林耀德. 双目合，视乃得, 对话台湾作家余光中[A]，《观念对话》[M]. 台湾：汉光文化有限公司, 1989: 49-49.<br />
鲁迅 1933（遗漏，将在下一版本完善）-Mo Nan<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 1934 Lu Xun, "''Xiaopinwen de weiji'' 小品文的危機" (The crisis of the short literary piece), in ''Nanqiang beidiao ji'' 南腔北調集 (Mixed Accents) 1934[?] [Dated 1933. Lu Xun writes, "''Sanwen'' 散文 (essay) and ''xiaopin'' 小品 (short literary pieces) are presumably more successful than novels, traditional operas and poems. They contain of course also struggle and fight. Because they often take English ''suibi'' 隨筆 (essays) as their example, they are also humorous and distinguished." Following Lee's 1985 :287 terminology, the title reads "''The Crisis of the Literary Essay''".]<br />
<br />
鲁迅，（“小品文的危机”，收录在《南腔北调集》中），1934。（1933：鲁迅写道，“散文与小品文同小说、传统戏剧以及诗歌相比想必更为成功。散文与小品文当然也需费力去写，因为这两者经常引用英文随笔作为例子，并且这两者同样幽默、杰出。”）--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 03:05, 19 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
<br />
Luo Dajing ca. 1240 Luo Dajing 羅大經 (? - after 1248), ''Helin yulu'' 鶴林玉露 (Forest of cranes and jade dew), in ''Baibu congshu'' 百部叢書 (Book series in 100 vols.) tao 套 14, ce 冊 1<br />
<br />
Mansberg 1995 Anja Mansberg, ''Essays aus dem Exil: Liu Zaifu - ein chinesischer Intellektueller in Amerika, Schweden und Kanada'' (Essays from Exile: Liu Zaifu - a Chinese intellectual in America, Sweden and Canada), Ruhr University Bochum 1995 [Unpublished master thesis.]<br />
<br />
罗大经. 《鹤林玉露》. 1240:百部丛书：第14套第一册.<br />
<br />
安雅·曼斯伯格. 《刘在复流亡文集-一个在美国，瑞典和加拿大流亡的中国知识分子》. 波鸿鲁尔大学,1995.[未发表的硕士论文]--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 02:34, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
<br />
Margouliès 1949 Margouliès, G., ''Histoire de la littérature chinoise (prose) (History of the Chinese Literature (Prose))'', Paris: Payot 1949 [Contains only a few pages on the essay.]<br />
<br />
McDougall 1971 Bonnie S. McDougall, ''The Introduction of Western Literary Theories into China, 1919 - 1925, Tokyo'': Center for East Asian Cultural Studies 1971 ''(East Asian Cultural Studies Series'' 14-15) <br />
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McNaughton 1974 William McNaughton, ed., ''Chinese Literature. An Antholo-gy from the earliest times to the present day'', Rutland, Vermont, Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Co. 1974, 836 S. [Although it says "literature" in the title, it contains no essays, only "fiction" and "verse".]<br />
<br />
<br />
马古烈 1949，马古烈，G。，“中国文学史（散文）（中国文学史）”，巴黎：柏姿 1949 [论文里仅含几页。]<br />
<br />
麦克杜格尔，1971年邦妮·麦克杜格尔，“西方文学理论在中国的介绍，1919年至1925年，东京”：东亚文化研究中心，1971年，“（东亚文化研究丛书”第14-15页）<br />
<br />
麦克诺顿 1974年，威廉 · 麦克诺顿编辑，“中国文学。一本从早期到现在的选集”，东京佛蒙特州拉特兰：查尔斯·塔特尔公司 1974，836S。[尽管标题中写着“文学”，但没有任何论文，只有“ 小说”和“诗歌”。]<br />
--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 16:02, 18 October 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
<br />
'''Jiang/Wu''' '''1996''' Jiang Jian 姜建, Wu Weigong 吳為公, eds., ''Zhu Ziqing nianpu'' 朱自清年譜 (Biographical chronic of Zhu Ziqing), Hefei 合肥: Anhui jiaoyu chubanshe 安徽教育出版社 (Education Press Anhui) 5.1996, 361 pp.<br />
<br />
'''Morohashi undated''' Morohashi, Tetsuji 諸橋轍次, ''Dai Kan-wa jiten'' 大漢和辭典 (Large Chinese Dictionary), Taipei 臺北 undated, vol. 1-13<br />
<br />
<br />
'''姜/吴''' '''1996年''' 姜建，吴为公《朱自清年谱》 合肥：安徽教育出版社，1996年5月，共361页<br />
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'''诸桥''' '''无出版日期''' 诸桥辅次《大汉和辞典》 台北，无出版日期，第一至十三卷--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
<br />
姜建，吴为公，《朱自清年谱》，1996，合肥：安徽教育出版社，共361页。<br />
诸桥辅次，《大汉和辞典》，无出版日期，台北，第一至十三卷。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 03:08, 19 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
<br />
Pollard 1985 David E. Pollard, "''Lu Xun's Zawen''", in Leo O. Lee: ''Lu Xun and his Legacy'' 1985, pp. 54-89<br />
<br />
Průšek 1964 Jaroslav Pršek, "''A Confrontation of Traditional Oriental Literature with Modern European Literature in the Context of the Chinese Literary Revolution", in Archiv Orientalni 32'' (1964) 365-375.<br />
卜立德.《鲁迅和他的遗产》,1985年,李里奥,第54-89页<br />
雅罗斯拉夫• 普罗塞克 .《中国文学改革背景中传统东方文学和现代欧洲文学的冲突》,1964年,东方档案32,第365-375页--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 07:30, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《鲁迅杂文》，卜立德，1985；《鲁迅及其遗产》，李里奥，1985,54-89页<br />
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《中国文学改革背景中传统东方文学和现代欧洲文学的冲突》，雅罗斯拉夫• 普罗塞克，1964年,东方档案第32卷,365-375页。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 14:52, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
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Si Yu 1995 Si Yu 斯妤, "Mengyan 夢魘" (The nightmare), in Si Yu 斯妤, Li Hong 李紅, eds., ''Dangdai nüxing sanwen suibi jingcui - qingxinxiang gao (sanwen juan)'' 當代女性散文隨筆精 粹—傾心相告（散文 卷） (Choice of Essays and Familiar Essays of Contemporary Women Authors - Opening One's Heart - Essay Vol.), Peking 北京: Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe 中國青年出版社 (Chinese Youth Press) 6.1995, 392 pp, 130-134<br />
当代女性散文随笔精粹-倾心相告（散文卷）（选择的文章和当代女性作家的为人熟知的文章）1995年6月，北京中国青年出版社，共392页，截取自130-134页--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 11:42, 18 October 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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Schmidt-Glintzer 1990 Hellwig Schmidt-Glintzer, ''Geschichte der chinesischen Literatur'', Bern etc.: Scherz 1990, 686 pp. [Contains altogether only a few pages on the essay.] <br />
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Schmidt-Glintzer，1990年，Hellwig Schmidt-Glintzer，《文学史》，伯尔尼等：Scherz，1990年，第686页。[论文中只包含几页。]<br />
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Tam King-Fai [announced] Tam King-Fai, The Chinese xiaopinwen [working title], New York: Columbia University Press [This collection has been announced for 1999.] <br />
<br />
Tam King-Fai [宣布] Tam King-Fai，中文xiaopinwen [工作名称]，纽约：哥伦比亚大学出版社[此藏书已于1999年宣布。]<br />
<br />
Wagner 1996 Alexandra Wagner, ''Bildnisse des Selbst: die Neumondschule und der moderne chinesische Essay'' (Alexandra Wagner: Images of Self: The Crescent Moon Society and the Chinese Essay), Dortmund: Projekt Verlag 1996 [Reihe Edition ''cathay'' Bd 15]<br />
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瓦格纳（Wagner），1996年亚历山德拉·瓦格纳（Alexandra Wagner），《 Bildnisse des Selbst：die Neumondschule and der der derdernéechinesische Essay》（亚历山大·瓦格纳：《自我的形象：新月社会》和《中国散文》），多特蒙德：Projekt Verlag 1996 [Reihe Edition''cathay' 'Bd 15]--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 08:27, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
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Wang Bin 1992 Wang Bin 王彬, "''Essay de youfa Essay''的誘發" (The origin of the essay), in ''Beijing wenxue'' 北京文學 (Peking literature) (10.11.1992, issue 11) 66-68<br />
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Wang Zengqi 1993 Wang Zengqi 汪曾祺, "''Dangdai sanwen daxi zongxu'' 當代散文大系總序" (Preface to the Compendium of the field of the contemporary essay), in ''Dangdai zuojia pinglun'' 當代作家評論 (Critical review of contemporary authors) (25.1.1993, issue 1) 8-9<br />
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Wu Zhihui [1934] Wu Zhihui as cited by Zhou Zuoren in ''Der Ursprung der modernen chinesischen Literatur'' (The Sources of Modern Chinese Literature) 1934, 71-72<br />
<br />
Wang Bin 1992 Wang Bin 王彬, ""''Essay de youfa Essay''"的誘發" (散文的起源), 载于 "''Beijing wenxue''" 北京文學 (北京文学)（1992.11.10, 第11期）66-68<br />
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Wang Zengqi 1993 Wang Zengqi 汪曾祺, ""''Dangdai sanwen daxi zongxu''" 當代散文大系總序" （当代散文纲要序言）, 载于 "''Dangdai zuojia pinglun''" 當代作家評論 (当代作家评论) (1993.1.25, 第1期) 8-9<br />
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Wu Zhihui [1934] 周作人在 "''Der Ursprung der modernen chinesischen Literatur''" (中国现代文学起源) 中引用吴志辉的著作 1934, 71-72--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 03:36, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1921 Zhou Zuoren, "''Meiwen'' 美文 (Belle lettre), in: ''Beijing chenbao fukan'' 北京晨報副刊 (Supplement to Peking Morning Post) (8.6.1921) ["It appears to me, that the English literature has had its greatest success in the field of the belle-lettre.", ibid.] <br />
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Zhu Jinshun 1990 Zhu Jinshun 朱金順, ed., ''Wusi sanwen shi jia'' 五四散文十家 (10 Essayists of the 'May-Fourth-Movement'), Peking 北京: Baihua wenyi chubanshe 百花文藝出版 社 (100 Flowers Literature and Art Press) 12.1990, 221 pp. ["1938 dao 1945, shi Zhou Zuoren zui bu guangcai de shiqi, zuo le hanjian 1938到1945是周作人最不光彩的時 期，做了漢奸", p. 59]<br />
<br />
<br />
周作人 1921 美文 北京晨报副刊（1921.6.8） “在我看来，英语文学在美文领域取得了最大的成就。”，同上。<br />
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朱金顺 五四散文十家 北京：百花文艺出版社（1990.12）221页 “1938到1945是周作人最不光彩的时期，做了汉奸”，59页。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 05:08, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
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Zhu Ziqing 1928 Zhu Ziqing, "''Beiying'' 背影" (The back view), in ''Beiying'' 背影 (The back view), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Bookstore) (10.1928) 像1948<br />
<br />
Yale lecture on the 20th Century Chinese Essay <br />
<br />
A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing<br />
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朱自清1928 背影 上海 開明書店 (10.1928) 1948<br />
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耶鲁大学关于20世纪中国小品文的讲座<br />
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对小品文作家巴金，周作人，朱自清体裁和新解的总体研究--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 10:20, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清1928年《背影》，上海開明書店 (1928年10月) 1948年<br />
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耶鲁大学关于20世纪中国散文的讲座<br />
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从流派和新视角探究散文作家巴金、周作和朱自清--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 11:40, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清1928《背影》，上海開明書店 (1928年10月) 1948--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 01:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
耶鲁大学20世纪中国散文讲座<br />
论散文家巴金，周作人，朱自清的体裁和新见解<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
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The narrative established by literary histories[Hsia] and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br />
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文学史和选集所确立的叙事方式，勾勒出了20世纪中国文学的扭曲图景:文章的体裁几乎被忽视了。在我的论文中，我将展示三位作者的形象如何改变，如果我们也考虑到他们的一些遇作。在这里，我选择批评政治文章的例子。这篇文章告诉我们更多的是关于一个作家的，而不是小说或诗歌因为在这一体裁中，我们遇到的是作者本人，没有韵律的限制。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:45, 18 October 2020 (UTC)QiKai<br />
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文学史和文学选集所确立的叙事方式，为20世纪的中国文学描绘了一幅扭曲的画面：文章的体裁几乎被忽视了。在我的论文中，我将展示三位作者的形象如何改变，如果我们也考虑到他们的一些散文作品。这里我选择了政治评论文章的例子。这篇文章比小说或诗歌更能让我们了解一个作家，因为在这类作品中，我们可以不受韵律的限制地了解作者本身。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 14:25, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
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In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers".<br />
1927年，当作家们受到上海全国人民党进行的左翼作家大屠杀威胁之时，整整一代的左翼作家在共产主义的意识形态中找到了共鸣，并在1930年以“左翼作家联盟”为基础正式阐述了这一思想。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 16:57, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
1927年，正当上海国民党对左翼作家大肆屠杀之际，作家们深深感受到了威胁，于是整整一代的左翼作家在共产主义的意识形态中找到了共鸣，并在1930年以“左翼作家联盟”为基础正式阐述了这一思想。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 02:49, 19 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
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Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documen¬ted in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br />
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许多作家不得不定义或者经常重新定义他们的位置和应对政治环境改变的自我理解，经常隐藏自己的观点，最大程度迎合社会的“需求”，这个社会宣称作家是其产品之一。在一篇散文——“自我反省的类型”中记录了作家在这种政治环境中寻求一席之地的努力。同时，就其本质而言，这篇散文克服了形式与内容的障碍。因此，与小说相比，有更多的散文不受政治思想的约束。一些散文家甚至更进了一步，解构了左派意识形态中最重要的叙述技巧，我今天要谈论的三位作家就是如此。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:52, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
许多作家不得不去定义甚至是重新定义他们的身份和自我认知以应对不断变化的政治环境，他们总是隐藏自己的理想，从更广阔的视角去看待社会的“需求”，其中作家被看作是这个社会的产品之一。在一篇名为《自省派》的文章中很好地记录了作家们在政治化的环境中寻求一席之地的挣扎。不仅如此，就其本质而言，这篇文章超越了形式和内容的界限。由此，越来越多的文章挣脱了政治思想的束缚。一些作家甚至更进一步地解构了左派意识形态中的主导叙事。今天我要谈论的三位作家便是如此。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 07:03, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
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The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimina-tion of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. [] That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br />
关于周作人的中华人民共和国官方文学史的主要叙述是，成熟的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他的弟弟成名，他的名声被毛泽东post为国家作家，因此，彻底阻止了他的著作被全部废除。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 []这清楚表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 13:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
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[All rankings refer to the survey results published in my books on the Chinese essay: Martin Woesler, ed., ''The Modern Chinese Literary Essay - Defining the Chinese Self in the 20th Century - Conference Volume'', Bochum: European University Press ²2003, 327 pp., ISBN 3-934453-15-5, € 35.79; Martin Woesler, ed., ''The Chinese Essay in The 20th Century'' - , Bochum: European University Press ²2003, 496 (xlii, 205, 229) pp., ISBN 3-934453-14-7, € 25.00; and in German: Martin Woesler (Hg., Übers.), ''Ausgewählte chinesische Essays des 20. Jahrhunderts in Übersetzung'', Bo¬chum: Europäischer Universitätsverlag ²2003, 300 S.; ISBN 3-932329-05-8, € 15.29; Martin Woesler, ''Geschichte des chinesischen Essays in Moderne und Gegenwart'' (3 volumes), Bo¬chum: Europäischer Universitätsverlag ²2003, xiii, 900 S., 3-932329-04-X, € 46.00.]<br />
<br />
【所有排名出自本人所著的关于中国文学作品的书籍，参考了上面的研究结果：吴漠汀著《中国现代文学散文集-定义20世纪的中国式自我-会议录》，波鸿市欧洲大学出版社2003年出版，327页，ISBN码3-934453-15-5，价格35.79欧元；吴漠汀著《二十世纪中国散文集》，波鸿市欧洲大学出版社2003年出版，496页（xlii, 205, 229），ISBN码3-934453-14-7，25欧元；吴漠汀著《翻译的二十世纪·中国的论文选集》，波鸿市欧洲大学出版社2003年出版，300页，ISBN码3-932329-05-8, 价格15.29欧元；吴漠汀著《中国近现代散文史》（三册），波鸿市欧洲大学出版社2003年出版，13，900页，ISBN码3-932329-04-X，价格46欧元。】--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 11:32, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to zhèngjiang and xiánshì(essays for one’s own enjoyment).<br />
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中华人民共和国的官方评价是，由于周作人的“堕落”和对爱国运动的反对，他的作品于1938年戛然而止。出于他的一生对于私人空间的主观经验，周作人一直试图美化日常小事，卢沟桥事变发生仅7个月后，他表明,他可能又写了一个糖果商贩，因此被贬为“瘫痪”的人。但他文学、艺术类散文在风格和题材上的变化，实为中断，变成了个人享乐。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 09:20, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
中华人民共和国的官方评价是，由于周作人的“堕落”和对爱国运动的反对，他的作品于1938年戛然而止。出于他的一生对于私人空间的主观经验，周作人一直试图美化日常小事，卢沟桥事变发生仅7个月后，他表明,他可能又写了一个糖果商贩，因此被贬为“瘫痪”的人。但他文学、艺术类散文在风格和题材上的变化，实为中断，变成了正将和闲适（即个人享乐）。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:36, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br />
So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was not effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself.<br />
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但是这种变化并不发生在遭到毛泽东的剥夺权益之后，以及发生于遭国民党逮捕之后。因此并不能说是日本压迫者导致了这位伟大的作家的倒退，而是他的同胞们。所以对这篇记叙的纠正应该是，他的文学在那时的社会政治状况下，质量没变，内容变了。有另外一篇记录周作人的优质记叙文，提到他实际上是个不关心政治的作家。实际上，他想让自己对政治的无视被理解为一种政治立场。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:32, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但是这种变化并不存在于他被毛泽东（1942）放逐和被国民党逮捕之前，因此并不能说是日本压迫者导致了这位伟大的作家的退步，而是他的同胞们。<br />
所以对这篇记叙做的第一次纠正是，当时的社会政治环境并没有影响他文学的质量，而是影响了其内容。同时还有另外一篇叙述周作人的著作，书中提到他是个不关心政治的作家。实际上，他是希望自己对政治立场的无视能被理解为他的一种政治立场。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:00, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance[ (Zhou 1929:180-181).]. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature"[(Zhou 1923).], literature should make the society more humane.<br />
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对他来说，文学不是革命的途径，而是反抗的手段(周 1929: 180-181)。现代化社会中，他提倡妇女解放，要求要把孩子当作有外在生活和内在生活的完整主体看待，使孩子成为儿童文学的实质(周 1923)，文学应该使社会更人性化。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:19, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是抵抗的手段[(周1929:180-181)]。在现代化的社会中，他主张妇女的解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有其自身的外在和内在的生活”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的精华”[(周1923)，文学应该使社会更人性化。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 02:22, 17 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段[(周1929:180-181)]。在现代化社会中，他提倡解放妇女，要求“把儿童当做有着外在生活与内在生活的完整主体来看待”，“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质所在”。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 09:42, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段[(周1929:180-181)]。在现代化社会中，他提倡妇女解放，要求“把儿童当作完整主体，有其外在与内在生活”，并且“让儿童成为儿童文学的精髓”，文学应该让社会更加人性化。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 08:51, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship[(The Family in 1951)] and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character[(1982 Yi pian xuwen).], when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series Random Thoughts.[(Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..]<br />
第二个例子是阅读巴金的文章能使我们对巴金有新的认识：他以二十世纪三十年代和四十年代下具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章，机会主义的自我批评，自我审查（1951年《家》），以及在文革时期对同事的指控闻名。“文革”之后，他似乎成为了一个正直的人（1982年 《序跋集》）。他声称自己当时是出于所有的压力才做这些事的。此后他的散文致力于“文革”的创伤，如随想系列自诉散文。（《随想录》）二十世纪八十年代的散文更具有自传性，涉及了文学和当今社会的问题。由于散文本身的实质，我们可以透过巴金的“随想”窥见巴金本人的灵魂。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:28, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "Independent Thoughts" and "Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br />
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由于很少再版，巴金于1956年和1962年撰写的两篇评论文章《独立思考》和《作家的勇气与责任心》被人们所忽视。巴金凭借这两篇文章成为了一个终生独立的作家。但因为文章受到批评，他不得不否认其文章内容，并在之后接受对文章的审查。即使在今天，这些文本在中国，或者说在台湾地区的文集和词典中也很难找到。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 08:00, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于鲜有机会再出版，巴金于1956至1962年间撰写的两篇批评文《独立思考》和《作家的勇气与责任心》被大众所忽视。鉴于此，巴金也成为一个终身独立创作的作家。由于这两篇文章受到批判，巴金不得不极力否认文章内容并在不久后接受文章审查。即便在如今，在中国甚至是台湾的文集和字典里也很难找到这些文本。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:44, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
"Independant Thoughts" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br />
《独立思想》始于1956年，宣传个人自由和思想自由。这篇文章是在“百花运动”中写的，此时批评被正式提出。巴金只回应了“主流”，尽管他的批评异常尖锐。更显著地反对“主流”的是第二个文本，我想简单地介绍一下这个文本。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:35, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《独立思想》写于1956年，该书宣传个人自由和思想自由，那时正处于“百花运动”期间，文章收到官方批评。巴金只回应了“主流”，尽管他的批评异常尖锐。更显著地反对“主流”的是第二个文本，我想简单地介绍一下这个文本。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:45, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《独立思想》作于1956年，这本书宣传个人自由和思想自由。此时＂百花运动＂正在开展，于是这篇文章收到了批评。巴金只回应了“主流”，尽管他的批评异常尖锐。更显著地反对“主流”的是第二个文本，我想简单地介绍一下这个文本。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 17:02, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
"Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin"judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br />
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1962年初第二届上海作家和艺术家大会上巴金的演讲“作家的勇气和责任心”，后来在七个地方被审。 在这个演讲中，巴金对自己和他的同行进行了批判：在反对文学作品的各种运动中，他们投机地响应了政治要求，因而可称为叛徒。巴金批判的第二个对象是审查员和评论家，他们不按规定，拥有比作家有更大的权力。巴金用这样的方式诠释了毛主席在延安关于艺术和文学演讲中的精神，即作家应该自己承担责任。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:48, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1962年初,巴金在第二届上海作家和艺术家大会上关于“作家的勇气和责任心”的演讲，不久之后便遭到七个地方的审查。 在演讲中，巴金对自己和同行进行了批判：在各种反对文学作品的运动中，他们投机地响应了政治要求而可称为叛徒。巴金批判的第二个对象是审查员和评论家，因为他们可以违背律法，拥有比作家有更大的权力。巴金以这样的方式诠释了毛主席在延安关于艺术和文学演讲中的精神，即作家应该自己承担责任。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:07, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief<br />
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Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949[ (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).]. Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
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《小狗包弟》是关于巴金个人悲伤的隐喻话语。<br />
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尽管巴金和冰心被视作为中国文学的代表人物，但巴金更重要的散文作品似乎是出版于1949年后[(见巴金1988出版的关于其1978年到86年间写的《随想录》)]。自1979年起，巴金就在香港出版了其作品，他在作品中大力反对“文化大革命”并试图借助作品来减轻“文革”带给他的创伤。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 08:13, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《小狗包弟》：关于巴金个人悲伤情感的隐喻性话语。<br />
巴金和冰心被视为共和国文学的代表人物，但巴金更重要的散文作品似乎于1949年后出版[(见巴金1988出版的关于其1978年到1986年间写的《随想录》)]。自1979年起，巴金就在香港出版了其作品，他在作品中大力反对“文化大革命”并试图借助作品来减轻“文革”带给他的创伤。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 08:46, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
One of this essays is the story-like "Small Dog Baodi". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br />
其中有一篇故事式散文《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者借此怀念他的狗。这只小狗是他20年前从一个瑞典人那里收到的，并在一段时间后就喜爱上了。可当红警肆虐时，那只狗就有危险了。巴金详细描述了这只狗的命运和当他得知自己无法保护这只狗时的无奈。为了挽救小狗免于痛苦的死亡，巴金最终在1966年将这只狗献给医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他再次回到自己的花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子与小狗打闹玩耍的情景。在这里我要给出六条解读：<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 00:38, 19 October 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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其中有一篇故事式散文《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者借此怀念他的狗。20年前他从一个瑞典人那里领养了这只狗，并在一段时间后就喜爱上它了。可当“红卫兵”肆虐时，它就有危险了。巴金详细描述了这只狗的命运和当他得知自己无法保护这只狗时的无奈。为了让它免于折磨而死，巴金最终在1966年将其献给医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他再次回到自己的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子与小狗打闹玩耍的情景。在这里我要给出六条解读: --[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 06:43, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did this with an innocent dog, what did they do with men, whom they considered guilty?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br />
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1、这只狗是一个隐喻。一开始巴金似乎在阐述一条狗的命运只掌握它的主人手中。但读者很快就会明白，巴金其实是在向读者调解 "文革 "的残酷性。读者不禁要问："如果他们对一条无辜的狗这样做，那么对于他们认为有罪的人，又是怎么做的呢？" 巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上，就把自己和狗类比。连包弟的死都是有价值的，能为科学做贡献--人有比这更无私的吗？--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 04:58, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "In Memoriam Xio Shn",which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withwithhold her medical treatment because of him.<br />
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3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br />
通过描述这只狗，巴金表达了他的丧妻之痛。在这篇文章结尾之前，巴金写到，在回忆里的那十年里，她的妻子痛苦不堪，她病得很重，并最终去世。在写于这篇合集之前的文章《怀念萧珊》中，巴金承认了自己对妻子之死强烈的愧疚感，而这种愧疚让他不得安睡。巴金说，那些人是因为他才少给妻子用药的。<br />
3.该文章是对文化大革命的控诉。巴金没有把文化大革命作为他妻子之死的原因，让这篇文章给读者的疼痛更加深刻，特别是通过与不那么重要的狗的生命相比。巴金潜意识里恐惧的是无力感——他既无法保护他的狗，也无法保护他的妻子。事实上，巴金想例证在集体暴力的面前人是软弱无力的。--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 00:19, 19 October 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - Ba Jin's essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br />
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用这种写作手法处理“文化大革命”的意义所在。<br />
拿这篇文章与1979年的其他文章作比较，会发现它也在“文化大革命”的批判大流中。但也有像冰心这样的作家“文化大革命”持否定态度——“文革”结束后不久，她用了和以前颇为相似的书名来假装为书的续集；还有王蒙，他则以幽默风趣的手法来阐述“文化大革命”；而巴金的散文之所以能脱颖而出，是因为其文章内容残酷无情，直叙无晦。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 02:19, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "The Small Dog Baodi" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before[ ("In memoriam Xiao Shan").]. He is longing for a fictional truth, instead of the truth of being in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.[ Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as the fictional truth in Shen Congwen is called (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "Rain in Kunming" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "Shanxi opera"..]<br />
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修辞手法的使用。巴金自称是纪实小说家：“我希望从文学中获取事实的真相。”确实，巴金的文字也是出了名的犀利、直接，甚至有时他的文学风格受到批评，说是太直接而缺乏艺术性（一位香港学生提出的质疑）。在巴金的小说《小狗包弟》中，他用了一些文学方法来让读者产生共鸣，比如小作文的形式和动漫插图这样的手段。借用包弟这只小狗，以寓言的方式，深刻揭露了“文化大革命”的不公与残酷。在文中，巴金一改作者身份，以寓言和反讽的形式，化为一名叙述者，平静地回忆起“文革”的事情，而非如往常的文章一样，平铺直述真相。（《怀念萧珊》）巴金太渴望寻求一种小说的真相了，而非托马斯·阿奎那式的真相。王德威在作家老舍、茅盾和沈从文的作品中看到的一种小说现实主义证明了对我们理解巴金这篇文章有所帮助。（类似情况还有沈从文提出的想象思乡这一概念，对于理解汪曾祺的《昆明的雨》和贾平凹的《秦腔》也是很有帮助的。）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:48, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br />
"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]<br />
相比在直接指控的文章中，巴金的个人悲痛在小狗的隐喻中更具有说服力。正如舒衡哲提出的“诉说太多的悲伤就是在淡化它。它甚至可能会让我们对最初引发关于痛苦的讨论的呼喊声充耳不闻。冷漠又有心计的人是无法大致理解这种悲痛的。[……]为了保留个人悲痛在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更婉转的办法；一种承认并确实可以助长歧义的办法。用辛西娅·欧芝克的话说，即隐喻的离散省，“互惠的代理，这种普遍力量使我们展望陌生人的感情成为可能。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 01:26, 19 October 2020 (UTC)”<br />
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==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of metaphorical discourse -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."<br />
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To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of fictional truth and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a metaphorical discourse throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.<br />
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她也提出：“无言或适度使用隐喻性话语，能更好的体现巨大悲痛。”<br />
总的来说，巴金没有成为一个自我检讨者而去让自己的文学作品去适应共产主义意识形态。相反，他是一名战士，终其一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治体系之外而奋斗。在不涉险的情况下，任何时候他都会抓住机会发声。他看起来也不再是其引导我们相信的那样，一个追求简单真理的“没文化”作家。实际上，他实现了虚构事实的高度修辞化，同时将个人悲痛在隐喻性话语中以更令人信服的方式，转化到小狗包弟这一隐喻中。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:50, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
她也提出：“无言或适度使用隐喻性话语，能帮助我们更好地表达巨大的悲痛。”<br />
总的来说，巴金没有成为一个自我检讨者而是试图使自己的文学作品适应共产主义意识形态。相反，他是一名战士，终其一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治体系之外而奋斗。在不涉险的情况下，任何时候他都会抓住机会发声。他看起来也不再是其引导我们相信的那样，一个追求简单真理的“没文化”作家。实际上，他实现了虚构事实的高度修辞化，同时将个人悲痛在隐喻性话语中以更令人信服的方式，转化到小狗包弟这一隐喻中。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 14:13, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "Back View" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father).<br />
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第三个例子，在文章中展示出另一种面孔的作者，朱自清。他以被转载最多的叙述性中国文章“后视图”《背影》著称，这是一篇标准的学校教材。这篇文章的成功之处在于其对子女孝心的普遍适用性。从文章中记录的他与他父亲在车站离别的情景，他意识到父亲多么爱他同时自己也收获了成长的事实。这种自我反射的文章帮助朱自清通过对他人（他父亲）的观察来找回自身。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 06:09, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第三个例子是在文章中展现出另一面貌的作家，朱自清。他以创作中国重印次数最多叙述散文《背影》而著称，《背影》也被选入学校教材。这篇文章的成功之处在于对子女孝心这一情感的共鸣性。从文章中记录的他与父亲在火车站离别的场景，他意识到了父亲的爱，同时也收获了自己的成长。这种自我反思类的文章，让朱自清通过别人（他父亲）的视角来找寻自我。<br />
--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:32, 17 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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第三个例子是在文章中展现出自己另外一面的作家，朱自清。他因其文章被重印次数最多而出名，例如纳入标准学校教材的文章--《背影》。这篇文章的成功之处，在于作者在文中对无法报孝之憾与读者产生共鸣。文章中，他与父亲于火车站离别这一著名场景，作者意识到他的父亲爱他并且如今自己也长大了。这篇发人深省的文章帮助朱自清通过观察别人（指他父亲）来找寻自我。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 02:29, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "The Moonlit Lotus Pond", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
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Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br />
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I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in "Report On the Massacre of the Government"[(Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
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第二本经常印刷的文章也来自朱自清。 平行和重复的结构是大气雾状抒情景观《荷塘月色》的动机，西方读者很容易看到它的风格。<br />
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据称，朱自清反对一切政治参与，并写了一些不引人注目的事情。 由于朱自清的政治独立，导致他在台湾成为了被彻底拒绝的中国作家鲁迅的代替品。。<br />
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我想用三个例子来说明朱基具有绝对明确的政治思想：他参加了1926年3月18日的示威，这次示威以大屠杀告终。 朱在《执政府大屠杀报告》中描述了这一点。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 02:57, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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第二篇经常印刷的文章也来自朱。平行和重复的结构是驱动《荷塘月色》大气的朦胧抒情景观的因素，其风格很容易被西方读者接受。<br />
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据称，朱自清反对一切政治参与，并写了一些不引人注目的事情。 由于朱自清的政治独立，导致他在台湾成为了被彻底封杀的大陆作家鲁迅的代替品。。<br />
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我想用三个例子来说明朱具有绝对明确的政治思想：他参加了1926年3月18日的示威，这次示威以大屠杀告终。 朱在《执政府大屠杀报告》中描述了这一点。<br />
--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 05:17, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. [...] I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]<br />
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枪声仍在继续，东门的入口处站满了人...推推搡搡，我们尽力爬到了人群上，我们一定是失去了理智，没有看到自己行为的怪诞不经，这十分耻辱...我仍在人群顶上游走，没人敢落下哪怕一步——为了穿过那扇隔开生与死的大门，那扇会使我们获得生机，也可能（直接）夺去我们的生命的大门...我的努力最终使我回到了地面，当我从人堆上滚下来时，我的命运就尘埃落定了...后来我才知道那扇门边的一些人已经死了——是被大门另一边的手枪打死的 ，（自此）每当我会想起自己踏过死尸的情景，我都会禁不住害怕得发抖... <br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:49, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
Duan Qirui[ 段祺瑞.], you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“<br />
对于这个经历，朱自清直接向当局政治领导人段祺瑞致辞。 [...]我们如何向世界解释这一点？ [...]当然，段启瑞和其他人可以不加考虑地犯下这种暴行；但是，作为中国人民，我们如何面对如此卑鄙的政府呢？我们必须问：“有那么多人被杀害，我们该怎么办？”--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 14:02, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于这段经历，朱自清直接向当局政治领导人段祺瑞写信致辞:<br />
段祺瑞先生，你要好好思考一下这事！<br />
[...]我们如何向世界解释？ [...]当然，段启瑞和其他人可以不加考虑地犯下这种暴行；但是，作为中国人民，我们如何面对如此卑鄙的政府呢？我们必须问：“已经死了这么多人了，我们该怎么办？”--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 03:40, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "Ways to die"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
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相比之下，鲁迅在叹为观止的惨剧中描绘了同样的大屠杀，而周作人在他的《死亡之道》中悲惨地描绘着，他发现“被枪杀”是最好的死亡方法。 据说政治上较少参与的朱同志在这里表现出更多的参与。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:23, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The essay "Facing the New China"[(Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
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《面向新中国》是朱同志的政治宣言：他要求注重民主、启蒙和提高教育水平。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:23, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.<br />
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中国必须通过实现人民民主来重生。……应该要保障人民自由表达自己的意愿，团结人民的力量。各级行政机关都要以人民的意志和力量为基础，为多数人及其最大的幸福而奋斗。这意味着人民当政监督，人民当家作主，人民享有幸福。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:23, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech "Today's duty of the Intellectuals"[(Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
在去世前的几个星期，他在一场演讲上对“知识分子今天的任务”提出要求，知识分子应该为社会变得更加美好而奋力努力。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:42, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
在他逝世的几周之前，他在“知识分子今天的任务”这一演讲中提出要求：建设一个更加美好的社会需要知识分子的参与。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:39, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
我只展示了几篇文章，如果我们仔细阅读他们不太出名的散文作品，这三位作者的形象会发生很大变化。现在想象一下，如果文学历史和作品选集不仅能体现戏剧、小说和诗歌的历史，还能赋予这篇散文合适的地位。那么20世纪中国文学的图景将会如何变化。本文接下来的部分是我的专著中关于20世纪中国散文的结论。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:42, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society<br />
散文的流行犹如一面镜子，反映出日益增长的个性、公共领域的参与度以及现代中国社会的步调节奏。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 03:29, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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散文的流行犹如一面镜子,反映出人们日益增长的个性、公共领域的参与度以及现代中国社会令人眩晕的快节奏。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 08:11, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China（including Taiwan and Hong Kong) and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.<br />
要理解论文概述并评估其本质，需要在中国(包括大陆、台湾、香港）和美国的书店及图书馆进行大量研究，以获取论文集和二手文献等可用资源。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:19, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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要理解论文概述并评估其本质，需要在书店，图书馆，中华人民共和国，（包括台湾和香港）和美国境内，获取论文集和二手文献，借助可用资源进行广泛研究。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:59, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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要理解论文概述并评估其本质，需要在中国大陆、中国台湾、中国香港的书店、图书馆和美国的书店、图书馆进行大量研究，以此获取与论文相关的文集和二手文献资源。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 08:11, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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想要读懂这篇论文的综述并理解其内涵，我们需要在中国境内外以及美国的书店和图书馆获取与本论文相关的论文集和二手文献，利用可用资源开展广泛研究。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:41, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000多篇论文和1400名散文家进行排名。结果发现，在60篇最著名的中国散文中，到目前为止只有14篇被翻译成英文。接下来将收录谭景辉的四篇文章及我剩余42篇文章中的一篇。<br />
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Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[(baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
分析显示，1979年以后，中国的散文出版量普遍增加，文革后出现了两个增长高峰。这些出版物在1990年显然达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长大约出现在20世纪20和30年代，此后散文的作用为报告所取代。【（报告文学），克拉普1998年译 】--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:01, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我建立了一个统计分析数据库用来对5000余篇论文和1400篇论文的作者进行排名。 事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 即将出版的谭景辉的收藏增加了4个，我自己的收藏增加了42个。<br />
分析表明，自1979年以来，论文发表总体有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后立即出现两个高峰。 这些出版物1990达到了一个明显的峰值。在1920年代和1930年代出现第一次出版数量的增长，在此之后，报告功能替代了散文功能用【（报告文学），克拉普1998年译 】<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 03:08, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
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The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:<br />
二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版繁荣兴盛，部分是因为出现了新的杂志，而这些杂志的存在成了当代散文家和许许多多散文丛书发文的渠道[散文丛书]<br />
1980年至1982年之间有一百万份散文集印刷出来，这个数字只包含了我调查中能够收集到的130本具有代表性的书籍样本，反映了散文出版增加的原因是需求得不到满足，而这一原因我们可以追溯到文化大革命的肃清时期。在20世纪90年代中期，中国散文创作的增加和流行有三大原因。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:32, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[(Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
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1.当代中国社会变化翻天覆地，对翻译文本与短文本的需求日益增多，正如霍尔所说：“我们身处一个清晰明了的时代。“<br />
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由于当代中国社会发生天翻地覆的变化，对翻译文本和短篇文本的需求随之增多。正如霍尔所说：“我们身处一个要求陈述清晰的时代。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 07:29, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
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2.越来越多的人认为文章是表达主观印象最直接的形式，甚至比那些要求形式韵律押韵的诗歌是个更直接。<br />
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3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
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3.仿佛回到20世纪2、30年代，又掀起了一阵在文章中探讨政治社会的潮流。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 04:56, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
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1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
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如果我们仔细研究那些不仅是在美国出版的散文集，同样也研究在香港、台湾和中国内地出版的散文集，我们发现，与地区差异相对应的个体散文家或散文被低估或高估的原因有以下三个:<br />
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1.外部原因：在美国，散文通常根据西方人的品位来选择的，完全不知名的作家和知名的作家享有同等的待遇。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:01, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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如果我们仔细研究那些散文集，包括美国出版的，香港、台湾和中国内地出版的，我们会发现个体散文家或散文被高估或被低估的原因与地区相对应的有以下三个:<br />
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1.外部原因：在美国，散文通常根据西方人的品位来选择的，完全不知名的作家和知名的作家享有同等的待遇。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:38, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[(see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
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2.社会政治原因。鲁迅的作品在台湾被禁读很长一段时间了，然而，如上述提及的调查证明显示，他在台湾近代作家排名12位。王蒙因其政治文章在中国一直受到过度吹捧。<br />
3.个人原因。香港余光中的作品，在其弟子黄维梁的审查后并得到了颂扬。<br />
在列出了文坛繁荣的原因和为什么有些作家在文坛受吹捧，而有些却遭到贬低之后，我将以介绍上世纪末散文发展的几个趋势作为文章的结尾。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:35, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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2.社会政治原因： 在台湾，鲁迅曾被封禁过很长一段时间。但如今，正如上述调查证据所示，他名列台湾现代作家第12位。王蒙由于其在中国的政治地位，一直受到过度追捧。<br />
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3.个人原因：为了支持余光中，其弟子黄维梁对有关余光中的香港文学作品进行了审查。<br />
在列举了散文繁荣的原因，以及散文文化领域对不同行动者的支持和打压之后，我想通过列举本世纪初散文出现的几个趋势来完成我的论文。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:35, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.社会政治原因 鲁迅的作品在台湾被禁读了很长一段时间。但如今，正如所提及的调查证实的那样，鲁迅在台湾现代作家排行榜中位列第十二。王蒙因其政治性的文章在中国一直被人高看。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 16:34, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.个人原因 为支持余光中，他的弟子黄维梁对其香港文学作品进行了审查。在介绍了散文繁荣发展的原因，以及在散文文化领域对不同作家的支持和打压后，我想在论文结尾部分介绍关于上世纪末散文发展出现的一些趋势。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 16:34, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
政治散文的主题发展经历了从1907年的启蒙教育散文到1920-30年代的日常政治散文，再到40年代的抗日宣传和50 - 60年代的意识形态宣传的转变。而1980年代的复兴政治问题的讨论社会的最好的体系,(一般也在文学和电影)在1990年代，主题的范围是非政治的而又有更多哲学道德的,散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是与以消费者为导向的大众相对应。在中国，散文似乎是唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，除了那些声称是“艺术为了艺术”的散文。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:16, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
摘要政治散文的专题发展是从 1907 年兴起的启蒙教育散文向 1920-30 年代的日常政治散文的转变，进一步发展到 1940 年代的抗日宣传和 20 世纪 50 年代和 60 年代的思想宣传。20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。这篇文章似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但声称是“艺术院”的论文除外。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:00, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("On dreams"["Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("My own garden"[9.1923.], "The Fly"[1924.], "Reading on the Toilet"[1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement.<br />
<br />
非政治性文章主题的发展始于1917年的朱自清（《说梦》 [1928]）和周作人的（《我的花园》[ 9.1923]《苍蝇》 [1924]和《茅厕阅读》[1936]），并于1927年搁置了一阵子，当时政治论文成为主流，直到1930年代末，非政治性散文完全被抗日运动淘汰掉了。<br />
<br />
It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
直到20世纪70年代，它才恢复过来，那时生活恢复了正常，因为长期没有正常的事物，所以正常的事物也成了人们感兴趣的话题。同样由于人们对政治问题的兴趣减少，以及在新遇到的大众消费主义世界中需要一个新的方向，非政治性文章在20世纪90年代蓬勃发展。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:49, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
<br />
站在本世纪末前沿的不是政府要求的权威文件，而是与政治无关的散文，这些文章大多可以追溯到民国时期，尤其是从1923年到1928年间。上述统计分析证实了这一观察结果。在1949年以后的政论文中，居于前列的是批评散文。在中国，包括台湾地区和香港地区在内发表的选集，似乎都以道德和审美标准为基础。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 07:41, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在本世纪末，站在前沿的不是政府要求的有积极影响的文章，而是与政治无关的文章，这些文章大多数可以追溯到民国时期，尤其是1923年至1928年。这一个观察结果可由上述提到的统计分析证实。在1949年的以后的政论文中，居于前列的是批评文。在中国，包括台湾和香港在内发表的选集，似乎都以道德和审美为标准。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:22, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, nostalgia is the element of emotional identification in "Wild vegetables of my home region" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[Compare to Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and Ba Jin's "Paradise for Birds", which ranks 19.]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
<br />
这标志着文集编辑越来越独立于政府或意识形态的阻碍，也标志着以客户为导向的出版社越来越商业化。怀旧是继排名第一和第二的朱自清的情感小品之后，周作人的《家乡野菜》排名第三(与排名11的贾平凹的《月亮痕迹》和排名19的巴金的《鸟的乐园》相比)的情感认同元素。因此，我们可以说，感人的散文是最重要的。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 15:49, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这标志着散文选集的编辑越来越不顾政府或意识形态的阻碍，也标志着以客户为导向(过去是以读者为导向)的出版社越来越商业化。就怀旧主题而言,排名前二的是朱自清的书怀抒情散文，周作人的《故乡的野菜》中的怀旧是情感认同的元素，该作品位列第三。贾平凹的《月迹》排名第11位，巴金的《鸟的天堂》排名第19位。由此可见，感人的散文是最重要的。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:10, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这标志着散文选集的编辑越来越不顾政府或意识形态的阻碍，也标志着以客户为导向(过去是以读者为导向)的出版社越来越商业化。就怀旧主题而言,排名前二的是朱自清的抒怀抒情散文，然而周作人的《故乡的野菜》中的怀旧是情感认同的元素，该作品位列第三。贾平凹的《月迹》排名第11位，巴金的《鸟的天堂》则排名第19位。由此可见，感人的散文是最重要的。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:31, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br />
<br />
1927年，中国文学出现了“介入文学”的形式。到了20世纪八九十年代，文学作品中对政治问题的关注和讨论比二三十年代要少，那时包括诗歌和小品文在内的所有文学体裁都在抨击共产主义和毛派艺术思想，因为这些内容的宣扬都是为意识形态服务的。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:22, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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1972年，中国文学出现了一种文学形式——“介入文学”。到了二十世纪八九十年代，文学作品中对政治问题的讨论相较二三十年代要少很多。那时，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有体裁都是为意识形态所服务的，它们都在抨击共产主义以及毛派艺术思想。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 13:16, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。 与二十世纪二三十年代相比，在二十世纪八九十年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 在1980年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事，或者反对毛派艺术思想。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:53, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1927年，中国文学出现新形式，那就是“钦定文学”。二十世纪八九十年代的人对于日息政治学的议论不如二十世纪二三十年代人那么多。二十世纪八十年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有文学体裁，都用于批判一种主流宣传，那就是共产主义或者毛泽东思想视角所理解的所谓“艺术服务于意识形态”。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 14:36, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[Trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting. <br />
The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.]<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代后半期，主叙述者本人似乎已经迷失在个人的主观性和日常的亵渎和平庸中，苟活于一个越来越正式实质却很空荡的城市。80年代政治批评的散文文化已经消失殆尽，唯一幸存的就是爱国主义了。[诸如使用普通语言的趋势，在1993年以来的小说（贾平凹，《废都》；顾城，《英儿》）以及1995年以来新无边界文学中都能发现，但在散文写作中无从考据。我们之所以无法从后现代主义小说意义上找到后现代主义散文，就在于散文的直接性：作为一种体裁，散文是作者与读者之间的交流，而不是一种想为不同的解释而表明原因的借口，也不是借助不同形式，内容，甚至是前现代特征来区分不同内容的对象。]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 02:35, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
References<br />
<br />
Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1982，Ba Jin:"Yi feng huixin"(A response letter(26.10.1982)), in:Bing zhongji(On the sick-bed),Hongkong 1984(?)(Reihe Suixiang lu(Thoughts) Bd 4),147 pp.,in the following:Ba Jin:On the sick-bed 1984,reprinted in:Ba Jin: Thoughts under time 1978-1986,vol.4 On the sick-bed, S.19-23<br />
<br />
参考文献<br />
<br />
Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
<br />
巴金1982年，巴金：《一封回信》(1982年10月26日)，载于：《病中集》，香港1984年(?)(随想录Bd 4)，147页，以下：巴金：《病中集》，1984年，转载于：巴金。 巴金：《再思录》1978-1986,第4卷，《病中集》，第19-23页。<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen" (A preface) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin:On the sick-bed 1984<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1956,Ba Jin:"Duli sikao"(Think independantly),in:Li Jisheng, Li Xiaolin (eds):Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927-1986),Suixiang lu, zagan,sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin<br />
(Ba Jin. Selected Works from 60 years (1927 - 1986), Thoughts, mixed feelings, essays, prefaces, speeches, letters),Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe(Literature and Art Press Shanghai), 1986.12,S.461-462 [Dated 1956.]<br />
巴金1982年 “一篇序文”[1982.9/10] ：《病中集》1984<br />
巴金 1956年 “独立思考”，李济生，李小林（编）：60年文选（1927-1986），随想录，杂感散文，序跋，演讲，书信（巴金 60年文选选文（1927-1986），随想，杂感，散文，序言，演讲，书信），上海：上海文艺出版社, 1986.12,S.461-462 [日期 1956.]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:19, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin" (Encouragement and responsibility of the writer)1962;the essay of Zhou Zuoren:"Wenxue tan"(On Literature),has been published in:Tan long ji(On Dragons. A collection), Shanghai:Kaiming shudian(Kaiming Bookstore)1927.12,reprint:Hongkong:Shiyong shuju(Practical Press)1972.1,310 S.,S.165-167<br />
<br />
巴金 1962，“作家的勇气与责任心”1962；周作人的文章“文学谈”初版于《谈龙集》，上海开明书店1927年12月，再版于香港实用书局1972.1,310 S.,S.165-167--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:59, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
巴金 1962，《作家的勇气与责任心》1962；周作人的文章《文学谈》初版于《谈龙集》，上海开明书店1927年12月，再版于香港实用书局1972.1,310 S.,S.165-167--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:35, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 7-8<br />
<br />
周作人1919，周作人，“祖先崇拜1919”，收录于《早期散文集》op.cit., pp. 7-8--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:59, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1920:Zhou Zuoren, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu"(The demand of the New Literature) [lecture],in Beiping shaonian xuehui (Beiping youth conference)1920.1.6,in:Zhang Ruoying:Xin wenxue yuandong shi ziliao(Material on the history of the New Literature movement),Shanghai:Guangming shuju (Guangming bookstore)(1934.9 ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
<br />
周作人 1920：周作人，新文学的要求（新文学的要求），北平少年学会（北平少年学会），1920.1.6：张若英：《新文学运动史资料》（《新文学运动史资料》）， 上海：光明书局（光明书局）（1934.9-1936.9， 291-296）--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:18, 16 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
<br />
<br />
周作人，1923年，周作人：《燕子草》（于平伯《燕子草》序），发表于：《永日记》，上海：北新书局1929，180-181--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:28, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周作人1929年，周作人：《童书》（儿童书籍），载于：陈宝福刊（1923.8.17）--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:28, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
<br />
Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
<br />
周作人，周作人：“中国新文学源流”，第 71 页。<br />
<br />
1932 年 周作人，周作人： 1932 年的伦八国文，收录：《看云记》，第148页。<br />
<br />
资料来源： NEAAS 第 10/09/1999 次年会 (耶鲁大学）。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 00:52, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人：《中国新文学的源流》第71页。<br />
<br />
周作人 1932：1932年作《论八股文》，选自《看云集》第148页<br />
<br />
资料来源：1999年9月10日纽黑文市耶鲁大学NEAAS年会--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:23, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人：《中国新文学潮流》，第71页<br />
周作人，1932：《论八股文》，收录：《看云记》，第148页<br />
资料来源：1999年9月10日NEAAS年会--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:29, 16 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Appendix: Translation<br />
<br />
Lu Xun (1881 - 1936)''' <br />
<br />
Lu Xun fought with his zawen for intellectual freedom, but in 1930 joined the leftist movement when he founded the "League of Leftist Writers". Despite this, his posthumous glorification as a communist writer by Mao Zedong goes too far.<br />
附录：翻译<br />
鲁迅（1881-1936）<br />
鲁迅用他的杂文为知识自由而斗争，但是在1930年他加入了左派运动并成立“左派作家联盟”。尽管如此，毛泽东在他死后称赞他为共产主义作家有些过头了。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 06:58, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
“附录：翻译<br />
鲁迅（1881-1936）”<br />
鲁迅以杂文为知识自由而斗争，但是，他却在1930年参与左翼运动并成立“左派作家联盟”。尽管如此，在他死后，毛泽东仍称他为共产主义作家，这一赞誉就有些过头了。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 13:02, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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Let us put an end to the far dispersed translation of ''zawen'' as "critical essays" by reconstructing Lu Xuns own understanding of the term ''zawen'', which he invented from ''zagan'': He includes also dialogues, fables and essay poems in it. Therefore a more adequate term for ''zawen'' is "miscellaneous essays".<br />
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让我们通过重构鲁迅自己对“杂文”一词的理解，来结束“杂文”作为“评论性散文“的散乱翻译。“杂文”一词出自鲁迅的《杂感》，其中还包括对话、寓言和散文诗。因此，用”杂文“一词来称呼较为合适。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 13:06, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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让我们通过重构鲁迅对“杂文”这一术语的理解，来结束“杂文”作为“批判性散文”的胡乱翻译。“杂文”一词出自鲁迅的《杂感》:鲁迅也把对话、寓言和散文诗包括到杂文的范畴里。因此，用“混杂的散文”来称呼“杂文”这一术语更合适。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 14:02, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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让我们通过重构鲁迅自身对“杂文”这一名词的理解，来结束“杂文”作为“批评性散文”的散乱翻译。“杂文”一词出于鲁迅的《杂感》，鲁迅（同时）也把对话、寓言和散文诗一起包括到了此范畴里。因此，用“混杂文章”这一术语来称呼“杂文”更为适宜。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:00, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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Two observations in his late essays shall be mentioned here: Lu Xun mainly consciously uses the rhetoric mean of digression. His essays of his last two years are more conciliatory again: He uses an unctious style (Leung 1981 even called it metrical) like before in his essay on Liu Zhenhe. In his last essay collection, which might be his best one (here I agree with Pollard 1985 81, Lee 1987 125), Lu Xun appears detached. Here he writes in a ''xiaopin wen'' style (”Flying over”, Lu Xun 1939) - similar to that one of his younger brother, develops understanding and sympathy for an actress being driven to suicide (“On the saying ‘Rumors are frightening’ ”, Lu Xun 1937a), even Confucius finds mercy in front of the graceful eyes of the old Lu Xun (”Confucius in contemporary China”, Lu Xun 1937b), who has been aware of his coming death, since he made his will a few months before his death ("''Death''", Lu Xun 1957 VI:496, trans. quoted from Yang/Yang 1961 4:291-296).<br />
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观察他的晚期作品，我们可以发现：鲁迅使用的主要修辞手法是离题。他最近两年的文章再次变得委婉：像以前写刘振和的文章一样，他采用了朴实的风格（1981来翁甚至称其为韵律）。在他最后的也是最好的作品集中（这里我同意波拉德1985 81和李198 125的说法），鲁迅再次离题。在这里，他以“小品文”的风格写作（“飞越”，鲁迅1939）——类似于他的弟弟，对一位被逼自杀的女演员充满了理解和同情（俗话说“谣言另人恐惧” 鲁迅1937a），甚至孔子在年迈的鲁迅先生深邃的双眸中都窥到了怜悯（“新中国的孔子”鲁迅1937b）。鲁迅先生此刻已经意识到死神快要降临，并逝世前的几个月立下了遗嘱（“死亡”鲁迅1957 VI:496,）。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 03:05, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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I seem to have thought out quite a few items for my family, among which were:<br />
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1.Don't accept a cent from anyone for the funeral. This does not apply to old friends.<br />
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2.Get the whole thing over quickly, have me buried and be done with it.<br />
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3.Do nothing in the way of commemoration.<br />
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4.Forget me and look after your own affairs if you don't, you are just too silly.<br />
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5.When the child grows up, if he has no gifts let him take some small job to make a living. On no account let him become a writer or artist in name alone.<br />
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6.Don't take other people's promises seriously.<br />
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7.Never mix with people who injure others but who oppose revenge and advocate tolerance.<br />
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我似乎已经为我家人考虑了很多问题，其中包括：<br />
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1.不接受任何人的葬礼礼金。 这一点不适用于老朋友。<br />
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1.不收任何人给的丧事礼金，除了老朋友。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 05:05, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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2.迅速完成整个葬礼，把我埋了就完事了。<br />
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3.不做任何纪念活动。<br />
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4.把我忘了然后照顾好自己。如果不这样做，那就太傻了。<br />
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4.忘了我然后关注自己的事情。否则，就太傻了。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 03:11, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4. 忘了我，专心去做自己的事情。不然，就太傻了。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:16, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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5.孩子长大后，如果他没有任何天赋，就让他从事一些小工作来谋生。 绝对不要让他去做作家或艺术家。<br />
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5.孩子长大后，如果他没有任何天赋，就让他干点活来谋生。 绝对不要让他成为名义上的作家或艺术家。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 03:11, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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6，不要认真对待别人的诺言。<br />
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6. 不要轻信别人的诺言。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 03:11, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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7，切勿与伤害他人但反对报仇和提倡宽容的人混在一起。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 10:06, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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7. 不要与伤害他人的人厮混，而要与反对仇恨提倡宽容的人结交。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 03:11, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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There were other items, too, but I have forgotten them. I remember also that during a fever I recalled that when a European is dying there is usually some sort of ceremony in which he asks pardon of others and pardons them. Now I have a great many enemies, and what should my answer. be if some modernized person asked me my views on this? After some thought I decided: Let them go on hating me. I shall not forgive a single one of them either.<br />
还有一些其他的问题，但是我想不起来了。我还记得在发烧的时候，我忆起当一个欧洲人濒死的时候，通常会有某种仪式，他会请求别人的宽恕并且宽恕其他人。现在我的敌人很多了，如果有现代化的人问我对此的看法我该如何回答呢?经过一番思考，我决定:让他们继续恨我吧。我也不会原谅他们中的任何一个人。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 01:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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还有一些其他的事情，我不记得了。但我还记得的是，有一次我发烧的时候，想起欧洲人在即将离世的时候，通常会有某种仪式，那就是请求别人的宽恕，同时也会宽恕其他人。目前我的敌人很多了，倘若有现代化的人来我问如何看待此事我该如何回答呢？细想一番，我想，就让他们继续恨我吧，当然了，我也不会原谅他们任何一个人。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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还有一些其他的事情，我想不起来了。但我还记得的是，有一次我发着烧，想到欧洲人在即将离世时，会通过某种仪式来请求别人的宽恕，同时也宽恕其他人。眼下我的敌人太多了，倘若某个有着现代化思想的人来我问如何看待此事，我该怎么回答呢？细想一番，我想，就让他们继续恨我吧，当然了，我也不会原谅他们任何一个人。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:30, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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No such ceremony took place, however, and I did not draw up a will. I simply lay there in silence, struck sometimes by a more pressing thought: If this Is dying, it isn't really painful. It may not be quite like this at the end, of course; but still, since this happens only once in a lifetime, I can take it.... Later, however, there came a change for the better. And now I am wondering whether this was really the state just before dying: a man really dying may not have Such ideas. What it will be like, though, I still don't know.<br />
然而，并没有举行那样一场仪式，我也没有起草遗嘱。我只是躺在那里，静默不语，一种更为压迫的想法不时地冲击着我：如果这就是将死之际，那确实也并非让人悲痛欲绝。当然，最后真正的死亡可能并不是如此，但一生也只经历一次死亡时刻，我也仍能 这样想象。但是后来情况有所好转。现在我正思索着：一个真正垂死之人并不会有任何想法，这是不是就是死亡前的真实状况呢。尽管，死亡将会是怎样，我仍然搞不清楚。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 12:31, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，这样的仪式并没有举行，我也没有立遗嘱:。我只是躺在那里，静默不语，一种更为压迫的想法不时地冲击着我:如果死亡是这样的话，那也不算是真正的痛苦。当然，最后可能不会是这样;不过，既然这种事一辈子只有一次，我倒可以接受……然而后来情况有所好转。现在我正思索着：一个真正垂死之人并不会有任何想法，这是不是就是死亡前的真实状况呢。不过，死亡究竟会是什么样子，我还不知道。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 16:42, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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Regarding the influence of Lu Xuns essayistic work, there are four things to state: His essays were bestsellers during his lifetime. They were regarded as masterpieces for a whole generation of essayists. They were posthumously embraced by Mao Zedong, who called Lu Xun in succession of the discredited Confucius "wise man of the present" (Mao 1970 5:281), and who used his essays for propanda purpose. They outnumber by far the publications of other essayists until the 1990s, consequently, Lu Xun must be considered as the most important essayist of 20th century China.<br />
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关于鲁迅文学作品的影响力，有四件事要说：他一生中所写的文章都十分畅销，都被认为是那一代文学家之中的著作。毛泽东推崇他死后的作品，并称鲁迅为继孔子之后的“当代智者”，也使用他的文章来进行宣传。直到20世纪90年代，他的文章在数量上仍远远超过其他作家。鲁迅被认为是中国20世纪最重要的作家。--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:57, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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关于鲁迅文学作品的影响力，这里提四点：他的文章在那个时代十分畅销；他的文章对那整整一代文学家来说均为典范；鲁迅去世后，毛泽东称其为继孔子之后的“当代智者”，对他的作品十分认可，并用于政治宣传；20世纪90年代以前，他的文章出版数量远远超过其他作家。基于上，鲁迅当之无愧为中国20世纪最重要的作家。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 11:57, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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Lu Xun’s strength lies in his ability to affect people effectively. A good example of his ability is the essay ”On ‘Fraternal Nations Are Shocked’ ”, in which he recounts recent well known political events and stirs people’s patriotism through rhetorical figures like sharpening and exaggeration, and through appeal to solidarity in front of a picture of horror drawn by himself. Since I found an acceptable translations already existing, we did not take the translation into this collection, but mention, where the reader may find these texts both in Chinese and English.<br />
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鲁迅的力量在于他能够有效地影响人们。展现他能力的一个很好的例子是他写的“关于‘兄弟国家都震惊了’”这篇文章，在这里他叙述了最近众所周知的政治事件，并通过尖锐和夸张的修辞手法煽动人们的爱国主义，通过自己画的一幅恐怖的画而呼吁团结。由于我已经找到了一个可接受的译本，所以我们没有把它放进这个合集，而是提到读者在哪里可以找到这些中文和英文的文本。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:06, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鲁迅的力量在于他能有力地影响人们。文章《“友邦惊诧”论》就体现了他的这一能力。他在这篇文章里讲述了当时广为人知的新近政治事件，并通过尖锐和夸张的修辞手法、通过在他画的一幅恐怖画前呼吁团结，来煽动人们的爱国主义。由于我已经找到了一个可行的译本，所以我们没有在这个合集里再放出译本，而只是提醒读者在哪里可以找到这些中文和英文的译本。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 07:21, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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Another Lu Xun, the philosophical thinker, appears in the second essay ”Commemorating to forget”. Lu Xun essays are the ones which are read most often until today. The fact that most of his essays are available in English translation already, shows his international acceptance as the greatest Chinese essayist of the first half of the 20th century.<br />
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Lu Xun (1881 - 1936)<br />
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Weile wangque de jinian 7./8.2.[1932]<br />
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'''Commemorating to Forget'''<br />
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另一方面，鲁迅的 《为了忘却的纪念》表现了他作为哲学家一面。即使到了今天，鲁迅的作品都是读者最多的。事实上，他的很多作品都已有英文译本，这足以说明他是20世纪中国最伟大的散文家。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 01:18, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
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I have long wanted to write something, to commemorate those young writers. This is merely out of the sorrow and indignation that has been afflicting me for the past two years. I wish, with my words of remembrance, I could shake off my grief and relax. To speak frankly, I would try to forget them.<br />
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我一直想写点东西来纪念那些年轻的作家。这仅仅是出于过去两年来一直折磨我的悲伤和愤慨。我希望，通过我的回忆，我可以摆脱自己的悲伤然后放松自己。坦白地说，我会试着忘记它们的。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 13:59, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我一直想着写点什么来纪念那些年轻的作家。这只是出于我过去两年的悲伤和愤慨。我希望，通过用文字来回忆，我可以摆脱悲伤，放松下来。坦白讲，我会尽力忘记他们。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:43, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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我早就想要写点什么去纪念那些青年作家。仅仅是出于悲伤和愤慨而想去写，这些情绪两年来一直折磨着我。我希望，写下纪念之词后，我会得以解脱，不再悲伤，放松下来。坦白说，我会试图忘掉这些痛苦的回忆。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 09:28, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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This time two years ago, that is, the late night of February 7th or the early morning of 8th, 1931, was the time when our five young writers were murdered simultaneously. At that time, newspapers in Shanghai did not dare to report the murder. Or perhaps they did not want, or did not care, to report it. There were only some noncommittal words in ''Literature and Art News''. In its 11th issue (May 25th), Mr. Lin Mang wrote an article entitled ''Impressions on Bai Mang'', in which he said:<br />
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两年前的现在，也就是1931年2月7号深夜或者8号早晨，我们的五位年轻作家同时遭到谋杀。当时，上海报社不敢报道谋杀消息。也可能是他们并不想报道，亦或是不屑于报道。只有《文学与艺术新闻》对其进行了一些含糊的评论。在此杂志第11期（5月25号）上，林莽写了一篇标题为《白盲印象》的文章，提到：--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 14:36, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
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”He wrote many poems. He also translated several poems of the Hungarian poet Petöfi. Lu Xun, the editor of ''Torrents'', obtained his manuscripts and wrote to him to ask for a meeting. But he did not feel like meeting famous people. Therefore, Lu Xun came to find him in person, and made great efforts to encourage him on literary work. But he could not just sit in room writing, so he went off on his way again. Shortly, he was arrested once more…"<br />
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“他做了很多诗，也翻译了匈牙利诗人裴多菲的几首诗。时任《奔流》的编辑鲁迅收到了他的投稿后写信请他见一面。但他不愿意去见名人，因此鲁迅只好亲自去找他，并极力鼓励其继续文学创作。但他始终不能只坐在房间里写作，因此他又走了，不久后，他再次被捕。……”--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:05, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“他做了很多诗，也翻译了匈牙利诗人裴多菲的几首诗。时任《奔流》编辑的鲁迅收到了他的投稿后写信请他见一面。但他不愿意去见名人，因此鲁迅只好亲自去找他，并极力鼓励其继续文学创作。但他始终不能拘在房间里写作，因此他又回到老样子，不久后，他再次被捕。……”--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:54, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
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Our relations described in this article are not in fact accurate. Bai Mang was not that proud. He did come to my home, but not because I asked to meet him. I was not proud either, to rashly write to summon an unacquainted contributor. The reason for our meet was very common. The article he contributed, ''Biography of Petöfi'', was a translation from German. I wrote to ask for the original, which was published in the front of a poetry anthology. It was not convenient to mail the anthology, so he delivered it himself. He looked in his twenties, with a decorous face and a swarthy complexion. I could not remember our talks, except that he said his last name was Xu, born in Xiangshan. I asked him why the lady who took care of his mail had such a strange name (I forget in what way it was strange). He said she liked the strange romantic name, and that he was not getting along well with her any more. This is the only episode I can remember.<br />
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这篇文章所描述的我们的关系并非事实。白莽并没有那么傲慢，他曾经到过我的住所，但并不是因为我要求与他会面；我也没有那么高傲，对于一个素未相识的投稿者，会轻率的写信召集他来我的住所。我们见面的原因很简单，那时他投稿的《彼得斐传》是由德语译成的，我便写信求它的原文。而原文是刊登在诗集里的，邮寄不便，于是白莽亲自送来了。他看起来二十多岁，面容端正，肤色黝黑，与他的对话我不记得了，只想起他说自己姓徐，象山（浙江省宁波市象山县）人。我问他为何给他代收信的女士名字如此奇怪（我忘了是怎么个怪法），他说自己喜欢奇怪又浪漫的名字，还说当时与那位女士的关系不再亲密了。这是我唯一能回忆起的画面。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:05, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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At night, I roughly compared the translation with the original. In addition to several errors, there was a purposeful twist in his translation. It seemed that he did not like the word "nationalist poet", all of which he changed into "people's poet". The next day I got a letter from him, saying that he regretted to have met me, because he spoke a lot while I spoke very little and coldly, so that he felt suppressed. I promptly wrote back to explain that it was common for people not to talk much at their first meet. I also told him that he should not have distorted the original based on his own preferences. Since his book was left with me, I gave him two books in my own collection and asked him whether he could translate several more poems. He did make some translations and brought them to me. We talked a little more than the first time. The biography and the poems were published in volume 2 (5), the last book, of Torrents.<br />
<br />
晚上，我将译文和原文进行了粗略的比较。除了几个错误外，他有意将他的译文转换了一下。他似乎不喜欢“民族主义诗人”这个用词，所以他用“人民诗人”来替换。第二天我收到他的一封信，信中说到他后悔与我见面，理由是他说得太多，而我说得很少，表现得很冷淡，让他感到压抑。我立马给他回信解释说，人们在初次见面时不怎么说话是很常见的。我还告诉他，他不应该根据自己的喜好歪曲原著。因为他的书留给了我，我把自己收藏的两本书给了他，问他是否能再翻译几首诗。他的确做了一些翻译并把它们带给了我。这次我们比初次见面时多聊了一点。传记和诗歌发表在托雷茨的最后一本书的第二卷第五节。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 04:01, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
晚上，我粗略地把译文和原文作了比较。除了几个错误外，他有意在译文中做了一处改动。他似乎不喜欢“民族主义诗人”这个词，把它都改成了“人民诗人”。第二天我收到他的信，信中说他很后悔与我见面，因为他说了很多话，而我说得很少，表现得很冷淡，让他感到压抑。我立刻回信解释说，人们在初次见面时不多说话是很常见的。我还告诉他，他不应该根据自己的喜好歪曲原著。因为他的书是留给了我，所以我把自己收藏的两本书给了他，问他能不能再翻译几首诗。他确实翻译一些并给我带来了。我们比初次见面时多聊了一点。传记和诗都发表在《激流》的最后一本书第二卷（5）中。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:25, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
The third time we met was on a hot day. There was a knock at the door and I went to answer it. It was Bai Mang, in a thick gown, sweating. We could not help laughing together. Only then did he tell me that he was a revolutionist, just arrested and released. All of his clothes and books were taken away, including the two books I gave him. The gown he wore was borrowed from a friend. He must wear a gown, but did not have a thinner one, so he had to sweat like that. I think this may be the " arrested again" mentioned in Mr. Lin Mang's article.<br />
我们第三次相遇是在炎热的一天。听到有人敲门，我准备去开门。门外站着身着厚重长袍，满身大汗的白莽。我们止不住地相互笑了起来。他在那时告诉我，他是一名革命者，不久前才被捕，之后又被释放。他所有的衣服和书籍，包括我给他的两本书都被拿走了。他现在身上的这件长袍是他朋友的。他得穿件外套，但没有薄外套，因此他只好大汗淋漓地穿成这样了。我想这也许是林莽先生文章里提到的“再次被捕”的事。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:19, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
<br />
我们第三次见面是在一个大热天。有人敲门，我去开了门。门外正是白莽，穿着一件厚大褂，流着汗。我们忍不住一起笑了起来。直到那时他才告诉我，他是一个革命家，刚刚被逮捕又被释放。他所有的衣服和书，包括我给他的那两本书都被拿走了。他穿的衣服是从朋友那里借来的。他必须要穿一件长袍，但是找不到薄的，所以他不得不大汗淋漓地穿着它。我想这可能就是林莽先生文章中提到的“再次被捕”的事。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 16:12, 18 October 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
I was happy about his release and paid his contribution fee at once so that he could buy a thin gown. Meanwhile I lamented my books, which fell into the hands of the police; they were really pearls thrown into darkness. The two books, one essay and another poem collections, were quite ordinary. The German translator claimed that he made the collections. There was nothing as comprehensive as these even in Hungry. They are printed in ''Reclam's Universal-Bibliothek'', very widespread and barely worth a dollar in Germany. For me, however, they are very precious. Because 30 years ago when I loved Petöfi, I asked Wanshan Bookstore to buy them from Germany. At that time, I was very nervous when making the request, afraid that they would refuse me due to the low price. Later, I just brought them with me, but passions changed with experiences and I had no desire to translate them. This time I decided to give them to a young man who loved Petöfi's poems just as I had done, so that the books could find a good niche. Therefore, I seriously asked Rou Shi to take them to him. It is so bad that they fell into the hands of those ignorant cops.<br />
<br />
我对他的释放感到很开心,并且马上付了他的会费,这样他就可以买一件薄罩衫.同时我也向他抱怨了一下我的书,它落入了警察手中,就像珍珠掉进了黑暗中.两本书,一篇散文和另外一些诗集,它们本来是非常普通的,但是一位德国翻译学家却声称他收集了这些拙作.即便是食不果腹,也没有什么比这些书于我来说更重要.<br />
它们印在Reclam的Universal-Bibliothek中, 在德国泛滥成灾却几乎只值不到一美元.然而,对我来说,它们是非常珍贵的.因为30年前当我沉迷于Petöfi的时候,我曾请求万山书店从德国购入这些诗.<br />
那时,当我提出这些请求的时候我是非常不安的,担心他们会因为价格的原因而拒绝我.后来,我一直随身带着这些诗,但是因为经历的原因,我的激情慢慢退却,也没有想要翻译它们的欲望了.这次我打算将它们赠与给一位像曾经的我一样热爱Petöfi诗的年轻人.也算给这些诗找了一个好的归宿.因此 ,我严肃地请求柔时将这些诗带给那位年轻人.但是如今,它们已经落入了那些愚昧的警察手中.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 10:02, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
The reason why I never invite to meet contributors is not only out of modesty, but also to save the trouble. From my experiences I know that young people, especially literary young people, are mostly sensitive and self-esteemed. Misunderstandings could arise easily, so I would rather avoid meeting them, still less entrust them with personal matters. However, there was one person in Shanghai whom I not only could talk and laugh freely with, but also dare to entrust my personal matters to. That was Rou Shi, who delivered my books to Bai Mang.<br />
<br />
我从不邀请投稿人见面，不仅是出于谦虚，也是为了省事。根据我的经验，年轻人，尤其是文学青年，大多是敏感的、自尊的。跟他们相处很容易产生误会，所以我尽量避免与他们见面，更不会把私事托付给他们。但是在上海有一个人，我不仅可以和他谈笑风生，而且还敢把我的私事托付给他。是柔石把我的书送给白莽的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 04:36, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
I cannot remember when and where I first met Rou Shi. He seemed to have said that he had attended my lectures in Peking. That should be eight or nine years ago. I also forget how we started to have dealings. He lived in Jingyunli, four or five gates away from my home. Somehow we started to have contact. Perhaps in our first meeting he said his last name was Zhao, first name, Pingfu [fourth tone]. He also talked about the overbearing bullies of his hometown. A local despotic gentry ordered him to stop using his name because it would be a good name for that gentry's son. Therefore, I suspect that his original name was Pingfu [second tone], meaning steady and blissful, which would be to the liking of that gentry, who may not be so interested in the word "fu" [fourth tone]. His hometown was Ninghai, Taizhou, which was revealed by his hard-boned spirit of Taizhou. He was also a little pedantic, which could sometimes suddenly remind me of a similar famous writer, Fang Xiaoru.<br />
<br />
我记不得我第一次见到石柔是在何时何地了。他似乎说他参加了我在北京的演讲。那应该是八九年前。我也忘记了我们是如何开始交往的。他住在离我家四五公里的景云里。我们不知何故开始联系。也许在我们第一次会议上，他说他姓赵，叫平富。他也谈到了家乡的令人难以忍受的霸凌行为。一个当地专制的士绅命令他停止使用他的名字，因为那对于他儿子来说是个好名字。因此，我猜测他原来的名字是平福，意思是稳定而幸福，这可能是那个士绅喜欢的，他可能对“富”这个字不那么感兴趣。他的家乡是台州宁海，这从他顽强的台州精神中可以看出来。他还是个书呆子，有时会突然令我想起一个类似的著名作家，方孝孺。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:02, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我记不得我第一次见到石柔是在何时何地了。他似乎说他参加了我在北京的演讲。那应该是八九年前。我也忘记了我们是怎么开始有了交集。他住在离我家四五公里的景云里。不知怎么地，我们开始联系。也许在我们第一次会议上，他说他姓赵，叫平富。他也谈到了家乡的令人难以忍受的霸凌行为。当地一个的霸道乡绅在给儿子取名字的时候看上了他的名字，就迫使他改了名字。因此，我猜测他的原名应该是是平福，意思是稳定而幸福，这可能是那个乡绅喜欢的，他可能对“富”这个字不那么感兴趣。他的家乡是台州宁海，这从他倔强的台州性子中可以看出来。他有点像个书呆子的样子有时会让我猛然想起一个跟他有相似之处的著名作家，方孝孺。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 15:32, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我不记得我第一次见到柔石是在何时何地。他似乎说过他曾在北京听过我的讲座。那应该是八九年前的事了。我也忘了我们是怎么开始有交集的了。他住在离我家有四五个门远的景云里。不知怎么地，我们开始有联络了。也许在我们第一次见面时，他说他姓赵，名平复。他还谈到了家乡乡绅的霸道行径。一个当地的乡绅强迫他改名，原因竟然是乡绅想给自己儿子取这个好名字。因此，我怀疑他的原名是平富，意思是平安又幸福，这应该是乡绅所喜欢的。他们可能对“复”这个字不那么感兴趣。他的家乡是台州宁海，这可以从他坚韧不拔的台州精神中看出来。他也有点迂腐，这有时会让我突然想起类似的著名作家，方孝孺。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:26, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
He hid at home, writing and translating. We had contacts for some time and became quite agreeable. Then we established Zhaohua Publishing House with several other congenial young people. The aim was to introduce the literature of east and north Europe and foreign woodblock painting, because we all considered it necessary to foster powerful, plain literature and arts. Following this theme, we proceeded to print ''Zhaohua Bimonthly'', ''Modern World Short Story Anthology'', ''Art and Literary Zhaohua''. Only one of the works, ''Selected Works on Luguhonger'', was printed to attack the "artist" of Shanghai, that was, a paper tiger as Ye Lingfeng.<br />
<br />
他隐居在家里写作和翻译。我们接触了一段时间后相处变得十分融洽。后来我们又和几个志趣相投的年轻人创办了朝华出版社，主要介绍东欧、北欧的文学和外国的木版画，因为我们都认为有必要培养强有力且朴素的文学艺术。围绕这一主题，我们着手出版了《朝华》双月刊、《现代世界短篇小说选集》、《朝华艺术与文学》。其中只有一个作品《卢古洪格尔选集》是为了抨击上海的“艺术家”，那就是叶灵凤这样的纸老虎。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:15, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他隐居在家中写作，翻译。接触了一段时间后我们的相处变得十分融洽。后来我们又和几个志趣相投的年轻人创办了朝华出版社，主要介绍东欧、北欧的文学和外国的木版画，因为我们都认为培养强有力且朴素的文学艺术很有必要。围绕这一主题，我们着手出版了《朝华》双月刊、《现代世界短篇小说选集》、《朝华艺术与文学》。其中只有《卢古洪格尔选集》这一作品是为了抨击上海的“艺术家”，也就是像叶灵凤这样的纸老虎。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 01:52, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
Rou Shi, however, did not have any money. He borrowed over 200 yuan. In addition to buying paper, he carried on most editing and chores such as contacting Printing Bureau, drafting and proofreading. But he was often not satisfied with his work, knitting his brows when talking about it. His old works had some flavor of pessimism, but in fact he believed that humans are basically good. When I sometimes said how humans can cheat others, betray friends, suck blood, he would, his forehead glistening, widen his near-sighted eyes and protested, "Is it true? Are they really so bad to do it?…"<br />
然而柔石却身无分文。他借了200多块钱。除了买报纸，他还承担了大部分编辑工作，比如联系印刷局、起草和校对。但他常常对自己的工作不满意，一谈起工作就皱起眉头。他之前的作品充满悲观主义的味道，但实际上他相信大部分人都是向善的。有时我说到人们如何欺骗他人、背叛朋友、吸食残血时，他的前额闪闪发光，睁大了近视眼，抗议道:“这是真的吗?”他们真有那么坏吗?”--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:45, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Unfortunately, Zhaohua Publishing House went bankrupt shortly. I do not want to mention the reasons. In sum, Rou Shi's idealist head bumped into the wall. Aside from wasted energy, he had to borrow 100 yuan to pay for paper costs. Later, he had less doubt on my assertion of "human hearts are dangerous." Yet he sometimes would sigh, "Is it really true?…" However, he still believed that humans are basically good.<br />
不幸的是，朝华出版社很快便面临破产。 我不想提及原因。 总之，石柔的理想主义算是撞了南墙。 除了浪费的资源，他还得借100元钱来支付纸张费用。 后来，他对我“人心是危险的”的想法不再那么怀疑。 但是有时他也会叹息：“这是真的吗？……”然而，他仍然相信人类总体是向善的。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 02:43, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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不幸的是，朝华出版社不久就破产了。 我不想提及原因。 总之，柔石的理想主义者的头撞到了墙上。除了浪费能源外，他还得借100元钱来支付纸张费用。后来，他对我关于“人心是危险的”的主张毫不怀疑。然而他有时会叹息：“这是真的吗？……”不管怎样，他仍相信人类基本上是善良的。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 02:51, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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不幸的是，朝华出版社不久就破产了。我不想提及原因。 总之，柔石的理想主义算是碰了钉子了。不仅废了心力，他还得借100元来支付纸张费用。后来，我“人心险恶”的观点不再让他那么怀疑。然而他有时会叹息：“这是真的吗？……”不管怎样，他仍相信人类基本上是善良的。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:39, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
To get some money back, he sent his share of the books from Zhaohua Publishing House to Mingri Bookstore and Guanghua Bookstore. Meanwhile, he did his utmost to do translations in order to pay back the loans. Hence came the works sold to Commercial Publishing House, ''Short Story Collection of Denmark'' and Gorky's ''The Work of the Artamonovs''. I guess that these translations were burned by the cops last year.<br />
<br />
他于是一面将朝华社的书本送至明日书店与光华书店，以拿回一些钱；一面尽力做翻译，以还贷款。因此，他卖给商务印书馆《丹麦短篇小说集》和高尔基的《阿尔莫诺夫之事业》。但我想，这些译作也许去年已被军火烧掉了。<br />
<br />
为了拿回一些钱，他一面将朝华社的书本送至明日书店与光华书店，一面做翻译还债。因此，她还把他《丹麦短篇小说集》和高尔基的《阿尔莫诺夫之事业》卖给了商务印书馆。但我想，这些译作也许去年已被军火烧掉了。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 01:25, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
His pedantry gradually changed a little. Finally he dared to walk along with his female town folks or friends, but the distance between them would be at least three or four feet. This was not good at all. Whenever I met him on the street and saw a young pretty woman three or four feet from him, I would suspect it was his friend. But when he walked together with me, he would be very close, virtually holding me by the arm, for fear that I be killed by a bus or trolley. I would also worry about his near-sightedness while he was taking care of me. Thus, both of us had to worry all the way. Therefore, if I could, I would avoid going out together with him. Seeing him exhausting made me exhausted too.<br />
<br />
他的迂腐渐渐改变了一些。最后，他敢和他的女性同乡或者朋友走在一起，虽然他们之间的距离至少有三四英尺。这其实一点都不好。每当我在街上遇着他，看见一个年轻漂亮的女人在他三四英尺远的地方，我就会怀疑那是他的朋友。但是每当他和我走在一起，他就会和我贴得非常近，几乎抱着我的手臂，生怕我会被公车或者电车撞死。所以如果可以，我会避免和他一起出去。看到他筋疲力尽，我也心力交瘁。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 12:35, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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No matter from old morality, or new morality, he would select and carry on whatever may harm himself to benefit others.<br />
<br />
At last, he decided to change. Once he clearly told me that he should change the content and style of future works. I said it might be difficult. For example, was it possible for a man accustomed to using knives to switch to using sticks? He answered plainly: I can learn to do it!<br />
<br />
无论是从旧道德观念还是新道德观念看，他总是选择做那些损己利人的事。<br />
最终，他决定做出改变。一次，他明确地告诉我，他应该改变自己将来工作的内容和工作方式。我说那可能会很困难。比如，对一个习惯了用刀的人，你让他换成用棍子，这有可能吗？他直截了当的说，我可以学！--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:58, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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无论是从旧道德观念还是新道德观念看，他总是选择做那些损己利人的事。<br />
最终，他决定做出改变。<br />
Once he clearly told me that he should change the content and style of future works.有一次，他明确地告诉我他要改变自己作品的内容和风格。<br />
我说那可能会很困难。比如，对一个习惯了用刀的人，你让他换成用棍子，这有可能吗？他直截了当的说，我可以学！--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 03:20, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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无论是旧道德还是新道德,他总是选择做那些损己利人的事。<br />
最终，他决定做出改变。一次，他明确地告诉我，在以后的作品里他要改变内容和风格。我说那可能会很困难。比如，对一个习惯了用刀的人，你让他换成用棍子，这有可能吗？他直截了当的说，我可以学！--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:11, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
He was not saying empty words; he truly started to learn. He brought a friend to visit me, Ms. Feng Jian. We --[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:29, 16 October 2020 (UTC)had some talks, but I was still unfamiliar with her. I suspected that she was a little romantic, too eager to gain success. I also suspected that Rou Shi's recent plan to write big novels was out of her initiative. But I also suspect myself: perhaps Rou Shi's previous determined answer revealed my scar of laziness, so I unconsciously work off my anger on her. In fact, I was no better than the sensitive and self-esteemed literary youth whom I was afraid to meet.<br />
<br />
She was weak in constitution, and not pretty.<br />
<br />
他没有说假话，他真的开始学习了。他带了一个朋友来看望我，她是冯剑女士，我们交谈了几句，但我仍然对她感到很陌生。我怀疑她有一些富于幻想、急于求成；我也怀疑柔石最近写小说的计划超出她的预期；但是我也怀疑我自己：或许柔石之前肯定的回答显得我很懒惰，所以我下意识地消除了自己对她的怒火。事实上，我和那些我害怕遇到的文学青年一样敏感、一样自大。<br />
<br />
她体质弱，其貌不扬。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 15:11, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
柔石说的不是空话，他真的开始学习了。他还带了一个朋友来拜访我，她便是冯铿女士，我们交谈了几句，但我还是与她不交心。我怀疑她有点富于幻想、急于求成；我也怀疑柔石最近计划写长篇巨作的想法是出于她的主张；但是我也怀疑我自己：或许柔石之前坚定的回答揭露了我懒惰的伤疤，所以我不自觉地迁怒于那位女士身上。事实上，我和那些我害怕遇到的文学青年一样敏感、一样自大。<br />
<br />
她体质弱，其貌不扬。<br />
--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:29, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
Not until the establishment of the Leftist Alliance did I realize that the Bai Mang, whom I had already known, was the Yin Fu who wrote poems for ''Pioneers''. Once in a conference I brought a book to give him. It was a German translation of a China travels written by an American journalist. I had intended nothing but for him to practice his German with this book. However, he did not come. So I had to ask Rou Shi to deliver it again to him.<br />
<br />
Before long, they were arrested together. My book was seized and fell into the hands of the idiot pigs again.<br />
<br />
左派联盟建立后我才知道,我所认识的白芒竟然是给革命先驱写诗的银付。有次开会我给他带了本德文书，那是位美国记者写的中国游记,我只想着他用这本书去练练德语。但那次开会他却没有来，我便只好让柔石带给他了。<br />
不久，他们两人皆被捕，而我的书也被没收，又落到那些白痴手中去了。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 05:54, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
左派联盟建立后我才知道,我所认识的白莽竟然是给革命先驱写诗的殷夫。有次开会我给他带了本德文书，那是位美国记者写的德国译本的中国游记,我只想着他用这本书去练练德语。但那次开会他却没有来，我便只好让柔石带给他了。<br />
不久，他们两人皆被捕，而我的书也被没收，又落到那些白痴手中去了。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 07:40, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Mingri Bookstore planned to publish a magazine and invited Rou Shi to be an editor. He accepted it. The bookstore also wanted to print my translation, and dispatched him to inquire about royalty. I gave him a copy of the contract that I had made with Beixin Bookstore. He stuck it into his pocket and hurried away. It was the night of January 16, 1931. Who would expect this to be our last meet, our parting forever!<br />
<br />
明日书店计划出版一本杂志，并邀请柔石当杂志编辑，柔石接受了。书店也想印我的译本，便派他去打听我的版税问题。我给了他一份我和北新书店签订的合同，他把它塞进口袋，匆匆离去，那是一九三一年一月十六日的晚上。谁能料到这是我们最后一次见面，我们永远的分别！--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 08:58, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
明日书店要出版一种期刊，请柔石做编辑，他答应了。书店还想印我的译著，委托柔石来找我征询版税问题。我手抄了一份与北新书店所订的合同给他。柔石将合同往衣兜里一塞就匆匆地离开了。没有想到，正是这一天，1931年1月16日的晚上，竟然成了永诀！--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:51, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
明日书店打算出版一本杂志并且邀请柔石担任翻译.他接收了.书店也想印刷我的译本,并且派遣他去询问版税.我给了他一份我与北新书店签订的合同的复印件.他将它塞进口袋,匆匆离开了.那是1931年1月6日的晚上.谁又能想到那是我们最后一次见面,那次之后竟成了永别.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 10:13, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
The second day, he was arrested in a meeting, with my printing contract in his pocket. It was said that the police was searching me. The contract was very clear, but I did not want to explain in those unclear places. I remember there was an eminent monk in ''Biography of Yue'', who "nirvanaed" when the searching guys just arrived at the gate of his monastery. The maxim he left behind, "?? came from the east, while I go to the west," was the only good approach for a slave to escape from misery, since it would be hard to have a "swordsman" to help him. I was not an eminent monk, without the ability to nirvana but having the desire to live, so I escaped.<br />
<br />
第二天，他在会议上被逮捕，口袋里装着我的打印合约。据说，警察正在搜寻我。 这合约非常清晰，但我不想在不清不楚的地方做解释。我记得在《岳的自传》中有位高僧，当搜查的人就在寺院门口时，他也逃走了。 “？？从东边来，那我要去西边。”这句他所留下的格言，对一个奴隶来说，是摆脱痛苦唯一可行的方法，因为很难会有个“剑客”去帮助他。我并不是一位高僧，没有涅槃重生的能力，但有求生的渴望，所以我逃走了。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:56, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第二天，他在开会时被逮捕了，口袋里还有我的打印合同。据说警察正在搜捕我。合同写得很清楚，但是我不想在那不明不白的地方解释。我记得在《岳传》中有一位高僧，搜查人员刚到寺院门口，他就逃离了。他留了一句格言:““你们从东边来，那我去西边”于奴隶而言，这是逃脱苦难的唯一好办法，因为很难有一个“剑客”会来帮助他。我不是高僧，没有涅槃重生的能力，但有求生的欲望，所以我逃了出来。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 05:51, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第二天，柔石在一次会议上被捕，口袋里还装着我的印刷合同。据说警察正在搜查我。合同写得很清楚，而那些不清楚的地方，我也不想解释。我想起《岳传》里一位高僧，从搜查人员到达寺院门口时，他“涅槃”了。他留下名言“我从东方来，往西方去“，这是奴隶摆脱苦难的唯一好办法，因为很难有一位剑客来帮助他们。我并非高僧，无法超脱一切，但想要生，所以我逃了出来。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:15, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
That night, I burned my friends' old letters and fled to an inn with my wife and child. After a few days, rumors came that I was arrested, or killed. There was, however, very little news about Rou Shi. Some said he was brought by the cops to Mingri Bookstore and asked whether he was an editor; others said he was brought to Beixin Bookstore to confirm his identity. He was handcuffed, which indicated the severity of the case. But nobody knew what a case it was.<br />
<br />
When he was in jail, I saw two of his letters addressed to his town folks. The first one was as follows:<br />
<br />
<br />
当天晚上，我烧掉了朋友之前给我寄的一些信件，然后和妻子孩子逃到了一家旅馆。 几天后，流言四起，说我已经被逮捕或是被杀害了。 然而，却没有几条石柔的消息。 有人说他被警察带到了明日书店，问他是不是一名编辑；还有人说他被带到了北新书店去验证身份。警察给他带上了手铐，这足以说明事情的严重性。 但是没有一个人知道这件事是什么。<br />
<br />
当他入狱的时候，我看到了他写给家乡人的两封信，信的内容如下：--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:27, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
当天晚上，我烧掉了朋友之前给我寄的一些信件，然后和妻子孩子逃到了一家旅馆。 几天后，流言四起，说我已经被逮捕或是被杀害了。 然而，却没有几条石柔的消息。 有人说他被警察带到了明日书店，问他是不是一名编辑；还有人说他被带到了北新书店去验证身份。警察给他带上了手铐，这足以说明事情的严重性。 但是没有一个人知道这件事是什么。<br />
<br />
当他入狱的时候，我看到了他写给家乡人的两封信，第一封信的内容如下：--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:02, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
"35 prisoners and I (including 7 females) arrived in Longhua yesterday. We were handcuffed last night, which breaks the customs that political offenders should not be handcuffed. This is a big case, and I'm afraid I won't be released very soon. Please take care of my bookstore business for me. The situation is OK; I can learn German from Yin Fu. Please tell this to Mr. Zhou and tell him not to worry. We're not tortured. For several times the police asked for Mr. Zhou's address, but how do I know it! Don't worry for me. Best regards, Zhao Shaoxiong 1/24."<br />
<br />
These are the words on the front.<br />
<br />
"Please bring me two or three iron bowls. If you're not allowed to see me, please let them be delivered to Zhao Shaoxiong."<br />
<br />
These are the words on the back.<br />
<br />
“我和35名犯人（包括7名女性）昨天抵达龙华。我们昨晚被戴上手铐，这打破了政治犯不应该戴手铐的惯例。这是个大案子，恐怕我不能很快被释放。请帮我处理书店的生意。我（目前的）情况还可以，可以跟尹福学德语。请告诉周先生这个情况，让他不要担心。我们没有被折磨。警察好几次问周先生的住址，可我怎么知道呢！别为我担心。祝你好运，赵少雄1月24日。”<br />
这是前面的字。<br />
“请给我拿两三个铁碗来。如果他们不让你见我，就把它们交给赵少雄吧。”<br />
这是背面的字。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:04, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
His spirit did not change. He worked even harder on German; he was thinking of me, just like we walked together in the street. But there were some mistakes in his letter. Political offenders being handcuffed was not started from them. He had been thinking highly of the government, believing that civilization ended at, and cruelty started from, them. It was in fact wrong. Indeed, his second letter was a lot different, with very bitter words and the report that Ms. Feng's face had been swollen. It is a pity that I did not copy down the letter. Many rumors popped up, saying that he could be ransomed, or he had been sent to Nanking. Nothing was confirmed, while there were more and more letters to inquire about me. My mother fell into illness in Peking due to anxiety. I had to reply to those letters to clear my situation. This lasted for about 20 days.<br />
他的精神没有变化。他更加努力学习德语；他一直想着我，就像我们一起走在街上。但在他的信中有一些错误。政治犯戴上手铐并不是从他们开始的。他对政府一直有很高的评价，认为文明结束于他们，残暴开始于他们。事实上，这是错误的。其实他的第二封信已有很大的不同，措辞相当尖锐，还说冯小姐的脸肿了。很遗憾我没有把这封信抄下来。谣言四起，有的说他能被赎回释放，有的说他被送到南京了。没有一件得到证实，有越来越多的信件来问询我的情况。我的母亲因为焦虑在北京病倒了。我必须回复那些信件来澄清我的情况，这持续了有20天。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:20, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他的精神没有改变。他更加努力地学习德语；他一直想着我，就像我们一起在街上散步一样。但是他的信中有一些错误。给政治犯戴上手铐并不是从他们开始的。他一直对政府评价很“高”，认为文明结束于他们，残酷开始于他们。这实际上是错误的。确实，他的第二封信就（与之前）大不一样了，上面的字眼十分刻薄，还谣传冯女士的脸已经肿了。很遗憾我没有把那封信信抄下来。很多谣言骤然四生，说他可能会被赎金，或者他已经被送到南京。没有一个（谣言）得到证实，但却有越来越多的信来询问我。我母亲因焦虑在北京病倒了。而我不得不回信以澄清我的情况，这状态大概持续了20天。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:27, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
It turned colder and colder. I wonder whether Rou Shi had quilts in prison. We had them. Did he get the iron bowls?… Suddenly, some reliable news came that Rou Shi, together with 23 other people, had been killed in Longhua Police Station at he night of February 7th or the morning of the 8th. He was shot with 10 bullets.<br />
<br />
So that's how things stood!<br />
天气越来越冷了。我不知道柔石在监狱里面是不是有被褥。我们盖了被子。他拿到铁饭碗了吗？。。。。。。突然，一些可靠消息传来，柔石和其他23人于2月7号晚上或8号上午在龙华警察蜀被杀。身上被射杀10颗子弹。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 10:06, 16 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
天气越来越冷了。我不知道柔石在监狱里面是不是有被褥。我们盖了被子。他拿到铁饭碗了吗？。。。。。。突然，传来一些可靠消息，2月7号晚上或8号上午在龙华警察蜀,柔石和其他23人被杀，柔石本人身中10颗子弹。<br />
实际情况就是这样。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 10:19, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
In a late night, I stood in the yard of an inn, junk surrounding me. People were all sleeping, including my wife and child. I, with a heavy heart, feel that I have lost very good friends, and China has lost very good youth. I turned silent out of sorrow and indignation, but my old habits arise from silence, and I compose the following words:<br />
<br />
在一个深夜里，我站在一个旅馆的院子里，周围是垃圾。包括我的妻子和孩子，人们都在睡觉。我深刻地感受到我失去了很好的朋友，中国失去了一位非常好的青年。我从悲伤和愤慨中转为沉默，但我的旧习惯源于沉默，我写下了以下几句话：--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 02:32, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
在一个深夜，我站在旅馆的庭院里，周围都是垃圾。人们都睡着了，包括我的妻子和孩子。我想到我失去了非常要好的朋友，中国失去了非常好的青年，我的心情就很沉重。我因悲伤和愤怒变得沉默，但我的旧习惯是由沉默所致，于是我写下了下面几句话：--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:37, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
某个深夜，我站在一个旅馆的院子里，周围是垃圾。包括我的妻子和孩子，人们都在睡觉。我深刻地感受到我失去了很好的朋友，中国失去了一位非常好的青年。我从悲伤和愤慨中转为沉默，但我的旧习惯源于沉默，我写下了以下几句话：--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
Accustomed to spending spring at night,<br />
<br />
I, with greying temples, flee with my wife and child.<br />
<br />
In dreams are my mother's tears,<br />
<br />
While the government flags switch on the city wall.<br />
<br />
习惯了在夜晚度过春天，<br />
我，灰色的庙堂旁，带着妻儿逃离。<br />
梦中萦绕着母亲的热泪，<br />
当政府的旗帜挂上城墙。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 13:46, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
鬓角已渐花白的我<br />
<br />
习惯了在春天的黑夜<br />
<br />
携着妻儿逃离<br />
<br />
梦中<br />
<br />
是母亲的眼泪<br />
<br />
城墙上<br />
<br />
是变幻的旗帜--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
Enduring the pain that my friends turn into ghosts,<br />
<br />
I indignantly compose poems, facing the forest of swords.<br />
<br />
But there is nowhere to write, and I had to lower my brows,<br />
<br />
The moonlight is shining on my black clothes.<br />
<br />
<br />
忍受着失去朋友的痛苦，<br />
<br />
我愤慨地写诗，面对剑林。<br />
<br />
却无处可写，无奈低头，<br />
<br />
月光正照在我的黑色衣服上。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 15:05, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
友人丧命，我万般痛苦。<br />
<br />
利剑林立，化愤慨为诗。<br />
<br />
无处可写，我双眉频蹙。<br />
<br />
唯有月光，将我那衣裳照拂。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 06:18, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
挚友皆逝，独忍悲痛，<br />
<br />
临此困境，悲愤作诗。<br />
<br />
无处落笔，只得俯首，<br />
<br />
月光四溢，黑衣尽染。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:52, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
But in China, there is nowhere to write; things are shackled tighter than a tin. I remember that Rou Shi went back to his hometown at the end of that year and lived for quite some time. His friends blamed him after he came back to Shanghai. He said to me with sadness and anger that his mother had been blind and wanted him to stay for a few more days. How could he leave right away? I understand the blind mother's affection to her son, and the son's attachment to his mother. When ''Beidou'' was initiated, I had wanted to write something about Rou Shi. But I could not, so I had to select a woodcut by Madam Käthe Kollwitz. It was entitled "Sacrifice," which depicted how a mother sadly offered her son. Only I know this was a commemoration to Rou Shi.<br />
<br />
但是在中国，当时是无处可写的，禁锢得比罐头还严密。我记得柔石在那年年末回到了老家，在老家待了一段时间。后来回了上海，朋友对他颇有责怪。他悲愤地跟我说道，他的母亲双眼失明了，要他在家多住几天，他怎能马上就走呢？我十分理解柔石的盲母对儿子的不舍，以及儿子对母亲的挂念。当《北斗》发表的时候，我想写些有关柔石的东西，但是我不能够。于是，我只好选了一副柯勒惠支夫人（Käthe Kollwitz）的木刻，名为《牺牲》，是一位母亲悲哀地献出她儿子去的。只有我知道，这其实是对柔石的纪念。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:02, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Among the other four writers murdered, Li Weisen was the one I had never met; Hu Yepin I only met once in Shanghai, and we had a little talk. A more familiar one was Bai Mang, also named Yin Fu, who had written to me and contributed to my magazine. But I cannot find his letters anywhere. Perhaps they were all burned on the night of the seventeenth, when I did not know that Bai Mang had also been arrested. ''The Petöfi Poetry Anthology'' is still with me. I looked through it and found nothing special except a four-line translation in pen beside a poem ''Wahlspruch'':<br />
<br />
在被谋杀的其他四位作家中，李伟森是我从谋面之人。我在上海只见过胡也频一面，我们聊了一会儿。还有一个比较熟悉的人叫白莽，也叫殷夫。他给我写过信，也给我的杂志投过稿。但是我到处都找不到他的信。大概在17号晚上都被烧毁了吧，当时我还不知晓白莽也被捕了。我拿着佩托菲诗集，浏览了一下，除了一首名为“ Wahlspruch”诗旁边的四行笔译之外，没发现什么特别之处。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:20, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
受害者还有其他四位作家。其中，我从未见过李伟森，我与胡也频也仅在上海有过一面之缘，不过只是立谈之间。比较熟一点的就是白莽了，也叫殷夫。他给我写过信，也给我的杂志投过稿，但我都找寻不到了，大概都在17号晚上烧毁了吧。当时我还不知晓白莽也被捕了，拿着佩托菲诗集，浏览了一下，除了一首名为“ Wahlspruch”诗旁边的四行笔译文之外，没发现什么特别之处。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 01:54, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
"Life is precious, while love is even more valuable.<br />
<br />
But both I can give up, for the sake of freedom."<br />
<br />
On the second page was written "Xu Peigen", which I suspect to be his real name.<br />
<br />
“生命诚可贵,爱情价更高。<br />
<br />
若为自由故,两者皆可抛。”<br />
<br />
第二页写着徐佩根 (音译），我猜想这是他的真实名字。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 14:03, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
This day two years ago, I was hiding in an inn while they were marching towards the execution ground. This day last year, I fled to the British Concession, while they had long been buried nowhere. This day this year, I am sitting in my old home, while everyone is sleeping, including my wife and child. Once again, with a heavy heart, I feel that I have lost very good friends, and China has lost very good youth. I turned silent out of sorrow and indignation, but my old habits arise from silence, and I compose the above words.<br />
<br />
两年前的这天，他们走向刑场之时，我躲在一家小旅馆里。去年的这天，我逃去了英国租界，而他们的尸骨却长久以来都没有安葬之地。今年的这天，我坐在我的老房子里，此时包括我的妻子和孩子们，他们都在睡觉。我又一次感到心里沉重，我失去了一群非常好的朋友们，中国也失去了一批大好青年。尽管我悲伤愤怒之时不喜言辞，但也是由于沉默我养成了写字这个老习惯，于是我写下了以上这些话。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 08:33, 17 October 2020 (UTC）<br />
<br />
两年前的今天，当他们走向刑场时，我正躲在一家旅馆里。去年的今天， 我逃往英租界，而他们却一直无处安葬。今年的今天，我坐在我的老房子里，其他人都睡着了，包括我的妻子和我的孩子，再一次，我带着沉重的心情，意识到我已经失去了很多好朋友，中国失去了很多优秀的青年。悲伤愤慨之后，我变得沉默，而我写作的老习惯源于沉默，所以我写下了上面这些话。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:24, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
It is hard to write in current China. When I read Xiang Ziqi's ''Remembering the Past'' in my youth, I was wondering why he only wrote a few lines, just beginning and yet ending immediately. Now I understand.<br />
<br />
文人在当下的中国很难写作。我年轻时读向子期的《思旧赋》，我不明白为什么他只写了短短几行，只开了个头就马上结束。现在我明白了。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:02, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在当今的中国，写作是很难的。我年轻时读向子期的《思旧赋》，不明白为什么他只写了寥寥几行，才开头就结尾了。现在我明白了。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 04:47, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
It is not that the young are writing commemoration for the old. During the past thirty years, I had witnessed many young people shed their blood, which has accumulated such that I cannot breathe under it. The only thing I can do is to use my pen to write a few lines. This is like digging a hole from the mud to sustain my last gasps. What kind of a world this is! The night is long, so is the way. I had better forget and be silent. I believe, however, even if it is not me, somebody will remember them and talk about them in the future….<br />
<br />
February 7th-8th<br />
<br />
年轻人不是在为以前的人作祭。在过去三十年里，我亲眼看到许多年轻人流血，看了好多次后，我有点喘不上气。我唯一能做的就是用笔写下寥寥数语。这就像我从泥里钻个孔来存住最后一口气。这是个什么样的世道啊!长夜漫漫，道阻且长。我最好忘记并保持沉默。但我相信即便不是我，将来也会有人想起这些人，说起这些人。<br />
<br />
2月7日—8日--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 08:58, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
不是年青的为年老的写记念，而在这三十年中，却使我目睹许多青年的血，层层淤积起来，将我埋得不能呼吸，我只能用这样的笔墨，写几句文章，算是从泥土中挖一个小孔，自己延口残喘 ，这是怎样的世界呢。夜正长，路也正长，我不如忘却，不说的好罢。但我知道，即使不是我，将来总会有记起他们，再说他们的时候的。……<br />
2月7日—8日 --[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 14:10, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201005_trans&diff=11622520201005 trans2020-12-20T05:07:15Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhou Luoping 周罗平 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids<br />
<br />
Challenges for Interpreting in the 21st Century <br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University/China<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
<br />
The world is growing in tandem with the Internet, freedom of travel and globalization. Inevitably translation and interpreting are in greater demand, especially online during the coronavirus pandemic. With the beginning of the 21st century, interpreting faces new technical and digital challenges requiring new methods of delivery. Technical developments in the course of digitization have been on the rise and are approaching real-time use simultaneous capability. The technology supporting the interpreter is becoming more and more effective, while an increasing number of systems, such as artificially intelligent programs, are competing with the human being. The interpreter must now be a technology organizer and adroitly adapt to technologically predefined interpreting situations, such as video conferences with augmented reality, tele-interpreting, etc.<br />
<br />
数字与科技辅助的现代口译<br />
<br />
21世纪口译面临的挑战<br />
<br />
马丁·沃斯勒（Wu Moting），湖南师范大学 中国<br />
<br />
世界的发展正与互联网、旅行自由化和全球化齐头并进，尤其是在新冠疫情期间，人们对线上笔译和口译的需求更大。在21世纪初，口译面临新科技的挑战，需要新的提供服务的技术手段。数字化进程下的技术发展一直在上升，并且逐渐实现实时同步的能力。口译员的使用的科技越发高效,随着科技系统数量不断增多，出现了大量与人类竞争的翻译系统，比如人工智能程序。因此，如今的口译员必须要知道如何使用科技，还要快速适应一些技术上预先设定的口译情况，比如增强现实的视频会议，电话口译等。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 09:30, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
数字与科技辅助的现代口译<br />
<br />
21世纪口译面临的挑战<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学／中国<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
世界发展与互联网、旅行自由以及全球化齐头并进时，必然需要大量笔译与口译，在新冠肺炎疫情期间的线上工作中更是如此。在21世纪初，口译迎来技术和数字上的新挑战，需要提供新颖的服务方式。在数字化进程中，技术水平不断提高，并且逐步具备实时同步功能。技术辅助会让译员工作更加高效，但同人类竞争的系统数量（如人工智能程序）却持续增加。因此，当下的口译员必须掌握并熟练运用技术，以便快速适应技术预设的口译场景，比如利用增强现实技术的视频会议、电话口译等。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
<br />
The movements of migrants within the EU and the influx of refugees from crisis areas outside of it render community interpreting especially of rare languages in unprecedented demand, often resulting in the unsavory use of non-professional and sub-standard interpreters. Existential problems for the entire profession become apparent. Due to networking via the Internet, unqualified interpreters pour onto the market from low-wage countries: with dumping prices and low-quality services, they discredit the profession of the professional interpreter. Meanwhile remuneration practices have been declining, with payment of interpreting services often being delayed or payment defaulted. All these lead to a devaluation of the profession of the interpreter while digital technology throws into doubt the need for the role of the human as interpreter or translator.<br />
<br />
欧盟内部的移民流动，以及欧盟国家之外风险地区难民的涌入，都使社区口译，尤其是稀有语言受到空前的需要，这常常导致出现聘用不专业的口译员和不合格的口译员的现象。 整个行业存在的问题变得显而易见。由于通过互联网建立网络，低薪国家不合格的口译员以低廉的价格和劣质的服务大量涌入市场，他们的出现使专业口译员的专业性遭到质疑。同时报酬减少，以及随之而来的延迟支付服务费用和拖欠费用。所有这些都导致了口译员的价值下降，而数字科技会质疑人类作为翻译者和口译员的需要。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:19, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
The positive side of technological advancement is that communication (including translation and interpretation) becomes digital and therefore can be enhanced with artificial intelligence. This enhancement takes interpreting and translation to a new quality level. Translation and interpretation theory needs to adapt to translation and interpretation in the age of artificial intelligence, the focus, which has moved with the functional approaches to the translator, now moves to the target text audience. The new way of interpreting is a human, but digital-technically determined hybrid form of human-machine interactive interpretation, with due respect for the human participation expressed in the form of professional remuneration.<br />
<br />
技术进步带来的积极影响是交流（包含笔译与口译）日益数字化，于是交流可以通过人工智能得以加强。这种加强将口译与笔译水平提升到新高度。因此，相关理论需要适应人工智能时代下的笔译与口译。在过去，理论的重心从功能方法上转移到译者，而现在转移到目的语受众。新的口译方式是有人类参与的，不过是一种混合形式，即由数字技术支撑的人机交互口译，同时，以专业薪资待遇对人类译员表示尊重。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 05:00, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
技术进步带来了积极的影响，人际交往（包含笔译与口译）日益数字化，因而可以借助人工智能得到进一步加强。人际交往增多，把口译与笔译水平提升到了新高度。笔译和口译理论需要适应人工智能时代的翻译水平。过去对译者的功能方法的关注现在要转移到目的语读者上。新的口译形式不单是通过人本身，而是由数字技术支配、以专业薪酬形式表示对人类参与行为尊重的人机交传混合体。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 12:02, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
<br />
Keywords<br />
<br />
interpreting; artificial intelligence; simultaneous interpreting; real-time support; interpreting technology; digitalisation; interpreting software<br />
<br />
1.Literature Review<br />
<br />
In 2006, Honegger notes in a survey that most prospective interpreters do not use software in the interpreting booth, but work with paper glossaries which they have created with MS Word or MS Excel. Fantinuoli (2011, 50) states five years later that most interpreters still manage their terminology traditionally with MS Word or MS Excel. In 2015 20- to 30-year-old interpreting students state in a survey by Gacek that "software solutions are not sufficiently known among prospective interpreters and therefore are not used" (Gacek 2015, 82). The purpose of the present study is therefore to draw attention to the functionality of software for interpreting booths.<br />
关键词：口译，人工智能，同声传译，实时支护，口译技巧，数字化，口译软件。<br />
1、文献综<br />
在2006年，霍尼格在一份调查中写道，大多数杰出的口译家在口译室中都不会适应翻译软件，而是使用他们用文档或者表格创造出来的词汇进行工作。在2015年，一些二三十岁的口译学徒在一份调查中说：“软件翻译在那些杰出的口译者当中流传不广，所以他们不太使用。”因此目前研究的目的就是吸引翻译工作室注意到翻译软件的功效。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 15:25, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
<br />
The conference interpreter Anja Rütten (2007) presents valuable information in her information-rich overview, Information and Knowledge Management in Conference Interpreting, and in her numerous blogs in 2013 and 2014 about experiences with hardware and software in conference interpreting. In this paper, also lists of software and technology from Drechsel's interpreting practice in 2005, 2013 are used. <br />
<br />
Standard works on the craft of interpreting (Pöchhacker 2004; Stoll 2009) also form the basis of the present study. Only their suggestions are taken up here and they ought to be reconsidered from the perspective of support by software and technology. In addition, current individual studies are evaluated, such as on distance interpreting (Kalina 2010) and explanations on the use of office programs (Fantinuoli 2011), on web corpora (Gurevych 2013), and on Qtrans (Scholz 2008; Gacek 2015). To compare it with the analogue age, the very early Braun 1999 study on video conferencing is used.<br />
会议口译员Anja Rutten（2007）在其信息丰富的概述《会议翻译中的信息与知识管理》中提供了十分珍贵的信息。同时，在她2013-2014年的博客中，也记录了非常多在会议口译中使用软硬件的经验。在这篇文章中，同样列举了Drechesel在2005和2013年的口译实践中使用过的软件和技术<br />
标准作品的翻译工艺（Pochhacker）同样奠定了现代研究的基础。这里只采纳他们的建议， 即应该从软件和技术支持的角度重新考虑。此外， 本研究还评估了目前的个人研究，例如远距离口译（Kalina 2010），办公程序使用解释（Fantinuoli 2011）,网络语料库（Gurevych 2013）以及文档快翻。为了将它与相类似时代相比较，我们用到了1999年早期Braun的视频会议研究。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:24, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
会议口译员Anna Rutten(2007)在其信息丰富的概述《会议翻译中的信息和知识管理》中提供了珍贵的信息，同时她很多2013和2014年的博客也向大家展示了在会议口译中使用软件和硬件的经验。在这篇文章中，Drechsel在2005年口译实践中列举的软件和技术，2013年仍在使用。<br />
口译工艺的标准作品（Pochhacker 2004;Stoll 2009）同样奠定了当今研究的基础。只有他们的建议被采纳，我们才能从软件和技术支持的角度来重新考虑他们。除此之外，当前的个人研究也被评估，例如远距离口译（Kalina 2010），办公程序使用说明（Fantinuoil 2011），网络语料库（Gurevych 2013）以及快速翻译（Scholz 2008；Gacek 2015）。为了将它与相似时代相比，我们使用了早期1999年Braun关于视频会议的研究。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 09:11, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
Since software and technology are developing rapidly, a study inevitably becomes obsolete quickly. To arrive, nevertheless, at more generally valid statements, the present study focuses on developments and functionality, explaining concrete software and hardware only by way of example, with the knowledge that products are often replaced by others and that only a few can last for a long period of time. In order to get an overview of software and hardware, the current master's thesis by Gacek (2015) is used. However, it only refers to a small selection of products and does not come to generally valid conclusions. This study also addresses the polarizing discussion on how much technology and software the interpreter needs. While Spitzer provocatively speaks of the "digital dementia" of interpreters in 2012, Conway (2014) has taken a more balanced approach to the question of the cost-benefit ratio of the computer in the interpreting booth.<br />
由于软件和技术发展迅速，相关研究不可避免地很快变得过时。不过，为了得到一个普遍有效的结论，在只有少部分产品能坚持一段时间，大部分产品都更新换代地极快的情况下，目前的研究聚焦其发展和功能性，通过举例来解释软件和硬件。为了全面地了解软件和硬件，研究采用了当代大师Gacek的论文。然而，这篇论文只适用于少部分产品，并不能得到普遍有效的结论。这篇论文同样引起了人们对与口译员到底需要多少技术和软件的两极分化的讨论。当问到电脑在口译活动中的成本效益时，在2012年Spitzer激烈地谈起口译员中的“数据白痴”，而Conway则采取了一个更为平和的方法。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:18, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
This paper will also introduce special aspects, like problems posed by trendy community interpreting (Andres 2009) and cheap competition for interpreters, as well as placing networked communication and work on texts in the context of the development of swarm intelligence and a collective consciousness.<br />
Finally, a new type of interpreting is called for, which expects at least technical competence from the interpreter, and at most a hybrid human-machine working method. In this paper, the thesis, already passionately advocated historically, that the computer or artificial intelligence could never replace the human being in certain functions such as language (Austermühl 2004), is no longer categorically excluded.<br />
本文还会提及一些比较特别的方面，如社区口译流行带来的问题（安德烈斯 2009），口译员之间的廉价竞争以及在群体智能和集体意识发展背景下将网络通信和工作置于文本之上的问题。<br />
最后，需要一种新型的口译方式，它要求口译员至少具备技术能力，至多采取一种人机混合工作模式。在本文中，认为电脑或人工智能永远也不能取代人（Austermühl 2004）的论点已不再被绝对排除在外了，而这一点在先前早就得到了强烈的倡导。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 02:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
本文还将介绍一些特殊的方面，如流行的社区口译（Andres 2009）和廉价的口译员竞争所带来的问题，以及将网络通信和文本工作置于群体智能和集体意识发展的背景下所带来的问题。<br />
最后，需要一种新的口译方式，它至少要求口译员具备一定的技术能力，至多是一种人机混合的工作方式。这篇论文曾热情地鼓吹，计算机或人工智能永远不能取代人类在某些功能，如语言（奥斯特姆ühl 2004），这一观点将不再被绝对排除。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:42, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
<br />
2.Simultaneous Technology/Technology Working in Real Time<br />
<br />
While in the past technology did not allow simultaneous work support, i.e. it was not possible for translators to work with simultaneous or consecutive interpreting, this disadvantage seems to have been largely overcome technically at the beginning of the 21st century, although there are still too few apps that make use of these new possibilities.<br />
<br />
Arguments against the positive effects of advanced technology include references to over-coding, the abundance of information, etc. These phenomena appear to be a hindrance, especially in connection with the interpreting profession, which requires the highest level of concentration.<br />
2.同步技术/实时工作技术 <br />
虽然过去的技术不支持同步工作，即翻译机器不可能做得了同声传译或交替传译的工作，但这一技术上的缺点似乎在很大程度上已于21世纪初得到了克服，虽然运用这些新技术的软件仍在少数。<br />
反对先进技术积极影响的论据包括过度编码、信息过丰等。这些现象似乎成了一种障碍，尤其是在与口译相关的、要求精力高度集中的职业中。--Chen Sha (talk) 22:10, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
<br />
Spitzer (2012) for example, poses the question of whether computer work causes a mental deterioration of society. Rütten (2014a), on the other hand, refers to Spitzer, pointing out the advantages of the computer, arguing that it has voice output, retrievability through full-text search, spell checking, sorting, categorization and transmission functions. She suggests as a compromise: "Talking about research, challenging one's own memory and always asking about what is meant and the context - if we take this to heart, we have a good chance of making the computer a valuable training tool and an excellent assistant.”<br />
<br />
比如说，斯皮策（Spitzer）提出了计算机会否在社会上引起精神恶化这个问题。另一方面，卢腾（Rütten ）提到斯皮策的言论时，反而指出计算机有着诸多优点。卢腾称，计算机可输出声音、可通过全文本搜索进行信息检索、可检查拼写正确与否、可进行信息整理、同时还具有分类和传输功能。她建议人们用一种折中的眼光来看待计算机。人们常谈论研究、挑战自身的记忆力、总询问事物的含义和语境。如果我们用心感受那些方面，我们还是有绝佳的机会让计算机成为益处多多的训练工具和优秀的人类助手。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 05:14, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
例如，斯皮策（Spitzer）提问：计算机工作是否会引起社会的智力退化？另一方面，卢腾（Rütten）谈及斯皮策时，指出计算机的优势,认为它具备语音输出，可通过全文搜索进行信息检索，拼写检查，排序整理，分类和传输功能。她折衷建议：“如果我们谈谈研究，挑战下自身记忆力，且经常问问看这什么意思，上下文是什么—把这些事放心上，我们还是很有可能让计算机成为一款有益的训练工具，成为优秀的人类助手。”--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 05:17, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
<br />
2.1 Technology to Support the Interpreter<br />
2.1 帮助口译员的技术<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Preparation<br />
2.1.1 准备<br />
<br />
Even if a consecutive interpreter is standing next to the speaker, armed with a stenographer's notepad and pencil, and interprets him or her in an apparently analogous manner, even he or she cannot do without technology these days. <br />
即使交传译员站在说话人旁边，拿着速记本和笔，模仿说话人为对方进行翻译，现如今都离不开技术的支持。<br />
<br />
Even during the preparation stage, his duty of care requires him to take into account the accessible sources, some of which are electronic.<br />
即使在准备阶段，译员也需要查证资料，其中就包括电子资源。<br />
<br />
Even more technical possibilities are offered if the interpreter asked to use his own initiative receives speech manuscripts beforehand. These can be scanned, transcribed and prepared, for example by automatic color coding of verbs and realities, which Stoll (2009, 84f.) also recommends for analogue preparation, as it improves anticipation and simplifies syntactic planning.<br />
如果口译员要求事先准备好的手稿，那将会得到更多的技术支持。 例如，可以通过对动词和现实的自动颜色编码来进行扫描，转录和准备，斯托尔（Stoll）（2009，84f.）也建议采用类似的准备方式，因为它可以提高预期并简化句法。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:54, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
<br />
In addition to the concrete preparation of the text to be interpreted, more general preparation can also be supported technically.<br />
<br />
Drechsel (2005, 16f.) lists, for "preparation for the conference topic and the creation of glossaries, electronic tools such as search engines, web catalogues, topic portals, scientific websites, company or customer websites, library catalogues, online libraries, specialised services for e-publications, online magazines, newsgroups and others are used.”<br />
<br />
Online comparison with existing acronyms/abbreviations (Stoll 2009, 85) is also helpful.<br />
<br />
<br />
除了准备好口译稿以外，常规上还需要更多技术上的支持。<br />
<br />
德雷克塞尔（Drechsel）（2005, 16f.）列举到，筹备会议主题，创建词汇表可以用到这些电子工具，如搜索引擎，网页目录，主题访问入口，科技网，商贸网，图书目录，线上图书馆，以及为电子出版物，在线杂志和新闻组等专门设置的服务。<br />
<br />
此外，和现有的缩略词进行在线对比同样有帮助。（Stoll 2009,85）--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:44, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了对所要解读的文本进行具体的准备外，更多的一般性准备也可以在技术上得到支持。德雷克塞尔Drechsel(2005，16f.)列举到 ：“准备会议主题和建立词汇表时可使用的电子工具。如搜索引擎、网页目录、主题门户、科学网站、公司或客户网站、图书馆目录、在线图书馆、以及电子出版物的专业服务、在线杂志、新闻组等。"除此之外，与现有的缩略语/缩写进行在线比较(Stoll 2009, 85)也很有帮助。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 02:38, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
<br />
Of course, ad hoc knowledge acquisition (Gile 2009) prior to the conference also counts as preparation, such as requesting speech manuscripts and presentations, often in file form. Preparation does not only take place in the weeks before the assignment ("advance preparation", Gile 2009), but also on site a few minutes before the assignments ("last minute preparation", Gile 2009) and during the interpreting breaks ("in-conference preparation", Gile 2009). Stoll categorizes the areas of interpreting preparation as "general technical", "terminological" and "interpreting strategy" (Stoll 2009, 86).<br />
<br />
当然，会议之前特别知识的获取（Gile 2009）也可以作为准备工作，例如要求演讲稿和演示文件,通常以文件的形式。口译员不仅需要在会议前几周做准备（“提前准备”，Gile 2009），而且在会议前几分钟（“最后一刻的准备”，Gile 2009）和口译休息期间（“会议中的准备”，Gile 2009）也需要做准备。 斯托尔(Stoll)将口译准备工作分为“通用技能”“专业知识”和“口译策略”三个方面（Stoll 2009，86）。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 16:22, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
<br />
Here, search engines or electronic dictionaries are often faster than paper dictionaries. Moreover, if, for example, the conference program/list of speakers is updated on a website, the interpreter can adjust his or her planning by accessing the website without further consultation with the client.<br />
<br />
In principle, all technical aids should meet the requirements of being user-friendly, having a fast or real-time response time and being manageable.<br />
<br />
<br />
在当前的情况下，通过搜索引擎或者电子词典查询信息往往比纸质词典要快。例如，如果会议安排又或是发言人名单在网站上更新了的话，口译人员可以通过访问网站来调整他或她的计划，而无需与客户进一步协商。<br />
<br />
原则上，所有技术辅助工具都应满足客户的需求、迅速或实时给予客户回答且易于客户管理。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:41, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，搜索引擎或电子词典通常比纸质词典更便捷。 此外，例如，如果网站更新了会议程序或者发言人列表，则口译员可以通过访问该网站来调整其计划，而无需与客户进一步协商。<br />
<br />
原则上，所有技术辅助工具都应便于用户使用，能快速或实时响应以及易于管理。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 16:37, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Speech to Text in Real-time with Low Error Rate<br />
<br />
Every smartphone today has a mode or apps with which it records speech and converts it into text in real time with a now justifiably low number of errors. <br />
This simple function alone is valuable for the apparently analogue consecutive interpreter: He can put his shorthand pad in a folder in which, for example, the smartphone is inserted on the left and has written down the spoken text as text.<br />
2.1.2 高效实时语音转化文字<br />
如今，每款智能手机都安装有一种模式或应用软件，可用来记录语音并将其实时转换成文本，且正确率较高。这种简便的功能显然对于连续模拟口译者来说是十分受用的，比如，他可以将速记本放在一个文件夹中，把手机插在左侧，然后语音文本就可以被转化成文字记录下来。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:59, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 实时语音编辑的低错误率<br />
如今每部智能手机都有一种模式和应用程序来记录语音，并将它实时转换成文本模式，并且错误的数量很少。很明显，这种简单的功能对于连续口译员是有价值的：他可以将速记本放在文件夹里，例如，智能手机被放在左边，但是它已经将语音转换成文本了。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:21, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
<br />
While he works with his notes in interpreting notation on the right, as he used to do on the right, and can insert the pen into a holder on the folder if necessary, the transcription on the left enables him to find his way back into the context at a glance or, at most, with a wiping movement in the event of a pause in his hesitation (colloquially known as a 'hang up') or even a 'blackout'.<br />
<br />
Drechsel (2013) demonstrates the use of the following programs/websites on the Ipad (which helps him to concentrate on individual processes): Documents (manages documents and allows editing), Interplex, LookUp (terminology databases), Wikipedia, Google.<br />
<br />
当口译员做笔记时，正如他以往那样，把口译符号标注在右边，如果需要的话，他可以把笔插入文件夹上的笔盒中。瞥一眼左边的标注，他就能回到上下文中，或者，万一他犹豫，停了一下（俗称“挂机”），甚至“停电”了，最多抹去计算机中的信息就好了。<br />
<br />
德雷克赛尔（Drechsel）展示了如何在Ipad上使用以下程序/网站(这有助于他专注于单个进程)：Documents(管理文档并允许编辑)，Interplex，LookUp(术语数据库)，维基百科，谷歌。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:50, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
<br />
Tablets like the Ipad have the following advantages over the conventional laptop, notebook or netbook in the cubicle: They are lighter, smaller, handier, the battery lasts longer, typing is silent, you can use apps, your work is not interrupted by updates or pop-ups, you can take notes by hand and record things in the background for archiving or follow-up. Of course, due to the data protection regulation, the consent of the client must be obtained before recording.<br />
<br />
平板电脑，如苹果平板电脑，相比传统笔记本电脑、室内台式电脑有着很多优势：更轻巧便携，电池耗电慢，无声键盘，可以使用各种软件，而且不会受到更新或者弹出窗口的困扰，可以用手记笔记，可以将信息记录在后台以存档或日后查看。当然，根据数据保护规定，进行信息记录前，平板会先征取使用者的同意。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 06:20, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
与传统笔记本电脑，纸质笔记本以及室内便捷式电脑相比，平板电脑，如苹果平板电脑（Ipad）更具备以下优势：他们更小巧轻便，电池续航能力强，静音键盘，软件流畅，工作时也不会被更新提示或弹出窗口打断，人们还可以用手记笔记，并在后台记录以便存档或后续跟进。当然，由于数据保护规定，在进行记录前必须征得客户同意。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:20, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
比起传统的笔记本电脑、台式电脑，平板电脑，如iPad，有以下优势：平板电脑更轻巧便携，电池续航更持久，打字声也更小。你可以使用各种软件，而且工作也不会被更新或弹窗所打断。你可以手写笔记，还可以在后台记录文件以便存档或日后查看。当然，根据数据保护规定，在记录之前必须征得客户的同意。--Chen Sha (talk) 22:15, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The disadvantage of not being able to see several windows at the same time appears to be an advantage to Drechsel (2013) from his personal experience, because it allows him to concentrate better on one thing. However, he neither has all the Office applications with him nor his domestic terminology databases. A possible compromise could be a laptop with a touchscreen.<br />
<br />
从德雷克塞尔（(Drechsel） (2013)的个人经历来看，不能同时看到几个窗口的缺点似乎是一个优势，因为这使他能够更好地专注于一件事。然而，他既没有所有的Office应用程序，也没有国内术语数据库。可能的折衷方案是用一台带有触摸屏的笔记本电脑。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:24, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从德雷塞尔(Drechsel)(2013)的个人经历来看，不能同时看见几个窗口同时也是一个优点，因为这样可以使更好地专注于一件事儿。然而，他既没有办公软件地应用，也没有国内术语语料库。唯一一点好的就是他有一台触屏笔记本电脑。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从德雷克赛尔的个人经历来看，他认为不能同时看到几个窗口这个缺点似乎是个优点，因为这让他可以更专注于一件事上。然而，他既没有所有Office办公软件，也没有国内术语数据库。一种折衷方法就是拥有一台触屏笔记本电脑。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:43, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
2.1.3 From Text in Source Language to Text in Target Language<br />
<br />
Not yet very professional but available as prototypes are transcription systems that offer a translation in a second screen (e.g. translator.google.com, fanyi.baidu.com, for European languages DeepL.com) in addition to the real-time transcription of the source language presented in 1.1.1. On the smart device, for example, an upright screen can be divided into an upper transcription area and a lower translation area.<br />
<br />
虽然不是那么专业，但是可以应用，因为在转录系统中，除了1.1.1中介绍的源语言的实时转录外，还可以在第二个屏幕上提供翻译(例如，translate.google.com，fanyi.baidu.com，欧洲语言DeepL.com)。例如，在智能设备上，可以将直立的屏幕分为上层转录区和下层翻译区。--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 05:45, 12 October 2020 (UTC)Gu Dongfang<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
Here, too, constant trial and error is required to improve the quality of the interpretation. It is also individually different how much different information the individual interpreter is able or used to process. If the flow of data is too large, there is a risk that concentration or the flow of production will be impaired.<br />
<br />
2.1.4 Keyword Cloud<br />
<br />
Helpful for the interpreter's work is the insertion of key terms and their translation into the target language in real time in the form of dynamic clouds, i.e. in real time and the longer a pause before the interpretation of the relevant term lasts.<br />
<br />
这里也是如此——提高口译质量需要不断进行试错。同样，每位译员本身能够，或者是说适于处理不同信息的数量也有差别。如果数据流太过庞大，就会存在译者专注度降低或是译文产出量减少的风险。<br />
<br />
2.1.4 关键词群<br />
<br />
输入关键词或者通过动态云即时将源语转化为目的语，这对译者的工作大有帮助。比如：在对相关术语进行口译之前及时停顿或停顿更长时间。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:22, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
这里也是如此,提高口译质量得不断尝试，不断纠正。每个口译员能够处理，或者习惯处理多少条不同的信息，也是因人而异的。如果数据过于庞大，那译者专注度或产出量就有下降的风险。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:16, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.4 关键词群<br />
输入关键词，通过动态云，实时转化成目的语，这对译者工作大有帮助。也就是说，这能帮助口译员实时转换，且在口译相关术语前，能停顿更长时间了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:14, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In my opinion, the development of a corresponding app would be a desideratum. It would not be used intensively, but would be conceived as an additional screen for the corner of the eye, which is preferably perceived subconsciously and which one can turn to when one has a hesitation pause and is looking for stimulation. Here, terms that have been interpreted according to the proposal should turn green and others grey. It should be possible to turn back the displayed cloud by fractions of a second in the timeline by pointing and wiping. Of course, it should be capable of learning, i.e. it should be able to memorize frequent non-standard translations and offer them itself.<br />
<br />
In the post-processing phase, the program should offer a list of terms to be practised and has the non-standard translations approved manually by the interpreter.<br />
<br />
我认为，与之相对应的应用程序的发展是合乎期望的。它不会频繁的使用到，而是作为一块余光能扫到的额外的屏幕，更适合无意识下地注意到，或者当译员有点捉摸不定而停顿时，可以向之寻求一点灵感刺激。在此，已经根据提议译完的术语应当变成绿色，其他的为灰色。最好可以通过点击和擦除在时间轴上将已显示的阴影部分拉回一点点。当然，它应该能够自我学习，也就是说，它应该能够记住那些经常出现的非标准化的翻译，然后为其本身提供翻译。<br />
<br />
在后处理阶段，程序应提供要使用的术语列表，并由口译员手动批准非标准翻译。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 16:10, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
2.1.5 Effects of Technology<br />
<br />
The interpreting profession has changed due to hardware and software development, especially since the 1990s, which has essentially made interpreting easier and better. Whether a technology or an app makes it into the consecutive or simultaneous interpreting situation and even into the interpreting booth is subject to the highly subjective decision-making power of the individual interpreter, just like the interpreting notation, which varies from person to person. New techniques should only be tried out if they bring about a real improvement in use.<br />
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2.1.5 科技的影响<br />
<br />
电脑软硬件的不断升级使得口译的专业程度也逐步提高，20世纪90年代以后，软硬件的发展让口译更加简便的同时，也提高了口译的准确性。一种技术或一款软件能否应用于交传、同传甚至是口译箱，极大程度上取决于译员本身，和口译符号一样，译员与译员之间各有不同。新的技术只有真正带来革新才能投入使用。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:49, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.5 科技的影响<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代以来，由于电脑软硬件的升级，口译的专业性也不断提高，这在降低了口译难度的同时，也提高了其准确性。正如译员之间口译符号各不相同，一种科技或一款软件能否应用于交传、同传甚至是口译箱，极大程度上取决于译员本身。新科技应该加以试验，以检测其是否能带来革新。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.5 科技带来的影响<br />
电脑软硬件设施的完善使口译员的职业发生了改变。特别是自20世纪90年代以来，译员的工作变得更加方便和成熟。正如不同译员间的口译笔记符号是有差别的一样，一项技术或软件能否被应用在交传或者同传的场合或者进入同传箱，取决于译员个人的主观决断。新的技术只有在实际使用中带来进步，它才有被尝试的价值。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:53, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
It is not in anyone's interest to use the latest technology for its own sake if this means a loss of quality in the interpretation. Conversely, an interpreter should be open to accept new techniques and software if they can improve his work.<br />
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2.1.5.1 The Presence of the Interpreter at the Place of Assignment<br />
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The interpreter can influence physical and spatial matters by being present at the place of assignment:<br />
<br />
a) He/she can acquire vocabulary in advance in exchange with the client, compile vocabulary lists, practise them and also physically take them into the booth as paper printouts or on the screen.<br />
并不是所有人都会喜欢用这些最新的科技产品，如果它们使得口译的质量产生了折扣。相反，一个口译人员应该以包容的心态来接受这些新技术，如果它们可以帮助提高工作质量的话。<br />
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2.1.5.1 在会议室的口译员<br />
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当口译人员在会议室的时候可以对周围的事物产生一定的影响：<br />
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a) 他/她可以提前与客户交流得到所需词汇，然后整理成表，不断联系，最后切实的打印出来带入口译间或显示在其屏幕上。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 08:12, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如若使用最新的科技产品导致口译的质量大打折扣，出于个人利益，不是所有口译员都会此感兴趣。相反，如若它们可以帮助提高口译工作质量，口译员都会以包容的心态来接受这些新技术产品。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:47, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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若译员利用最新科技反而让口译的质量大打折扣的话，这是不符合其利益的。相反，若新技术能帮助其改进工作的话，那么译员应该以包容的心态接受这些新技术软件。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
b) He can request speech manuscripts in advance or speak directly to speakers on site and ask for a copy of their speech manuscripts.<br />
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c) In case of early contact with the Interpreter Equipment Company, he may be able to influence positioning the interpreting booth so that he can see the speaker and the PowerPoint presentation. In the case of video conferences (e.g. by zoom, voom/Tencent Meeting, BigBlueButton, Skype, Tencent Classroom, MS Teams etc.), he can make sure that he can see all the speakers, including those who appear on screens, so that he can also recognize non-verbal signals and incorporate them into the interpretation. In principle, it is recommended that the interpreter is also shown on screens or in video conferences on a small side window in order to better understand the interpretation.<br />
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b)他可以提前要取演讲稿或者直接跟在场的讲话者要一份他们演讲稿的复印版。<br />
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c)如果译者早一些与翻译设备公司沟通交流的话，他也许能够选择口译室的位置，这样的话他就可以看见讲话人和幻灯片演示文件。如果是视屏会议（如zoom,腾讯会议,BigBlueButton,Skype,腾讯课堂，MSTeams等），他要确定他能够看见所有的讲话人，包括那些出现在屏幕上的，这样的话他就可以识别一些非语言信号，并且将其融入翻译中。原则上，为了让大家更好地理解翻译，译者也应该出现在镜头里面或者视频会议地小窗口里面。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:45, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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b)他可以提前请求得到手稿或者直接和在场发言人交流并申请一份演讲手稿的复印件。<br />
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c) 如果有提前和口译设备公司沟通过的话，他就可以确定口译间的位置，这样他就可以看到发言人人和播放的幻灯片。在视频会议中（比如zoom，腾讯会议，BigBlueButton,Skype,腾讯课堂，MS Teams 等等）他就可以确保他能看见所有的发言人，包括那些在屏幕上的，这样他就可以收集到非口语的信息，将其整合到口译当中。 原则上，口译人员也应当出现在屏幕上或者在视频会议的一个侧边窗口，这样他就能更好的进行翻译工作。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 08:50, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
d) Before the event, the interpreter can be introduced to the interpreting equipment by the technician and test the audio system, determine and announce the channel-language assignment (experienced clients post these and instruct the staff who issues the receivers to inform the participants of the assignment), adjust the volume of the headphones and arrange the aids on the work table.<br />
<br />
d) 口译活动进行前，技术人员可以将口译工作使用的设备提前介绍给译员，译员来测试声音，决定并宣布使用频道语言的分配工作（有经验的客户会提出这些要求，指示负责接话筒的工作人员将分配任务告知给口译工作者），此外，还需要调整耳机音量，分配好各方协作工作。<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 02:54, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在口译活动开始之前，技术人员可以先向口译员介绍口译设备，译员测试声音系统，分配语音频道（有经验的客户会提出这些要求，让接话筒的工作人员告知口译员任务分配情况），调整耳机声音的大小，并摆放好工作台上的辅助设备。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 06:14, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
e) He/she can coordinate with his/her interpreting colleague regarding, e.g. glossaries, agenda, and exchange documents, then both can determine the approximate intervals between changes or simply notice during the assignment if the colleague is at a loss and give a helping hand with writing a missing term on a piece of paper. He/she can also nudge him/her to draw his/her attention to something. He/she can share glossaries and documents electronically, e.g. with the Interplex program simply with a swipe to the left. He/she can also take over the interpretation prematurely in case of exhaustion of his/her colleague.<br />
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他/她可以在词汇表、议程和交换文件等方面与口译同事进行协调，然后两者都可以确定大致间隔时间，或者在任务期间通知同事。如果同事不知所措，则可以在一张纸上帮助写下缺失的术语，或者帮助其集中注意力。他/她可以通过电子方式共享词汇表和文档，例如只需向左轻扫一下，就可以与Interplex程序共享。如果有一方体力不支，他/她也可以提前接管口译工作。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 00:52, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
The number of distance interpreting assignments has already been increasing before the coronavirus pandemic, but with Corona, it exploded. Before Corona, a combination of telephone and web communication was used. With the coronavirus pandemic, Zoom was used more frequently and the Business version comes with a conference interpreter menu.<br />
<br />
AIIC, BDÜ, European institutions and other international organizations agreed (Kalina 2010) on the following conditions as minimal professional standards for distance interpreting:<br />
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在冠状病毒大流行之前，远距离口译任务的数量已经增加，但随着疫情的爆发，这种现象激增。 在电晕之前，电话和网络通讯是结合使用的。 随着冠状病毒大流行，Zoom被更频繁地使用，而Business版本则带有会议解释器菜单。<br />
AIIC，BDÜ，欧洲机构和其他国际组织就以下条件达成了共识（Kalina，2010年），作为距离传译的最低专业标准：--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 07:15, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在冠状病毒开始流行之前，远距离口译任务的数量已经增加，然而随着疫情的爆发，这种任务的数量更是激增。 冠状病毒爆发之前，电话通讯和网络通讯是结合使用的。 随着冠状病毒大流行，Zoom使用得更加频繁，而且推出了带有会议解释器菜单的商务版本。<br />
AIIC，BDÜ，欧洲机构和其他国际组织就以下情况远距离口译的最低专业标准达成了共识（Kalina，2010年）：--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 07:51, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
- As a rule, a direct view of the room should be possible.<br />
<br />
- To avoid multilingualism, distance interpreting should only be used in exceptional cases when more than six active languages are spoken. But even then, as many booths as possible should be available in the room and the booths of the distance interpreters should not be too far away.<br />
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- High-definition monitors should be installed in front of and not in the booths.<br />
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- The remote interpreter should be able to communicate directly with the client and the cameramen.<br />
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- Teams should regularly consist of a minimum of three remote interpreters".<br />
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-通常，口译场所应该有良好视野。<br />
-为了避免使用多种语言，远距离口译只能在特殊情况下使用六种以上活动语言。但即使这样，房间里也应该有尽可能多的口译箱，远距离口译员的口译箱也不应该太远。<br />
-高清显示器应安装在口译箱前，而不是口译箱内。<br />
-远程翻译员应该能够直接与客户和摄像师通信。<br />
-翻译小组应定期由至少三名远程口译员组成”。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 01:42, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
-通常，口译场所应该有良好视野。<br />
-为了避免使用多种语言，只有在需要使用六种以上语言的特殊情况下才能采用远距离口译。但即便是在这样的情况下，房间里也应该有尽可能多的口译箱，而且口译箱离远距离口译员也不应该太远。<br />
-高清显示器应安装在口译箱前，而不是口译箱内。<br />
-远程翻译员应能直接与客户和摄像师交流。<br />
-通常情况下，翻译小组应由至少三名远程口译员组成”。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
2.1.5.2 Higher Validity through Explanation and Correction Functions<br />
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In the university lecture hall, students critically accompany, verify and check for errors in the statements of the lecturer by simultaneously reading in Wikipedia, Baike Baidu, etc., and in search engines such as Google, and Baidu and, if necessary, manually validate or question the statements in accompanying chats (e.g. in the WhatsApp or WeChat group of the course). In a technically mediated interpreting situation, it is now possible to show alternative translation suggestions to participants. This is useful in reducing misunderstanding when a) politically/religiously/culturally sensitive terms appear, b) different groups of recipients may have different understanding of the same term, for instance, a socialist-authoritarian country and a liberal-democracy] state perceive political ideologies, systems and concepts through a spectrum of shades and hues. Recognition of the various nuances, the multifaceted implications and the degree of value-laden presumptions for each individual recipient serve to ease tension and foster communication.<br />
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2.1.5.2 通过解释和校正来提高正确性<br />
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在大学讲堂上，学生通过浏览维基百科，百度百科等或者搜索谷歌、百度来批判性地寻找、验证、检查讲师言论中的错误，必要情况下，他们还会在线上交流中亲自提出验证或质疑(例如在课程的WhatsApp或微信群中）。由于科技上的支持，在口译过程中，译者能够吸纳不同的翻译建议。这能有效减少误解，这些误解可能来自于政治、宗教、文化上的敏感性术语，也可能是因为不同的群体对同一术语可能有不同的理解，比如，社会主义专政国家和自由民主国家从不同的角度来看待政治意识形态，体系及概念。认知不同的细微差别，多种多样的所指，以及每个接受者承载价值的假定的程度，有助于缓解紧张、促进交流。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:00, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
2.1.6 Special Features in the Booth<br />
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同传箱的特别之处<br />
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Computers or smart devices allow you to view presentations, documents and notes. However, reference by typing during the interpreting process is hardly possible due to time constraint. Therefore, text to speech and speech to text modules become more important.<br />
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电脑和手机使你能够观看展示，阅读文件和笔记，但是由于时间的限制，在口译的过程中通过打字来查阅资料几乎是不可能的，因此，文本到语言和语言到文本的模块就变得更加重要了。<br />
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In exceptional situations, such as a 'blackout' or a hesitation break, the technique of stalling, i.e. inserting neutral expressions without new information together with deceleration of the target text production, could be useful strategies (Pöchhacker 2004, 132ff).<br />
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在一些特殊的情况下，比如译员突然头脑空白或因为犹豫没有翻译，拖延可能会是一个有用的技巧，比如插入没有感情色彩的表达，它们没有新的信息，但是减缓了目的语产出的进程(Pöchhacker 2004, 132ff)。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 01:13, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
同传箱的特点<br />
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你可以通过电脑和手机观看展示报告，浏览文档和笔记。然而由于时间限制，在口译过程中通过打字来翻译是几乎不可能的。因此，文本到语言和语言到文本的模块就变得更加重要了。<br />
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一些特定情况，如译员没有反应过来或者因为模棱两可而暂停等等，暂停翻译是一种有效的策略，在此时插述一些不含任何新信息的中性话语，即可延迟目的语产出的进程。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 04:10, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
2.1.7 Software Examples<br />
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When naming selected software, I follow the list and evaluation of Janovska (2011).<br />
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To this day, interpreters continue to manage their terminology with Office programs such as Word or Excel (Fantinuoli 2011, 50). However, searching is cumbersome with Ctrl+F, and only the first entry found is displayed. Better suited are Interplex simple, LookUp (search without Enter key, which also has a separate module for Word, Janovska (2011, 80); it also has input fields such as customer, topic and project for additional information, terminology extraction, vocabulary trainer, semantics filter and sorting functions, Honegger (2006, 2) and Rütten (2014f), Terminus (a) good multilingual terminology management system and TermDB developed by conference interpreter Christian Vogeler but discontinued in 2012. But here, too, Fantinuoli (2011, 51) complains that the hit rate cannot be reduced by stop words and that the errors in the glossary cannot be corrected.<br />
2.1.7软件范例<br />
在命名选定的软件时，我遵循Janovska（2011）的列表和评估。<br />
时至今日，口译员仍在使用Word或Excel等办公程序管理他们的术语（Fantinuoli 2011，50）。但是，使用Ctrl+F进行搜索很麻烦，并且只显示找到的第一个条目。更适合的是Interplex Simple，Lookup （搜索时无需回车键，且也有单独的Word模块，Janovska（2011，80）；它还具有客户、主题和项目等输入字段，以获取更多信息，术语提取、词汇训练器、语义过滤器和排序功能，Honegger（2006，2）和Rütten（2014f），Terminus（一个）良好的多语言术语管理系统和由会议口译员Christian Vogeler开发的TermDB，但在2012年停产。但是在这里，Fantinuoli（2011，51）也抱怨说，使用停用词无法降低点击率，并且词汇表中的错误也无法得到纠正。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 02:17, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Gacek (2015) presents numerous programs: Interpreters' Help (Gacek 2015, 55), a new browser-based web application from 2014 for all browser-based operating systems and for Boothmate for Mac OS X. It offers the possibility of synchronization offers with fast search function. The currently available beta version and the license for students are free of charge.<br />
<br />
Gacek (2015, 56) also introduces the Glossary Assistant program, which is still in development. It presents glossaries clearly on tablets, - the focus is not on mobile phones, - and makes them editable, see also Rütten (2014g) and Martin (2014). The program is currently only available for Android tablets and is free of charge.<br />
<br />
Gacek(2015)提出了许多程序，如“口译助手” (Gacek 2015, 55)。口译助手是新型的基于浏览器的网页应用，从2014年起，适用于所有基于浏览器的操作系统和Mac OS x的Boothmate，提供了同步翻译的可能性和快速搜索功能。目前可供学生使用的测试版和许可证都是免费的。Gacek(2015, 56)还介绍了仍在开发中的“词汇助理”。这一程序能将词汇表清楚地呈现在平板电脑上(重点不在手机上)，使它们可编辑，参见Rutten (2014g)和Martin(2014)。该程序目前只免费适用于安卓平板电脑。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 06:18, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
The Intragloss program, which Gacek (2015, 57) presents, was "developed by AIIC conference interpreter Dan Kenig and software developer Daniel Pohoryles". "The aim of the program is to facilitate the creation and use of even extensive multilingual glossaries". "Glossaries can be created directly within a preparation document or within a website.” Gacek values this as “very useful” and gives the example “making a list of problematic terms after receiving a last-minute document”. He also points to the fact that “Appropriate filter and sorting functions alphabetical, by website, by chronological order are also provided. A glossary created from a web page is automatically updated, which is an advantage for future. Like InterpretBank software, Intragloss also offers the possibility of automatic translation of terms, with the search for translation suggestions in large translation portals (IATE, GDT, Linguee, Termium, WordReference, etc.). Other useful functions include the clear comparison of different language versions of a document". A free trial version is available for Macintosh devices, see also Kenig (2014).<br />
Gacek（2015,57）提到的Intragloss程序是由“AIIC会议口译员Dan Kenig和软件开发者Daniel Pohoryles共同开发的”。“该程序旨在促进更广泛多语言术语表的创建与使用”。“术语表可在现有文件或网站上直接创建”。Gacek认为该功能非常有用，并举例指出“在接受最新文档后，该程序便可罗列出其中的问题术语”。他还指出，“该程序还支持适当的排序功能，可以按照字母，网站和时间顺序来进行排序。网页创建的术语表还能自动更新，这在未来是一大优势”。像InterpretBank软件一样，Intragloss也为自动翻译术语创造了可能，只要在大型翻译门户网站（例如IATE, GDT, Linguee, Termium, WordReference）搜索翻译建议即可。除此之外，另一有用的功能便是明确对比文件的不同语言版本。Macintosh设备提供了免费试用版，另请参见Kenig（2014）。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:20, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
Gacek (2015, 61-63) tests and describes in detail the InterpretBank program in version 3 2014, which aims to "provide interpreters with a sophisticated corpus-linguistic tool". "InterpretBank was developed by Claudio Fantinuoli, a graduate interpreter working in the Department of Translation, Linguistics and Cultural Studies at the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz" (Gacek 2015, 62). "InterpretBank is a modular tool that provides interpreters with computer support in the field of knowledge and terminology management before, during and after a simultaneous interpreting assignment" (Gacek 2015, 63). Gacek lists the three modes offered by the program: "TermMode: Module for creating and managing glossaries; in addition, various functions can be used, such as automatic translation of terms and searching for definitions from the Internet. MemoryMode: Module for visual memorization of bilingual glossaries. ConferenceMode: Module for cabin-friendly reference during the interpretation." (Gacek 2015, 63).<br />
Gacek（2015,61-63）测试并详细地描绘了2014年第三版的InterpretBank程序，旨在“给口译员提供一个高级的语料库语言工具”。“该程序由约翰尼斯·古腾堡美因茨大学语言和文化研究所翻译部的一个研究生口译员克劳迪奥·范蒂努利开发”(Gacek 2015, 62)。“InterpretBank程序是一种模块化的工具，在同声传译中，为口译员在同声传译任务之前、期间和之后的知识和术语管理领域提供计算机支持”(Gacek 2015, 63) 。Gacek列举了该程序提供的三种模式：“术语模式：创建和管理词汇表的模块；此外，口译员可使用各种功能，如术语的自动翻译以及从互联上搜索定义。记忆模式：双语词汇表的视觉记忆模块。会议模式：在翻译过程中提供友好参考模块”(Gacek 2015, 63)。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:57, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
<br />
Rütten (2014) judges: "Very user-friendly, many nice functions; organised by glossaries (which, technically speaking, are subject areas tagged to each entry), has all the essential data categories (customer, project etc.) and a very nice flashcard-like memorising function. The quick-search function ignores accents. It is limited to five languages and you cannot add endless numbers of individual data fields.<br />
Intrepretbank is platform independent, works on Windows, Mac and Android (Gacek 2015, 63), costs 69 Euro, for students 39 Euro, university teachers (and their students) get a free demo license.<br />
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The interpreters also use very simple websites and programs such as the search engine Google, the Internet encyclopaedia Wikipedia, dictionary programs such as Langenscheidt and systems for teamwork such as Google Docs. Typical concordance programs are WebSleuth, WebResearch, Black Widow, Site Ripper.<br />
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Rütten (2014) 认为“--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 12:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)非常友好的用户页面，很多不错的使用功能，附有单词表（严格说来，这是每个条目所标记的主题区域），具有所有必要的数据类别（如客户、项目等等），以及非常不错的类似于抽认卡的记忆功能。”快速搜索功能可以忽略口音的差异。Intrepretbank独立于平台，可在Windows，Mac和Android上运行（Gacek 2015，63），费用为69欧元，学生为39欧元，大学教师（及其学生）获得免费的登录许可证。翻译者也会使用一些非常简单的网站和程序例如例如搜索引擎Google，互联网百科全书Wikipedia，字典程序（例如Langenscheidt）和团队合作系统（例如Google Docs）。典型的团队协作软件有WebSleuth, WebResearch, Black Widow, Site Ripper。<br />
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--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Rütten（2014）判断：“非常人性化，功能很多；按术语表组织（从技术上来说，这是每个条目所标记的主题区域），具有所有必要的数据类别（客户，项目等），并且 漂亮的类似记忆卡的记忆功能。快速搜索功能会忽略重音符号。它仅限于五种语言并且您不能添加无数个单独的数据字段。Intrepretbank是平台无关的，可在Windows，Mac和Android上运行（Gacek 2015，63） ，费用为69欧元，学生为39欧元，大学教师（及其学生）将获得免费的演示许可证。<br />
口译员还使用非常简单的网站和程序，例如搜索引擎Google，互联网百科全书Wikipedia，字典程序（例如Langenscheidt）和团队合作系统（例如Google Docs）。 典型的一致性程序是WebSleuth，WebResearch，Black Widow，Site Ripper。<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
<br />
Terminology extraction enables Easy Concordance, and Concordance. Text to speech can handle most operating systems (Microsoft Windows, Macintosh Operating System), there are also special programs for it like Ivona Reader (from 49 €) with the free MiniReader version, TextAloud (19.99 €). There are programs for fast reading (so-called "Improved Reading") like "A Faster Reader" (for Android smart devices) and programs for managing documents like the app "Documents" (for Apple iOS), in which among other things search functions can be used and a web browser can also be opened, or OneNote. The website www.wortwarte.de is supposed to present neologisms, but it is not up to date (visited September 11, 2020 by M.W.).<br />
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术语摘录使简单词汇索引以及词汇索引成为可能。大多数操作系统都具备文语转换功能（如微软视窗、Macintosh 操作系统），还有一些特殊软件也会用到文语转换，例如带有免费微型阅读器的Ivona 阅读器（49欧元起）以及TextAloud （19.99欧元起）。像“A Faster Reader”(安卓手机系统)这样的用于快速阅读（所谓的“拔高阅读”）的软件，以及文献管理软件，例如“Documents”(苹果手机系统)，都具备搜索、网页浏览或者电子笔记功能。www.wortwarte.de是一个提供新词的网站，但它并不是一个最新的网站版本。（M.W.于9月11日访问过这个网站）--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 01:16, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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术语提取使简单词汇索引以及词汇索引成为可能。大多数操作系统都具备文字转语音的功能（如Microsoft Windows、Macintosh 操作系统），还有一些特殊软件也有此功能，例如带有免费微型阅读器的Ivona 阅读器（49欧元起）以及TextAloud （19.99欧元起）。像“A Faster Reader”(安卓手机系统)这样的用于快速阅读（所谓的“拔高阅读”）的软件，以及文献管理软件，例如“Documents”(苹果手机系统)，都具备搜索、网页浏览或者电子笔记功能。www.wortwarte.de是一个提供新词的网站，但目前还未更新。（M.W.于9月11日访问过这个网站）--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 01:16, 9 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
<br />
The program BootCaT creates topic-specific web corpora: "The users first define the search terms. Then, web pages are collected, which contain the combination of these search terms", see Gurevych (2013, 546). At the end a text corpus is created, “with which one can quickly get an overview of the content and terminology, for example, of the keywords ‘energía solar’ in Spanish or ‘solar energy’ or ‘solar power’ in German”, see Rütten (2008).<br />
程序BootCat 创建特定主题的网络语料库：“用户要首先定义搜索词，然后收集包含这些搜索词的组合的网页“，详见Gurevych(2013,546).最后创建了一个语料库，“通过该语料库可以快速检索内容和术语，例如，关键词西班牙中的‘energía solar’或德语中的‘solar power’，详见Rütten (2008)。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:56, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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BootCaT程序创建了一个定题网络语料库：“用户首先明确搜索词，然后语料库会收集各种网页，其中包含所有这些搜索词”，参见Gurevych(2013,546)。最后，BootCat创建了一个文本语料库，“通过该语料库，人们可以迅速概览一些内容和术语，例如，可以搜索关键词，西班牙语中的‘energía solar’或德语中的‘solar energy’ or ‘solar power’”，见Rütten(2008)。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 10:00, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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程序BootCaT创建特定主题的网络语料库，“首先，用户要确定搜索词，然后包含这些搜索词的网页会被收集起来“，详见Gurevych(2013,546)。最后创建的是一个文本语料库，“通过该语料库可以快速检索内容和术语，例如，西班牙中的‘energía solar’或德语中的‘solar energy’和‘solar power’，详见Rütten (2008)。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
In addition, there are Termprofile, Endnotes, Qtrans-Search Bar. The latter is rated by Gacek (2015), 50 as "no pop-up windows, faulty queries or other inconveniences". Also Scholz (2008) presents Qtrans: "One of the great advantages of the tool, however, is its low threshold: the software can be used without training, is system-independent, requires no installation and is immediately ready for use.” Scholz also explains, that it is not based on its own search technology, but passes parameters to other services; “therefore it is easily adaptable and can integrate any internal and external data sources via HTTP” (Scholz 2008).<br />
此外，还有Termprofile, Endnotes, Qtrans等搜索栏，后者在2015年被Gacek评为“没有弹窗困扰、错误查询和其他不便之处”。在2008年Scholz这样介绍Qtrans搜索栏：“不过，该工具最大的优点之一就是它的门槛低，这款软件无需培训就能使用，独立于电脑系统，不需要安装就能使用。”Scholz还解释说它不是基于自己的搜索技术,而是将参数传递给其他服务，“因此，它兼容性很强，并可以通过HTTP集成任何内部和外部数据源。”--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
此外，还有Termprofile, Endnotes, Qtrans这些搜索栏。Gacek (2015, 50)评价后者“无弹窗困扰、错误查询或者其他不便之处”。Scholz (2008)也指出，“Qtrans最大的优势之一是低门槛：无须受培训、即可使用这款软件，该软件独立于电脑系统，无需安装、随时可使用”。Scholz解释称Qtrans不是基于自身搜索技术，而是将其参数传给其他服务器；“因此，它易于应用，并且能通过HTTP集成任何内部和外部数据源”。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 12:28, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
For preparation and simultaneous use, there is the glossary software Interplex, which is capable of handling multitasking. It can import glossaries from Word or Excel and is available for Windows, iPhone and iPad. In 2020, it costs US$ 75 and there is a free demo version available. More features for conference interpreters are offered by Term LookUp, which cost US$99 in 2019. In 2020 the author of this paper only found the free version and IntelliWebSearch (free).<br />
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在准备和同步使用用途上，有一个术语表软件-Interplex，它能同时处理多项任务。它还可以从Word 或Excle导入词汇，也适用于Windows，iPhone和iPad。2020年，它花费了75美元，获得了一个免费的试用版。Term LookUp（术语查找）为会议口译者们提供了更多的功能，在2019年这花费了99美元。2020年，网页负责人只发现了这个免费版和IntelliWebSearch（免费）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:07, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在预备翻译和同声翻译方面，术语软件Interplex能处理多项任务，该软件能从Word或者Excel导入术语，并且在Windows,Iphone和Ipad上都能使用。2020年，用户花费75美元才能使用该软件免费的试用版。2019年，会议口译员花费99美元就能在TermUp软件使用更多的功能。2020年，本篇文章的作者只能找到这个软件的免费版本和IntelliWebSearch软件（免费）。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 02:09, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
<br />
2.2 Simultaneous Interpretation with Video Conference Systems<br />
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The current video conferencing systems all allow simultaneous interpretation. For this purpose, every participant simply needs two devices and joins two meetings at the same time. For more languages, more meetings are offered. Common solutions are BigBlueButton (open source, free), Zoom, Skype for Business, Microsoft Teams, WebEx, Zoom, GoToMeeting and in China voom (alias WeMeet, Tencent Meeting), TencentClassroom, WeChat.<br />
目前的视频会议系统都允许同声传译。为此，每个参与者只需使用两个设备即可同时参加两个会议。要获得更多的语言，就要提供更多的会议。常见的解决方案有BigBlueButton（开源，免费）、Zoom、Skype for Business、Microsoft Team、WebEx、Zoom、GoToMeeting和in China voom（别名WeMeet，腾讯会议）、腾讯课堂、微信。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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2.2 视频会议系统同声传译<br />
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现在的视频会议系统都支持同声传译。所以，每个语言不同的与会者在参加会议时只要使用两个设备并同时加入两个会议即可。语言种类越多，一场会议需要的会议室就越多。常见的视频会议软件有：BigBlueButton（开源，免费）、Zoom、Skype for Business、Microsoft Team、WebEx、Zoom、GoToMeeting和in China voom（别名WeMeet，腾讯会议）、腾讯课堂、微信。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 10:48, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
<br />
Every participant should mute his/her microphone (except when speaking) and can listen to the original language on the first device and use one ear plug from the 2nd device to listen to the target language. If the original language does not need to be heard, the participant can also turn off the sound of the 1st device and plug in both ear plugs from the 2nd device or listen to the sound from the loudspeakers of the 2nd device. It is not recommended to have both devices on loudspeaker at the same time to avoid acoustic feedback. Sometimes, if the web speed is too slow, turning off the camera (not the loudspeaker) may help.<br />
每位参与者应将其麦克风静音（讲话时除外），并可在第一台设备上收听原始语言，并使用第二台设备的一个耳塞收听目标语言。如果不需要听到原始语言，参与者也可以关闭第一个设备的声音，并插入第二个设备的两个耳塞，或者从第二个设备的扬声器中收听声音。不建议两个设备同时安装在扬声器上，以避免声音反馈。有时，如果网速太慢，关掉相机（不是扬声器）可能会有帮助。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 08:22, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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每位参与者应将其麦克风静音（讲话时除外），并可在第一台设备上收听原始语言，并使用第二台设备的一个耳塞收听目标语言。如果不需要听到原始语言，参与者也可以关闭第一个设备，并插入第二个设备的两个耳塞，或者从第二个设备的扬声器中收听声音。不建议在扬声器上同时安装两个设备，以避免回声。有时，如果网速太慢，关掉相机（不是扬声器）可能会有帮助。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:17, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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With the business version of Zoom, you can simply choose the language channel by clicking on a flag. As the host of the meeting, one must activate the interpretation function and invite the respective interpreters.<br />
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在使用Zoom的商业版时，你只需点击代表各国的旗帜图标来选择语言频道。作为会议的主持人，你必须先激活口译功能，并邀请相应的译者进会议。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:21, 7 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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使用Zoom商业版时，点击各国国旗图标就能选择不同的语言频道。作为会议的主持人，你先要打开口译功能，才能邀请对应的译者进入会议。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于商业版的Zoom，您只需单击一个标志即可选择语言频道。作为会议主持人，必须激活口译功能并邀请相应的口译译员。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 08:23, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在使用Zoom商业版软件时，你只需点击旗帜图标就能选择语言频道。作为会议主持人，你必须具备解释功能，并邀请相应的口译员与会。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在使用Zoom软件的商业版时，你只需点击旗帜图标即可选择语言频道。作为会议主持人，你须先开启口译功能，才能邀请相应的译员与会。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:40, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
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So far, conference interpreters often sat in the back of the conference in their boxes and where not visible to the audience. With video conferencing systems like Zoom it is now technically possible to blend in a video of the interpreter, which enhances understanding. However, so far the video conference communication situation still feels artificial, much different from the analogue situation, with only faces, voices and shared screens.<br />
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到目前为止，会议口译员往往坐在会场后方的同传翻译间里，在观众看不见的地方。现在，有了像Zoom这样的视频会议系统，从技术上讲，可以将口译者的视频加入到会议中，从而增强理解。然而，到目前为止，视频会议的交流情况仍感觉是人为且不自然的，仅具有面孔、声音和共享屏幕，与平时的线下会议情况大不相同。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 09:45, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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当前，会议翻译员通常坐在会场后方的同传箱中，与观众隔开。现在，有了像Zoom这样的视频会议平台，会议中可以插入口译员的视频，从而促进了相互理解。然而，目前，视频会议的交流情况仍然十分机械，毫不自然，仅仅能够看到面孔，听到声音，共享屏幕，与现场会议大相径庭。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:10, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
以往，会议口译员通常与观众隔开，坐在会场后方的同传箱中进行翻译工作。现在，有了像Zoom这样的视频会议平台，可以在会议中插入口译员的视频，从而促进与会者之间的相互理解。然而，到目前为止，视频会议的交流情况仍然十分机械，毫不自然，仅仅能够看到对方面孔，听到声音，共享屏幕，效果与现场会议相距甚远。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:34, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
The next generation of digital communication and interpretation is the Virtual Reality Room (e.g. using the hardware Oculus Quest VR glass and the software Spatial), in which participants can upload a photo to create realistic avatars and then ‘look around’ to see the speaker and the interpreter. The participants can even ‘walk up to’ the speaker to sit in the first row or they can ‘place’ speaker and interpreter next to each other.<br />
新一代的数字通信和线上口译使用的是虚拟现实空间（如利用硬件OculusQuest VR眼镜和Spatial软件)，用户可以在该软件上上传一张照片来创建现实中的虚拟身份, 然后“四下张望”便可以看到说话人和口译员， 用户甚至可以"走近"说话人，在第一排落坐, 也可以“代替”说话人或口译员坐在彼此旁边。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:10, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
新一代数字通信和口译是通过虚拟现实室进行（例如，使用硬件Oculus Quest VR glass和软件Spatial），参与者可以上传一张照片来创建一个虚拟身份，然后“环顾”看到演讲者和译员。参与者甚至可以“走近”演讲者坐在第一排，或者他们可以将演讲者和口译员放在一起。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 00:59, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
2.3 Artificially Intelligent Programs as Competition for Interpreters<br />
<br />
The debate about the extent to which technology can replace humans is as old as the first fantasies of artificial humans. It is still a polarizing discussion today and is conducted in a highly emotional manner. <br />
<br />
Austermühl (2004) explains: "We believe that even the latest technology and up-to-date machines cannot replace the human brain when it comes to language transfer. Many times, the concepts are too complex to reduce them to the level of machine-readable language."<br />
2.3人工智能：口译者的竞争对手<br />
自第一台机器人横空出世起，便有了关于科技能在哪些领域里取代人类的争论。直到今天，众人在这个问题上的观点两极分化，讨论时群情激昂。<br />
奥斯特缪尔（2004）解释道：“我们相信，在语言翻译上，即使是最新的科技和机器都无法取代人脑。因为在很多时候，话语的内容和概念都很难简化为机器可读的语言。”--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 04:56, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
2.3.1 Machine Translation vs. human translation<br />
<br />
For this section 2.3.1 I am indebted to the final exam paper of my student Jia Liwen 贺丽文 from my 2019/2020 Master course on Translation Studies at Hunan Normal University, Foreign Studies College. Although I come to slightly different conclusions, the paper sums up some discussions I had with the students in class and provides literature review and a field study worth quoting extensively here.<br />
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2.3.1 机器翻译 vs. 人工翻译<br />
<br />
对于2.3.1这一章节，我非常感谢我的学生贺丽文在我任教2019/2020湖南师范大学外国语学院的研究生课程翻译研究课上写的期末考试论文。尽管我得出了一些稍微不同的结论，但是她的论文总结了我在课堂上和学生们的讨论成果，并且提供了文献综述和一个值得展开引述的实地考察。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 07:33, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.3.1机器翻译对比人工翻译<br />
在本节，我要特别感谢在我所任教的湖南师范大学外国语学院的学生贺丽文所完成的翻译学概论（2019秋至2020春季学期）硕士课程期末论文。尽管我所得出的结论略有不同，但她的论文总结了我在课堂上跟学生们的一些讨论，并且提供了文献综述和实地考察，因而值得在这里广泛引述。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 11:16, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
2.3.1机器翻译与人工翻译<br />
对于本小节，我要感谢我的学生贺丽文的期末考试论文，该论文来自我的2019-2020年湖南师范大学外国语学院翻译研究硕士课程。尽管我得出的结论略有不同，但她的论文总结的我在课堂上与学生的一些讨论，以及所提到的文献综述和实地研究都值得在此广泛引用。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 13:11, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.3.1 机器翻译vs.人工翻译<br />
<br />
对于2.3.1这一节，我十分感谢贺丽文同学在2019至2020学期的期末论文，她是我在湖南师范大学外国语学院针对硕士生开设的翻译研究这一课程的学生。尽管我得出的结论略有不同，但她的论文总结了我们在课堂上的一些论点，并且提供了文献综述和实地研究，因而值得在这里进一步引述。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:17, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
<br />
Machine translation, commonly known as MT, can be defined as “the application of computers to the translation of texts from one natural language into another” (Huchins 1986, 1). The term “machine” is outdated, since we refer to computers today or to digital/eletronic instead of analogue translation, the term “machine translation” is mainly understood in contrast to human translation and therefore has potential to sustain.<br />
<br />
机器翻译,通常称为机译（简称MT）,可以被定义为“运用计算机的应用软件将文本从一种语言翻译成另一种”(Huchins 1986, 1)。“机器”这个词已经过时了,如今我们用计算机或数字（电子）代替模拟翻译。而“机器翻译”一词主要是指与人工翻译的相对的翻译类别,因此具有持续的潜力。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:20, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
机器翻译，通常称为机译（简称MT），定义为“运用计算机的应用软件将文本从一种语言翻译成另一种”(Huchins 1986, 1)。“机器”这个词已经过时了，因为如今我们用的是计算机或数字（电子）这个说法。与模拟翻译不同的是，“机器翻译”一词主要是指与人工翻译相对的翻译类别，因此具有持续发展的潜力。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 03:13, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
<br />
Machine translation pioneers were the United States, the Soviet Union and European countries. The initial stage can be dated 1947-1954: In 1946, the world’s first electronic computer was born. Soon, in the second year, 1947, an American scientist Warren Weaver and a British engineer A. D. Booth firstly proposed to translate languages by modern electronic computers. It was in 1954 that Georgetown University cooperated with International Machine Cooperation (IBM) on a project, which created the world’s first machine translation system breaking the restriction of word-to-word translation. It was recognized as a breakthrough of machine translation and demonstrated to the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation for the first time.<br />
机器翻译的先驱是美国，苏联和一些欧洲国家。其初始阶段可追溯到1947-1954年。1946年，世界上第一台电子计算机诞生了。次年，美国科学家沃伦·韦弗和英国工程师安德鲁·唐纳德·布斯首次提出将电子计算机用于翻译。1954年，乔治敦大学与国际机器合作组织（IBM）合作开展了一个项目，该项目创造出了世界上第一个突破逐词翻译限制的机器翻译系统。这被公认为机器翻译的重大突破，并首次向公众和科学界展示了机器翻译的可行性。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:30, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
世界上第一台电子计算机诞生于1946年。次年，美国科学家沃伦·韦弗和英国工程师安德鲁·唐纳德·布斯首次提出将电子计算机应用于翻译。1954年，乔治敦大学与国际机器合作组织（IBM）合作开展了一个项目，创造出了世界上第一个突破逐词翻译限制的机器翻译系统。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 05:02, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
<br />
From 1954 to 1975, we may define a second stage, with climax and stagnation. Due to the success of Georgetown-IBM system and the potential social, economic and intelligence benefits, quite a few countries including the United State, Soviet Union, and Japan invested heavily in the research and development of machine translation. Then, there was an upsurge of machine translation research all over the world.<br />
1954年到1975年，我们可以定义为第二个阶段，即高峰阶段和停滞阶段。由于乔治敦- ibm系统的成功及其潜在的社会、经济和情报效益，包括美国、苏联和日本在内的许多国家在机器翻译的研究和开发上投入了大量资金。于是，机器翻译研究在世界范围内掀起了一股热潮。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 10:09, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
从1954到1975，我们也许可以将这段时间定义为第二个阶段：高潮和停滞阶段。正是因为乔治敦-IBM大获成功及其潜在的社会、经济以及情报效益，以美国、苏联和日本为首的不少国家都在机器翻译的开发和研究上投入了大量--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 07:28, 10 October 2020 (UTC)资金（以促进其快速发展）。因此，全世界范围内掀起了机器翻译研究的热潮。<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
<br />
In 1956, the Chinese government released its “1956-1967 Prospective Plan of Science and Technology Development”, in which “automatic translation” was listed as an important task in item 41. <br />
<br />
The poor translation caused by the rough design of the first generation machine translation system and the exaggeration of the computer capability eventually led for some people to lose confidence in machine translation. In 1964, the US Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee (ALPAC) established by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) carried out an investigation on machine translation including its speed, quality, costs and the demand of it and had a sound and comprehensive test, count and analysis.<br />
<br />
1956年，中国政府发布了《1956-1967年科技发展远景规划》，其中“自动翻译”被列为第41项的一个重要任务。<br />
由于设计还较粗糙再加上计算机能力被夸大，第一代机器翻译系统的翻译质量不足，最终导致一些人对机器翻译失去信心。1964年，由美国国家科学院（NAS）成立的美国自动语言处理咨询委员会（ALPAC）对机器翻译的速度、质量、成本和需求进行了调查，并进行了全面的测试、统计和分析。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:27, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
<br />
Later, in 1966, ALPAC published the results of the survey and its main conclusion was that no further research should be undertaken on machine translation considering its low speed, low accuracy, higher costs than human translation and inability to overcome semantic barriers. Affected by this report, researches on machine translation declined sharply and even led to a 10-year slump worldwide.<br />
后来，在1966年，美国自动语言处理咨询委员会（ALPAC）发布了相关调查结果，其主要结论是，鉴于机器翻译的低速，准确性低，比人工翻译更高的成本以及无法克服语义障碍，因此不应该对机器翻译进行进一步的研究。 受此报告影响，有关机器翻译的研究急剧下降，甚至导致此研究连续10年呈下滑态势。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 12:49, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
After a quiet decade of 1970s, thanks to the development of computer technology, linguistic theory and artificial intelligence research, the increasing demand for translation, and the unremitting efforts of some machine translation researchers, research on machine translation revived in the early 1980s, therefore we can define the recovery stage from 1975 to 1987. During this period, machine translation researchers no longer were blindly optimistic, instead, they paid more attention to the basic aspects of machine translation research, thus studies on machine translation systems and their development were more practical and rational, and eventually the second generation of machine translation systems emerged.<br />
<br />
经过二十世纪七十年代沉寂的十年后，由于计算机技术、语言学理论和人工智能研究的发展，以及翻译需求的不断增加和一些机器翻译研究者的不懈努力，机器翻译研究在二十世纪八十年代初得到恢复，因此我们可以将1975-1987年划为复苏阶段。在此期间，机器翻译研究者不再盲目乐观，相反，他们将注意力更多地放在机器翻译研究的基础方面，因此，对于机器翻译系统及其发展的研究便更具实用性和合理性。最终，第二代机器翻译系统出现了。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:06, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
In 1975, the European Atomic Energy Agency (EURATOM) began to install SYSTRAN. In 1976, the University of Montreal, Canada, and the Translation Bureau of the Federal Government of Canada jointly developed a practical machine translation system (TAUM-METEO), officially providing weather forecasts in May 1977. This was the only machine translation system that directly published translations without post-translation editing. It marked the practical application of machine translation in technical languages and the maturity of machine translation technology in technical languages. Many of the methods and technologies used by the second generation machine translation were relatively mature and some of them are still used these days.<br />
<br />
1975年，欧洲原子能机构开始安装SYSTRAN系统。1976年，加拿大蒙特利尔大学和加拿大联邦政府翻译局共同开发了一个实用型的机器翻译系统(taum-meteo) ，并在1977年5月正式提供天气预报服务。这是当时唯一的机器翻译系统，它没有翻译后再编辑，而是直接发布。它标志着机器翻译在科技语言中的实际应用和成熟。第二代机器翻译使用的许多方法和技术已经相对成熟，其中一些至今仍在沿用。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:23, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1975年，欧洲原子能机构开始安装汉译英机器翻译系统（SYSTRAN）。1976年，加拿大蒙特利尔大学和加拿大联邦政府翻译局共同开发了一个实用型的机器翻译系统(TAUM-METEO) ，并在1977年5月正式提供天气预报服务。这是当时唯一没有经过译后编辑，就直接发布的机器翻译系统。它标志着机器翻译在科技语言中的实际应用和成熟。第二代机器翻译使用的许多方法和技术已经相对成熟，其中一些至今仍在沿用。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
Since 1987 until now, we are in the prosperity stage. Many institutes and universities began their researchers in machine translation. Since 1989, the appearance of the third generation machine translation method based on corpus has changed the vision of the whole machine translation research, marking a new period for machine translation. Many famous machine translation systems were released at this period, such as the KY-1, being developed by the Chinese Academy of Military Sciences, MT-IR-EC, an English-Chinese title and catalog translation system, developed by the Research Institute of Post and Telecommunication Science, and Huajian Chinese-English machine translation system, developed by Huajian Co. Ltd.<br />
从1987年到现在，社会处于繁荣时期，许多研究所和大学都开始研究机器翻译。自从1989年基于语料库的第三代机器翻译问世后，机器翻译研究进入了新时期，在这一时期，许多有名的翻译系统都相继问世，比如由中国军事科学院发明的KY-1系统、由邮电科学研究所发明的英译中标题和目录的翻译系统MT-IR-EC和由华建股份有限公司发明的华建中译英机器翻译系统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 02:45, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of computer software and hardware technology, large-scale corpora which can be read by computer can be widely used in machine translation. The larger the corpus, the richer knowledge of human linguistics it contains, and the better the quality of machine translation will be. As long as the corpus was large enough, it was expected to cover all language phenomena. In this way, the key question here is, how to automatically or semi-automatically mine relevant translation knowledge from the corpus and effectively organize the knowledge base.<br />
<br />
由于计算机软硬件技术的飞速发展，可以被计算机读取的大型语料库可以广泛应用于机器翻译中。 语料库越大，它包含的人类语言学知识就越丰富，机器翻译的质量也会越好。 只要语料库足够大，就可以涵盖所有语言现象。 这样的话，关键的问题就是如何自动或半自动地从语料库中挖掘相关的翻译知识并有效地组织知识库。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:13, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
随着计算机软硬件技术的飞速发展，计算机可读取的大型语料库能广泛用于机器翻译。语料库越大，它包含的人类语言学知识就丰富，进而机翻的质量也就越好。所以只要语料库足够大，机翻就能包含所有的语言现象。这样一来，关键问题就成了如何自动或半自动化地从语料库中挖掘相关语料并有效组织。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 12:23, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
The Translation Memory (TM) technology in Trados’ Translation Workbench and the latest near-human translation machine translation systems introduced by Google, Language Weaver, Meaningful Machines and other companies since the new century and the development of artifical intelligence are all the results of the successful application of corpus technology in machine translation research.<br />
<br />
塔多思翻译平台拥有了翻译记忆技术，自二十一世纪以来，谷歌、语言编织公司、意义机器和其他企业引进了最新的类人翻译机器系统，人工智能也得到了发展，这些都要得益于语料库技术在机器翻译研究的成功应用。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:45, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
塔多思翻译平台拥有了翻译记忆技术，自二十一世纪以来，谷歌、语言编织公司、意义机器和其他企业引进了最新的类人翻译机器系统，人工智能的发展也得益于这些语料库技术在机器翻译研究的成功应用--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 03:55, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Mashuya<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
There are two recent Chinese books on MT, by Liu Miqing and Xu Jin. Both Liu Miqing and Xujun uphold the dogma that human translation cannot be replaced by machine translation, although they don’t reason their opinions. Liu Miqing comments on the so-called misunderstanding “If machine translation succeed, then translators will lose their jobs”: “This kind of worry is unnecessary, and human translation will be in demand at any time” (Liu 2010, 402). Xu Jun states: “On the basis of the existing linguistic level and the research level of computer artificial intelligence, it is impossible to develop a machine translation system that completely replaces human translation” (Xu et al. 2009, 339-340).<br />
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最近刘宓庆和许钧分别出版了一本关于翻译记忆的书。虽然没有确切的依据，但他们俩都支持翻译不会被机器翻译代替的观点。刘宓庆还评价“如果机翻成功，翻译工作者就会失业”这种荒唐的误解：“这种担忧是没有必要的，人工翻译在任何时候都是会有大量需求的”（刘2010，402）。许钧也说：“基于目前语言学和人工智能的研究水平，发明出一项完全替代人工翻译的机翻系统是不可能的”（许等2009，339-340）。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 12:54, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最近刘宓庆和许钧分别出版了一本关于机器翻译的书。虽然没有确切的依据，但他们俩都支持翻译不会被机器翻译代替的观点。刘宓庆还评价“如果机翻成功，翻译工作者就会失业”这种荒唐的误解：“这种担忧是没有必要的，人工翻译在任何时候都是会有大量需求的”（刘2010，402）。许钧也说：“基于目前语言学和人工智能的研究水平，发明出一项完全替代人工翻译的机翻系统是不可能的”（许等2009，339-340）。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 03:35, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
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Both of them use the same categorization of machine translation development stages as mentioned above. Both divide traditional machine translation methods into two categories: Rule-Based and Corpus-Based. The former builds the translation knowledge base on dictionaries and grammar rule bases, while the latter builds it by making full use of the corpus. Corpus-based methods can be subdivided into statistics-based machine translation and example-based machine translation.<br />
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他们都使用了上面提到的机器翻译开发阶段的相同分类方法。两者都将传统的机器翻译方法分为两类:基于规则的和基于语料库的。前者通过词典和语法规则库构建翻译知识库，而后者则通过充分利用语料库来构建翻译知识库。基于语料库的方法可以细分为基于统计的机器翻译和基于实例的机器翻译。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 03:24, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们都用了上述机器翻译开发阶段相同的分类方法。两者都将传统的机器翻译方法分为两类:基于规则和基于语料库的两种机器翻译方法。前者通过词典和语法规则库来构建翻译知识库，而后者则通过充分利用语料库来构建翻译知识库。基于语料库的翻译方法可以细分为基于统计的机器翻译和基于实例的机器翻译。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 02:53, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
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Since language has the characteristics of flexibility and openness, the development of a machine translation system based on grammar rules is greatly limited due to the lack of human thinking and the lack of the ability to identify the text or become aware of it. On the contrary, example-based machine translation has enjoyed unprecedented development since the 1980s. With the revival of statistical methods and corpus methods, corpus-based machine translation systems based on statistics and examples are beginning to be used for large-scale processing of language materials and real texts.<br />
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语言具有灵活性和开放性的特点，基于语法规则的机器翻译系统的开发由于缺乏人类思维以及缺乏识别或感知文本的能力而受到很大限制。相反，自20世纪80年代以来，基于实例的机器翻译得到前所未有的发展。随着统计法和语料库的复兴，基于语料库的机器翻译系统（基于统计和实例）开始用于大规模的语言材料和真实文本的处理。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 02:56, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言具有灵活性和开放性的特点，所以基于语法规则的机器翻译系统的开发由于缺乏人类思维以及缺乏识别或感知文本的能力而受到很大限制。相反，自20世纪80年代以来，基于实例的机器翻译得到前所未有的发展。随着统计法和语料库的兴起，基于语料库的机器翻译系统（基于统计和实例）开始应用于大规模的语言材料和真实文本的处理。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 03:31, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
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Both authors think that translation memories are very useful. Because unlike machine translation, the translation memory technology cannot translate the entire text, but can offer previously translated phrases from documents stored in its database. Through comparing, retrieving and reusing previously translated texts, translators can promptly determine how to accomplish the translation in a more efficient way. That is to say, the help of a translation memory makes translating more convenient and it makes it more effective for translators to deal with some complicated source texts through translation memory administration.<br />
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两位作者都认为翻译记忆非常有用。因为,与机器翻译不同，翻译记忆技术不能翻译整个文本，但可以从存储在其数据库中的文档中提供先前翻译过的短语。通过比较、检索和重用先前翻译的文本，译者可以及时确定如何更有效地完成翻译。也就是说，翻译记忆的帮助使翻译更加方便，通过翻译记忆管理使译者更有效地处理一些复杂的源语文本。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:52, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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两位作者都认为翻译记忆非常实用。因为翻译记忆技术不像机器翻译，它不能翻译一整段文本，但是可以给我们提供之前数据库中的文件翻译过的短语。通过比较、检索以及对之前译文的再次利用，译者马上就可以确定如何更有效地完成文本的翻译。也就是说，翻译记忆这项技术可以使翻译变得更便捷，并且，通过对翻译记忆的管理，它还可以帮助译者更高效地处理一些复杂原文本的翻译工作。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
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2.3.1.1 Advantages of Machine Translation<br />
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1. Among the advantages of MT are its speed and availability. If one visits a foreign country, a smart phone may make up for lack of language skills. Several free applications will help them translate texts, images, voices almost immediately, anytime and anywhere. One can take a picture of a sign and read it in one’s own language. Special apps help during conversations with foreigners. The accuracy is not high, but is also not needed in these basic conversations, which are low-end texts.<br />
2.3.1.1 机器翻译的优势<br />
1.机器翻译的优势在于其时效性强以及便捷性高。对于一个身处异国他乡的人来说，一部智能手机就能帮他解决语言不通等问题。很多款免费的APP可以立即随时随地翻译文本、影像、声音等资料。只要对指示牌拍个照，他们就可以用自己的母语来理解指示牌了。一些特殊的APP还可以帮助使用者与外国人实时对话。虽然准确性不是很高，但在这些话语内容质量不是很难的基本对话中确实很有必要。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:25, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
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2. Another major advantage of machine translation are the low costs, some services even come for free. For some large enterprises and professional translators, there is an initial financial investment to buy translation software like Trados, which pays off in the mid-run.<br />
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3. Another merit of MT is the sheer volume of translation. A small application can conduct large-scale translation work in a short amount of time, impossible for humans.<br />
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4. Also for human translators, MT is a helpful tool, professional translators and interpreters can save energy and improve their efficiency. In many disciplines, there is a huge amount of specialized vocabulary, which also changes fast. MT can make sure that all special terms are translated consistently in the same way. Most human translators prefer electronic dictionaries over paper dictionaries, e.g. because they have search functions and are updated online.<br />
机翻的再一个主要优点是低成本，部分服务甚至是免费的。一些大型企业和专业议员会有能在中期获得回报的翻译软件的初始投资计划，比如塔多思。<br />
机翻的另一个优点是大量高效。仅一个小小的软件便能在短时间内处理人类难以完成的大量翻译工作。<br />
对于议员，机翻也是个有效的工具，专业笔译员与口译员都可以通过机翻降低体力消耗提高效率。很多学科领域都有着大量且变化迅速的专业词汇。机翻可以保证这些专业词汇翻译的一致性。多数议员相比于纸质字典都更喜欢使用电子字典，因为电子字典具有搜索与实时更新功能。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 03:52, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Mashuya<br />
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2.机翻的另一个重要优点是低成本，有些服务甚至是免费的。对于一些大型企业和专业翻译人员，需要一笔初期财务投资来购买像塔多思这样的翻译软件，而这在中期是有回报的。<br />
3.机翻的另一个优点是大量高效。一个小小的应用程序可以在很短的时间内完成大规模的翻译工作，这对人类来说是不可能的。<br />
对于译员来说，机器翻译是一个很有帮助的工具。专业笔译译员和口译译员可以通过机翻节省精力提高效率。在许多学科中，有大量快速变化着的专业词汇。机翻可以保证这些专业词汇的翻译始终一致。比起纸质词典，大多数译员更喜欢单子词典。因为电子词典有搜索功能，而且可以实时更新。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 10:34, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
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5. MT tools also enable teams of human translators to increase their efficiency of cooperation, including joint databases and standards of translation.<br />
The trend towards MT is irreversible.<br />
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2.3.1.2 Disadvantages of Machine Translation<br />
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1. A MT can only be as good as its input, processes and self-learning algorithms. In the field of speech translation, MT depends heavily on speech recognition technology. In 2020, most speech recognition systems require speakers of the standard language (e.g. Mandarin instead of Cantonese). People’s accents, dialects and other influences like a noisy background affect the accuracy of speech recognition.<br />
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2. MT depends on connectivity and electricity. Many users become aware of this dependency when they use a translation application on their smart phone and suddenly the network connection is broken or the battery is empty.<br />
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5.机器翻译工具也可以提高人工翻译团队的合作效率，包括共享信息库 和翻译标准。机器翻译的潮流是不可阻挡的。<br />
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2.3.1.2机器翻译的弱点<br />
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1.机器翻译只能跟它的输入、程序和自我算法一致。在公开演讲翻译领域，机器翻译很大程度依赖演讲读取科技。在2020,绝大多数演讲读取系统要求演讲者是使用标准语（不用方言而是用标准语）。人们的口音、方言和其他影响因素（比如说一个嘈杂的背景环境）都将影响演讲内容读取的精度。<br />
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2.机器翻译取决于连接和电力。很多使用者在他用智能手机的翻译应用时，突然遭遇网络不好或者电池没电，才意识到这个的重要性。--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 02:37, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.机器翻译无法超越其输入、程序和自学习算法。在演讲翻译领域，机器翻译很大程度上以来语音识别技术。2020年，大多数语音识别系统需要演讲者使用标准用语（例如：使用普通话而非粤语）。人们的口音、方言及其他影响因素，如嘈杂的背景，会影响语音识别的准确性。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 03:06, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
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3. The establishment of the corpus is the foundation of modern MT, but the corpus itself has its limitations. Modern MT, especially in many small languages, has a small corpus. For example, under the same circumstances, sometimes the accuracy of Lao translation is not as good as that of English. Also commercial reasons may play into this.<br />
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3.语料库是现代机器翻译的基础，但语料库本身也有很多局限性。很多小语种的语料库也很小，因此机器翻译的准确性也受限。例如，同样条件下，有时候老挝语机器翻译的准确性就比不上英语。当然也因为英语翻译更有市场。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 08:31, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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3.语料库的创建是现代机器翻译的基础，但语料库本身有很多局限性。现代机器翻译，尤其是小语种机器翻译，语料库很小。例如，同样条件下，有时候老挝语机器翻译的准确性不如英语的。此外，商业因素可能也对其有影响。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 13:58, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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4. Almost all MT requires human post-editing. With the progress and development of science and technology, the accuracy of MT software is getting better but so far does not match human translation quality. The text after machine translation requires proofreaders to make final modifications to the translation to ensure that it is correct and has an appropriate style.<br />
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4.几乎所有机器翻译都需要后期人工校对。随着科学技术的发展，机器翻译的质量虽也大大提高，但远不能与人工翻译相提并论。机器翻译的文本需要校对员后期的修改，以确保翻译准确，文体适宜。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 08:31, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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4.几乎所有机器翻译都需要人工后期编辑。随着科学技术的发展，机器翻译的准确度越来越高，但目前还不能与人工翻译相提并论。机器翻译得到的文本最后还需要校对员后期修改，以确保翻译准确，文体适宜。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 13:58, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
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5. MT still has deficits to understand in which context a word is used. In many languages, the same word may have several completely unrelated meanings, such as the word “spring” in English, which most commonly means “春天” in Chinese, but also means “弹簧” , “泉水” and “活力”. Another example is the word “门槛” in Chinese, which can refer to the “threshold on the door”, but the most common meaning is “the difficulty of a thing” or “the conditions for doing something”. In these cases, the context has a great influence on the meaning of words, and the understanding of the meaning depends largely on the clues one can get from the context. So far, the main advantage of human translators is the true understanding of a sentence, which is connected to relating words with their context. Another advantage is that a human translator can creatively polish the language to obtain not just a complete and accurate translation, but an appropriate one. This is undoubtedly still a big challenge for MT.<br />
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5.对不同的语境所该用的对应的词语的理解，机器翻译仍然存在着不足。在许多语言中，同一个词可能有几种完全不搭边的含义。比如说英语中的“spring”,在中文中最常见的意思为 “春天”，但是这个词也有“弹簧” , “泉水” 和“活力”的意思。另一个例子就是中文中的“门槛”，其可以指“门上的一道坎”，但最常用的含义是指“某件事的难度”或是“做某事的一种状态”。在这些例子当中，语境对词义有很大的影响，并且对词义的理解取决于上下文给出的线索。当前，人工翻译的主要优势在于可以将词语和语境联系在一起，从而理解句子的真正含义。人工翻译的另一个优势就是可以创造性地优化语言，从而不仅可以让翻译准确完整，而且翻译得十分恰当得体。无疑，这对机器翻译来说仍然是一项巨大的挑战。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 02:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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5.对同一词语在不同语境中的理解，机器翻译仍有其不足。在许多语言中，同一个词可能有几种完全不搭边的含义，比如说英语中的“spring”,在中文中最常见的意思为 “春天”，但是这个词也有“弹簧” , “泉水” 和“活力”的意思。另一个例子就是中文的“门槛”一词，但最常用的含义是指“某件事的难度”或是“做某事所需的条件”。在这些例子当中，语境对词义有很大的影响，一个人对词义的理解很大程度上取决于上下文给出的线索。当前，人工翻译的主要优势在于可以将词语和语境联系在一起，从而理解句子的真正含义。人工翻译的另一个优势就是可以创造性地优化语言，从而不仅可以让翻译准确完整，而且恰当得体。无疑，这对机器翻译来说仍然是一项巨大的挑战。--Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
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6. MT so far does not possess cultural sensitivity. Human translators constantly study the relevant cultures, expand their knowledge and are able to understand specific situations. Human interactions and emotions are complex and machines lack initiative and the ability to understand or recognize slang, jargon, puns and idioms, so that the resulting MT may not conform to the values and norms of the culture of the source language and/or of the target language.<br />
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到目前为止，MT还不具备文化敏感性。译员持续研究文化背景，拓宽知识面，并且能够理解一些特殊情况。人类的互动和情感是复杂的，而机器缺乏主动理解和识别俚语、行话、双关语和习语的能力，因此机器翻译的结果可能不符合源语言或目标语言文化的价值观以及用语规范。--Mo Nan<br />
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迄今为止，MT还不具有文化敏感性。 译员会不断研究相关文化，扩展知识面，并能够理解一些特殊情况。 人与人之间的互动和情感是复杂的，机器缺乏主动性，缺乏理解或识别俚语语，行话，双关语和俗语的能力，因此机器翻译的结果可能不符合源语言和/或目标语言文化的价值观和语言规范。 --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 15:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen) 阮翠贤==<br />
2.3.1.3 Comparison of Machine Translation with Human Translation<br />
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2.3.1.3 机器翻译与人工翻译的相比 ---Helen<br />
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Machine Translation can be compared with human translation in different areas and under different aspects.<br />
机器翻译可以在不同的地区与不同的方面进行对比。 ---Helen<br />
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2.3.1.3 Comparison of Machine Translation with Human Translation<br />
2.3.1.3 机器翻译与人工翻译的比较<br />
Machine Translation can be compared with human translation in different areas and under different aspects.<br />
机器翻译与人工翻译可以在不同的领域和方面进行比较。<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:10, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
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1. In the film and television industry, there is a large demand for translation of quotes (subtitling), and the difficulty lies in the individuality of each speaker which should correspond to a characteristic style depending on the speaker. The screen format requires short and pithy translations. What’s more, in the current movies and TV plays, there are a large number of terms fashionable in the internet. The film title itself has to take all possible connotations as well as marketing aspects into account, so a human translator will think it over and over again.<br />
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1.在电影电视行业，需要翻译大量的引述，难点就在于每位说话者的个性应与其扮演的角色的风格相一致。由于屏幕这种形式的限制，电影翻译需要简短精炼。此外，现在的电影和电视剧里边有大量网络流行术语。电影名本身需要考虑所有可能的内涵，包括市场营销方面的因素，因此，翻译者会反复思考电影的翻译。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 13:38, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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1.电影电视行业对字幕翻译需求很大，字幕翻译的难度在于每位说话人都有其独特的个性，翻译时应考虑到说话人个性与说话风格的一致性。由于屏幕的限制，电影电视的翻译需要简短精炼。而且，现在的电影电视剧使用了很多网络流行语。电影名本身的翻译应考虑到其所有内涵意义和市场的接受度，因此在翻译电影名时，译者们会反复思考，反复打磨。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 14:15, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
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2. In the political and the diplomatic field as well as in international negotiations between countries or institutions: In these fields, human interpretation and translation is still widely used, since translation mistakes may have severe consequences for the relation of countries. When country leaders meet, the cultural accumulation of the translators can enable them to identify which content may not offend both sides and then pick the best translation.<br />
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在政治和外交领域以及国家或机关之间进行国际谈判中，人类的翻译解读仍被广泛使用，因为翻译错误会对国家之间的关系造成严重影响。国家领导人见面时，译者的文化积累能让他们确定哪些内容可能不会冒犯双方，然后选择最佳翻译。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:14, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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在政治外交领域及不同国家机构之间的国际谈判中，我们仍广泛使用人工口译和笔译，因为翻译错误可能会对外交关系造成严重后果。不同国家的领导人会面时，译者凭借其文化积累来甄别何种内容并不会冒犯双方，并以此选出最恰当的翻译。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在政治外交领域以及国家或机构之间的国际谈判中,人工翻译仍然被广泛使用，因为翻译错误可能会对国家关系造成严重的后果。在国家领导人会面时，译者的文化积淀可以帮助他们辨别哪些内容不会冒犯双方，从而选择最好的翻译。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 12:11, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
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When a country leader tells a joke which is not funny in the target culture, the human translator may improvise with telling a different joke, ensuring that the visitor will laught too and the whole atmosphere stays relaxed as intended. With MT, diplomatic accidents or cultural conflicts might happen. In the first half of 2018, AI simultaneous translation was applied for the first time at the Boao Asia Forum. However, the system broke down, resulting in low-level mistakes such as inaccurate vocabulary translation and repetition. Mistakes like these are avoided by professional (human) interpreters.<br />
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在一个国家领导人讲了一个笑话，而这个笑话在目的语文化里并不好笑时，人工翻译可能会即兴讲一个不同的笑话，以确保听众会笑，并让整个气氛如预期的轻松。 使用机器翻译，可能会发生外交事故或文化冲突。 在2018年上半年，博鳌亚洲论坛首次使用了AI同声翻译。 然而，系统崩溃了，导致了一些低级的错误，例如不正确的词汇翻译和重复。 专业（人工）口译员可以避免类似的错误。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 12:56, 11 October 2020 (UTC) OuYang Jinglan欧阳静兰<br />
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当一个国家领导人讲了一个笑话，而这个笑话在目的语文化里并不好笑时，人工翻译可能会即兴讲一个不同的笑话，以确保听众也会笑，并让整个气氛如预期的轻松。 使用机器翻译，可能会发生外交事故或文化冲突。 在2018年上半年的博鳌亚洲论坛上，AI同声翻译被首次使用。 然而，系统崩溃了，导致了一些低级的错误，例如不正确的词汇翻译和重复。 专业（人工）口译员可以避免类似的错误。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:08, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
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3. Legal and technical communication. Legal translation, as well as medical, pharmaceutical, chemical etc. must be accurate, because a translation mistake may have severe consequences. The human translator spends additional time to make repeated efforts to avoid ambiguity and to improve the accuracy of the words used. Many specific terms in professional sectors have a broader or a different meaning in the standard language. For example, prejudice refers to damage, counterpart refers to a copy with the same effect, more complicated, for example, dominion refers to full ownership in civil law and sovereignty in public international law; Estoppels means that one cannot go back on the word in contract law, while in criminal procedure law, it means “forbidden to reverse confession”. Secondly, a large number of legal terms, such as “defendant”, “cause of action” and “damages”, usually do not appear in the common language. These characteristics of legal terms require people to carefully weigh and compare when translating, and give appropriate translations in specific situations.<br />
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3.法律及技术性表达。法律、医疗、药物和化学等领域的翻译必须准确无误，因为一个错误可能会带来严重的后果。人工翻译可以利用额外的时间，不断地努力，以避免歧义、提升用词准确性，专业领域中的许多特定术语在标准用语中具有更广泛或者不同的含义。例如，prejudice指损害，counterpart指具有相同作用的复制品，更复杂的例子还有dominion在民法中指完全所有权，在国际公法中指主权；Estoppels在合同法里意思是某一方不能违背承诺，但在刑事诉讼法中是“禁止翻供”的意思。其次，大量法律术语，例如“被告”、“诉讼事由”和“损害赔偿金”，通常不会出现在日常用语中。针对法律术语的此类特性，人们需要在翻译时仔细衡量和比较，以在特定情况下给出恰当的翻译。--Ouyang Ling<br />
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3.法律术语及技术性表达。法律、医疗、药物和化学等领域的翻译必须准确无误，因为一个翻译错误可能会导致严重的后果。人工翻译可以利用额外的时间重复性地工作，以避免歧义和提升用词准确性，在标准用语中，许多用于专业领域中的特定术语具有更广泛或者不同的含义。例如，prejudice指损害，counterpart指具有相同作用的复制品，更复杂的例子还有dominion在民法中指完全所有权，在国际公法中指主权；Estoppels在合同法里意思是某一方不能违背承诺，但在刑事诉讼法中是“禁止翻供”的意思。其次，大量法律术语，例如“被告”、“诉讼事由”和“损害赔偿金”，通常不会出现在日常用语中。这些法律术语的特质需要人们在翻译时仔细衡量和比较，以在特定情况下做出恰当的翻译。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:12, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
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4. Literary translation. MT in general cannot compete with human translation in the field of literature, since these kinds of translations are more complex. A typical characteristic of Western literature is to avoid repetitions. If, for example, the source is a Chinese work of literature, repetitions are more common. MT would translate these repetitions repetitively, while humans would be creative to find synonyms and variations. A good translation of literature should enable target readers to understand the world created by the source culture author and properly realize his beliefs, ideas or other things the author wants to convey through his work. Also, subtle references to other works of literature are harder to grasp by MT than by a human translator. There are often a lot of images (comparisons, illustrative expressions, motifs, metaphors, allegories) in literary works, and images have vague characteristics. When translating and dealing with these images, even experienced translators carefully consider and repeatedly weigh them. Literary works express the rich emotions of humans, it may be happy or sad, and half sad and half happy. In order to understand the subtlety of this, the translator needs to read the text carefully and weighs it over and over again. Only after careful reading and repeated deliberation the translator can really understand them and thus produce a good translation. Literary works are often historic.<br />
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文学翻译。一般来说在文学翻译这个领域上，机器翻译与人工翻译不能相提并论，因为文学翻译更加复杂。西方文学的一个典型特征是避免重复。比如，如果原始资料是汉语文学的话，重复现象很普遍。机器可能会重复翻译这些重复的地方，而人类会创造性地寻找同义词来产生变化。一个好的文学翻译作品应该能让目标读者理解原文作者所创造出来的世界并准确地体会到作者的信仰、信念，或者作者想通过这本书传达的一些其他的东西。此外，机器比人类更加难以抓住对其他文学作品的微妙的引用。文学作品中经常有比较、说明性描写、主题、隐喻和讽刺等概念，而且各个概念的特点都很模糊。当翻译者翻译并处理这些手法时，甚至会谨慎思考、反复斟酌。文学作品表达了丰富的人类情感，它可能是愉悦的，可能是伤心的，或者兼而有之。为了理解这细微差别，翻译者需要审慎阅读、反复斟酌。只有经过审慎阅读和反复思量后，翻译者才能真正理解这些差别，然后创作出优秀的翻译作品。文学翻译作品经常具有重大历史意义。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:55, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
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In different periods, literary works created by different writers have their own imprint of their times. When people look at past literature, they cannot only translate it from the contemporary viewpoint. Therefore, when reading the original text, the translator should figure out the author’s writing intention and the emotion to be conveyed according to the background of the times, the writer’s experience, the writer’s style, etc. in order to better understand the original text and in order to better carry out the translation. Obviously, MT systems are not yet able to deal with these complicated processes. Last but not least, literary works are often fictional, and the fictional world is often beyond the imagination of the real world. Even if the machine can input all the literary works and their corresponding translations in different languages into it to build a huge corpus, literary works stay always full of infinite crIneativity and imagination. The current MT systems may be able to give a proper translation of some sentences of literary works, but from the perspective of development, the premise of machine translation is to establish a corpus first, thus it is always lagging behind and can never keep up with the pace of literary creation and innovation<br />
在不同的时期，不同的作家所创作的文学作品都有各自的时代印记。在人们回顾以往的文学作品时，不能只从当代的视角来翻译。因此,在阅读原文时，译者应该弄清楚作者的写作意图和情感传达根据时代背景、经验、风格等等,为了更好地理解原文和翻译原文。显然，MT系统还不能处理这些复杂的过程。最后而且最重要的是，文学作品通常都是是虚构的，而虚构的世界往往超出了现实世界的想象。即使机器能将所有的文学作品以及不同语言的对应译文输入其中，建立起一个庞大的语料库，文学作品也始终充满着无限的创造力和想象力。当前MT系统可能会翻译文学作品中的一些句子,但是从发展的角度来看,机器翻译的前提是首先建立语料库，因此，其总是落后,无法跟上文学创作和创新的步伐。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 06:39, 12 October 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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2.3.1.3 Field Study<br />
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In November 2019, we conducted a simple field study. We selected an original text (https://b23.tv/av9604542) among the quotes of the American movie The Pursuit of Happiness 《当幸福来敲门》: “People can’t do something themselves, they wanna tell you you can’t do it. If you want something, go get it. Period.”<br />
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Here are five MT versions from Sogou, Baidu, Netease Youdao, DeepL and Google respectively:<br />
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Sogou translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_1): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，去拿吧。句号。<br />
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Baidu translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_2): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，就去拿。周期。<br />
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Youdao translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_3): 当人们做不到一些事情的时候，他们就会对你说你也同样不能。如果你想要什么，就去争取。时期。<br />
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Google translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_4): 人们自己无法做某事，他们想告诉您您做不到。 如果您想要一些东西，那就去买。 期。<br />
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DeepL translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_5): 人们自己做不到的事情，他们就会告诉你，你做不到。如果你想要的东西，去得到它。句号。<br />
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The human translation (https://b23.tv/av9604542) is:<br />
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有些事人们自己办不到，他们就刚跟你说你也办不到。如果你想获得什么，就去争取。就这么简单。<br />
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现场研究<br />
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在2019年11月，我们进行了简单的现场研究。 我们在美国电影《当幸福来敲门》的名言中选择了原文（https://b23.tv/av9604542）：“People can’t do something themselves, they wanna tell you you can’t do it. If you want something, go get it. Period“ 以下分别是搜狗，百度，网易有道，DeepL和Google的五个MT版本：<br />
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搜狗翻译(http://bit.ly/trans_ex_1): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，去拿吧。句号。<br />
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百度翻译(http://bit.ly/trans_ex_2): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，就去拿。周期。<br />
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有道翻译(http://bit.ly/trans_ex_3): 当人们做不到一些事情的时候，他们就会对你说你也同样不能。如果你想要什么，就去争取。时期。<br />
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谷歌翻译(http://bit.ly/trans_ex_4): 人们自己无法做某事，他们想告诉您您做不到。 如果您想要一些东西，那就去买。 期。<br />
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Deep L 翻译 (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_5): 人们自己做不到的事情，他们就会告诉你，你做不到。如果你想要的东西，去得到它。句号。<br />
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人工翻译 (https://b23.tv/av9604542) is:<br />
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有些事人们自己办不到，他们就刚跟你说你也办不到。如果你想获得什么，就去争取。就这么简单。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:10, 11 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:12, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
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The original text is relatively colloquial, so the overall difficulty for translation is not so high, but still the five versions of machine translation are not ideal, only the versions translated by Netease Youdao and DeepL are acceptable, but also unsatisfactory in comparison to the human translation.<br />
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原文本是相对口语化的，因此翻译的总体难度不是很大。但是机器翻译的五个版本仍然不甚理想，只有网易有道和DeepL翻译的版本尚可接受。然而较之于人工翻译，它们还是无法令人满意。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 14:46, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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原文是比较口语化的，因此翻译的总体难度不是很高，但是机器翻译的五个版本仍然不太理想，只有网易有道和DeepL翻译的版本是可以接受的。但是与人工翻译相比，还是不太能令人满意的。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:18, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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原文本来偏口语化，因此翻译难度总体不大。尽管如此，机器翻译的五个版本仍然不太理想，只有网易有道和DeepL的翻译差强人意，但却仍无法和人工翻译相提并论。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:43, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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原文相对口语化，所以整体翻译难度没有那么高，但机器翻译的五个版本仍然不理想，只有网易有道和DeepL翻译的版本可以接受，但与人工翻译相比也仍不尽如人意。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:45, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
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In the first sentence of Sogou and Baidu translation, the word “something” is ignored and the overall coherence of the translation is not high. It is also not consistent with Chinese habits. In the first sentence of the Netease Youdao translation, “当……的时候” is added, which is feasible, but compared with human translation, it is not concise enough. The DeepL translation starts strong, but does not persuade with the arbitrary addition of “的”, which destroys the grammar. The Google translation “无法做某事” reads awkward in Chinese, the reader rather would expect something like “办不到的事情”, also the auxiliary verb “想” is not appropriate.<br />
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在搜狗和百度翻译的第一句话中，“something”一词被忽略，翻译的整体连贯性不高。也不符合中国人的习惯。在网易有道翻译的第一句话中，增加了“when”，这是可行的，但与人工翻译相比，不够简洁。DeepL的翻译起初很强，但不能支持“of”的任意添加，因为这会破坏语法。谷歌翻译的“Can not do something”的中文读起来让人很尴尬，读者宁愿期望“Things that can't be done”之类的译法，也不能使用辅助动词“want”。 --[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 11:26, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
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For the translation of the second sentence, the handling of “go and get it” in Sogou and Baidu, obviously does not conform to the context in the movie, while DeepL at least uses “得到”. Although in Chinese, “take it” has the meaning of “拿” or “去拿”, in this movie, in combination with the context at that time, “take it” should be translated as “追逐”.<br />
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在翻译第二句时，搜狗和百度对 "go and get it" 的翻译显然没有遵照电影的情境；而DeepL起码翻译成了 “得到”。虽然在汉语中 "take it" 有“拿”或“去拿”的意思，但在这部电影中，结合当时的情境来看，"take it" 应该翻译成“追逐”。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:37, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在翻译第二个句子时，搜狗和百度对 "go and get it"的翻译显然没有考虑电影中的背景，而DeepL起码将其翻译成了 “得到”。尽管在汉语中， "take it" 含有“拿”或“去拿”之意，但若结合这部电影当时的背景，应该将 "take it" 译为“追逐”。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 15:09, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
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In addition, it is worthwhile to point out that the translation of “take it” in Netease Youdao is the same as the human translation. However its translation of “wanna something” as “想要什么” is not as good as the human translation of “获得什么”. Google’s translation of “get” as “买” seems to point to a corpus with commercial texts.<br />
另外，值得一提的是，网易有道的“take it”翻译与人工翻译事一样的。然而，它对“想要的东西”的翻译并不如人工翻译的“想什么”。谷歌将 “get”翻译成“买”似乎指向了一个包含商业文本的语料库。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 15:33, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
另外，值得一提的是，网易有道的“take it”的翻译与人工翻译是一样的。然而，它将“wanna somethig”译为“想要什么”却不如人工翻译成“获得什么”的好。谷歌将“get”翻译成“买”似乎指向了一个包含商业文本的语料库。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:42, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
<br />
With using the polite addressing “您” and the non-understandable ending with “期。”, in comparison to its competitors, Google has failed this test by far. Finally, for the last sentence, the word “period” is directly and roughly translated into “期”, “周期” and “时期” by three machine translation systems.<br />
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使用尊称“您”并以费解的“期”字结尾。与其竞争者相比，谷歌已经在这场测试中失败了。而且，最后一个句子中的“period”用三个翻译系统简单粗暴地直译成了“期”，”周期“和”时期“。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 06:44, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
<br />
Although the word “period” by DeepL and Sogou comes very close to the meaning, the human translation makes it better understandable with “就这么简单”. Here, the machine translations fail to take the context into consideration.<br />
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虽然DeepL和搜狗翻译“period”这个词时，已经非常接近原义了，不过人们译为“就这么简单”，更好理解。此处，机器翻译没有考虑到语境。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:51, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然DeepL和搜狗翻译“period”这个词时，已经非常接近原义了，不过真人将其译为“就这么简单”时，要更好理解。在这里，机器翻译没有将语境考虑进去。 --[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 11:28, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Seydou, Sagara==<br />
<br />
None of the above mentioned MT-produced versions can provide an expressive and smooth translation, let alone equal or surpass the human work. The MT versions do not conform to the Chinese speaking habits. There is still a long way to go for MT, especially for Sogou, Baidu and Google, to improve their translation quality.<br />
上面提到的MT制作版本都无法提供表达流畅的翻译，更不用说等于或超过人工。 MT版本不符合华语习惯。 MT，特别是搜狗，百度和Google，要提高翻译质量，还有很长的路要走。--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 02:25, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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上面提到的机器翻译都无法提供通顺流畅的翻译，更不用说达到或者超过人工翻译的水平。机器翻译不符合中文的表达习惯。机器翻译，特别是搜狗、百度和谷歌，要提高翻译质量，还有很长的路要走。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 06:49, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
However, when MT will succeed, is not a question of faith, it is simply a cost-benefit question that will be economically decided. Nowadays, the cameras of smartphones can be used to watch an object or a text, which is then subtitled in a given target language by augmented reality (e.g. iTranslate, Translate, Speak & Translate, DeepL, Google Translator etc. for Iphone).<br />
<br />
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然而，如果机器翻译会成功，这将不是忠信的问题，而是成本效益的问题，是经济决定的。现在通过扩增实境，智能手机摄像头用来看带有目标语字幕的事物或文件（比如说苹果手机的iTranslate, 翻译（Translate）, 说与译（Speak & Translate）, DeepL, 谷歌翻译（Google Translator）等。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 13:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，机器翻译什么时候会大获全胜，不是由信心决定的，而是由经济决定的，这只是一个成本效益方面的问题。如今，智能手机的相机能识别对象和文本，通过放大语境，能把其转化为指定的目标语言。（苹果手机里的一些翻译软件就可以实现上述提到的，如：翻译通（iTranslate）,翻译（Translate），说与译（Speal & Translate）,DeepL,谷歌翻译（Google Translator）等等。）--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 00:51, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
The WeChat app, for example, also imitates the layout and font, making it increasingly difficult to visually determine that it is a translation and not the original. Even the mundane automatic translation work (machine translation), which used to be reserved for expensive specialist programs, is now accessible to a wide range of users via websites such as translate.google.com, deepl.com or fanyi.baidu.com and can also be activated in browsers so that the websites are displayed in the desired language.<br />
<br />
例如，微信软件也模仿其布局和字体，这让人们从视觉上更难分辨这是译文而非原文。即使是普通的自动翻译工作(机器翻译),过去需要预留给昂贵的专业项目,现在大量用户可以通过一些网站翻译，例如：谷歌翻译（translate.google.com），deepl翻译（deepl.com）或百度翻译（fanyi.baidu.com）,也可以在浏览器中激活,网站就会显示所需的语言。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:49, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Translations are generally worse than those produced by trained human translators. Nevertheless, some website operators are satisfied with the quality, so they have their websites automatically translated and thus attract more users. There are also hybrid solutions such as automatically translated websites with the possibility that trained and untrained users can suggest translation corrections, which can then be implemented partially automatically with quality assurance elements (translation evaluation, frequency of correction suggestions, etc.).<br />
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这种翻译的质量总体来说比那些来自专业人工译者的翻译要差。尽管如此，一些网页的运营者还是对这种质量颇为满意，他们于是对网页进行自动翻译以吸引更多用户。他们也想到了多种解决方案，比如：自动翻译的网页允许专业和非专业用户提出翻译改正建议，这能够让翻译自动进行，且还有一定准确性保障。（翻译评估，一定频率的翻译校准建议之类）--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:14, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种翻译的质量总体上比训练有素的译者所作的译文质量要查。然而，一些网页运营者对这种翻译质量很满意，于是他们用自动翻译来翻译网站，从而吸引更多的用户。还有一些混合的解决方法，比如：自动翻译的网站，训练过和没有训练过的译者都可以为修改翻译提出建议，这种做法既能够使部分翻译自动进行，也具有一定准确性保障。（翻译评估，更正建议的频率等）--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:38, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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总体上来说，这种翻译的质量比训练有素的译者所作的译文质量要差。然而，某些网页运营者对这种翻译质量颇为满意，便用自动翻译来翻译各自的网页，从而来吸引更多的用户。还有一些混合式解决方法，比如：自动翻译的网站，经过训练和未经训练过的译者都可以为翻译修改提出建议，这种做法既能够使部分翻译自动进行，也能保障一定准确度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 02:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
For clients who expect higher quality, machine pre-translation and subsequent error correction currently occasionally appears to be more cost-effective than fully human translation. Overall, Google Translator has made great progress in recent years. Fanyi Baidu recently showed off with a simultaneous interpretation of a speech recorded live on video.<br />
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对于期待更高翻译质量的客户来说，目前机器预翻译和后续的改错有时候比纯人工翻译更经济实惠。总的来看，近些年谷歌翻译取得了很多进步。百度翻译近来也在卖弄其现场录制的演讲视频的同声传译能力。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:45, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于期待更高翻译质量的客户来说，目前机器预翻译和后续的改错有时候比纯人工翻译更经济实惠。总的来看，近些年谷歌翻译取得了很多进步。百度翻译近来也在卖弄了一段其针对视频直播的演讲的同声传译能力。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 06:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于在翻译质量上有更高期待的客户而言，目前，机器预翻译和后续的改错似乎比纯人工翻译更划算。总的来说，近年来谷歌翻译取得了很大的进步。近来，百度翻译通过一段现场录制的演讲视频炫耀了其同声传译功能。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:50, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
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Human translators also do not just use their brains, they use translation memories such as Trados, Across, Transit, MemoQ, WordFast, Pasolo etc., in order to have the same terms or sentences displayed in the same way, for example in technical manuals, which deal with the 1:1 translation of technical terms. Here both sides seem to come closer to each other.<br />
人类译者不仅会动脑筋，还会使用翻译记忆库，例如Trados,Across,Transit,MemoQ,WordFast,Pasolo等此类翻译软件,以便使相同的术语或句子以同样的方式显示出来,例如在技术手册中,技术术语的翻译是1:1的.这里二者似乎是很接近的.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:45, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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人类译者不仅会动脑筋，还会使用翻译记忆技术，例如Trados,Across,Transit,MemoQ,WordFast,Pasolo等此类翻译软件,以便使相同的术语或句子以同样的方式显示出来,例如在技术手册中,用翻译软件来处理相同的专业术语.人工翻译和机器翻译在此处是很接近的。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 13:09, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
Currently, no program can translate better than humans. There are simply too many factors to be taken into account in order to avoid e.g. unexpected comedy because a certain expression does not seem appropriate in a certain situation. Of course, the human translator is not immune to such 'translation mistakes', but he or she often recognizes them and can correct them afterwards if necessary. Here, the human consciousness cannot yet be achieved or simulated by machines.<br />
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目前，任何翻译程序都无法媲美人类。为了避免出乎意料的引人发笑的错误，许多因素都需予以重视，因为某些表达在特定的场合可能并不适用。当然，人工翻译也无法根绝这类"翻译错误"，但是译者通常能发现错误，并且在必要的时候进行修正。然而，机器仍然无法实现或者模拟人类的意识。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
目前，没有一个程序能比人类更好地翻译。为了避免出人意料的闹剧，有太多的因素需要考虑，因为某种表达方式在某种情况下似乎并不合适。当然，人工翻译也不能避免这种“翻译错误” ，但翻译人员会经常性地意识到这些错误，并在必要时进行纠正。在这方面，人的意识还不能被机器实现或模拟 。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 15:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
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Automatic simultaneous interpreting appears even more difficult than automatic translation, as the transmission process is carried out in real time. In addition, the machines still lack the various means of expression accompanying the pure translation text. This does not only refer to non-verbal interpreting - there are also conference interpreters who often only listen to the translation via headphones.<br />
自动同声传译似乎比自动翻译更困难，因为翻译过程是实时进行的。此外，机器还缺乏伴随纯翻译文本的各种表达方式。这不仅是指非语言口译—还有一些会议口译员经常只能通过耳机听翻译。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 02:49, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于翻译过程是实时的，自动同声传译比自动翻译显得更加困难。 此外，这些机器仍然缺少纯翻译文本随附的各种表达方式。 这不仅涉及非语言口译，还包括会议口译员，他们通常仅通过耳机听翻译。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:19, 11 October 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan欧阳静兰<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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But also the possible variations in vocal reproduction, such as volume, speed, variation in intonation, intonation of the sentence melody, etc., often offers the possibility to enrich the information of the pure text. Nonetheless, these are precisely the fields that are currently being researched and that increase the acceptance and subtlety in the expression of artificial intelligence.<br />
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但是，音量，速度，语调变化，句子旋律的语调等声音再现的可能变化，也常常提供丰富纯文本信息的可能性。尽管如此，这些恰恰是当前正在研究的领域，提高了人工智能表达的接受度，增加了微妙性。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 08:27, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
而声音再现中可能出现的变化，如音量、语速、语调、句子旋律的抑扬顿挫的变化等，往往提供了丰富纯文本信息的可能性。尽管如此，这些恰恰是目前正在研究的领域，用来提高人工智能表达的接受度和微妙性。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 15:37, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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自动同声传译似乎比自动翻译更困难，因为翻译过程是实时进行的。此外，机器缺乏各种表达翻译文本情感的手段。这不仅仅是指非语言口译—还是有一些会议口译员通常只能通过耳机听翻译。--Mo Nan<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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The fact that the targeted concentration on translation errors and their causes promises success in further development is demonstrated by the leap in quality of translation services when comparing early and current Google and DeepL Translator versions.<br />
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通过比较早期及现在的谷歌翻译与Deepl翻译器的版本，人们发现翻译服务质量的巨大提高证明了有针对性地集中研究翻译错误及其原因能确保翻译发展的进一步成功。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 01:55, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对比早期和现在的谷歌及DeepL翻译，我们可发现翻译质量大幅提升，这证明有针对性地关注翻译错误及原因有助于翻译的进一步发展。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 13:12, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
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2.4 Transition of Interpreting Situations through Technology/Digitization<br />
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The interpreter must increasingly adapt to technically predefined interpreting situations, such as video conferences with augmented reality, tele-interpreting, etc. It is expected that the interpreter is familiar with the various hardware and software models of interpreting technology and organizes this technology.<br />
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2.4 技术化/数字化口译的转变<br />
口译员必须逐渐适应技术上预定义的口译情况，例如增强现实的视频会议、远程口译等，并且应当熟悉并学会组织口译技术的各种硬件和软件模型。<br />
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--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:56, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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2.4 口译形势在技术化或数字化下的转变<br />
译者必须要逐步适应在技术上预定义的翻译情况，比如增强现实的视频会议、远程口译等，也应该熟悉并学会组织口译技术的各种硬件和软件模型。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:48, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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2.4 技术化/数字化口译的转变<br />
口译员必须在技术上对预定义的口译情况愈发适应，比如说，增强现实的视频会议、远程口译等，还需熟悉并学会组织口译技术的各种硬件和软件模型。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 15:11, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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According to the early Braun 1999 study on interpreting in video conferences, the interpreter's job description is already changing towards becoming a technology organizer. Due to the rapid progress in technology, the technical problems, quality losses and malfunctions, on which the study focuses, are outdated. Rather, today's technology must be assumed to be largely trouble-free to perfect for the purpose of interpreting, often even offering functions that the users do not (or can not) exploit at all.<br />
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依布劳恩1999年初对视频会议口译研究来看，口译员的工作内容正向技术组织者转变。由于科技飞速发展，这项研究的重点，包括技术问题，质量下降以及故障都已经过时。更确切来说，现在的技术必须基本做到零故障，为口译工作保驾护航，甚至常常提供用户根本不（或不能）使用的功能。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 05:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<math>Insert formula here</math>==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
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The following disadvantages of early video conferencing at the time of the study have since been reduced: <br />
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a) Social presence - through the new techniques with VR glasses (like Facebook’s Oculus Quest) and, if necessary, whole-body tactile suits, the presence is sufficiently simulated so that the human mind is able to fade out the technical mediation of the presence after a period of getting used to it. The "technically caused restrictions of interaction" thus become negligible.<br />
在研究期间，下列早期视频会议的缺点已有所减少：<br />
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a)社会存在—通过用虚拟现实眼镜这种新技术（例如脸书中的“奥克罗斯的追求”），甚至还有全身触觉套装这样的新技术。这种存在被充分模拟，所以在适应一段时间后，人类的大脑就能够淡化存在的技术中介。因此，“技术上造成的交互限制”变得可以忽略不计。--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 00:15, 12 October 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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The "restricted field of vision" of the interpreter complained about in the study can now be extended by virtual or augmented reality glasses. It should also be pointed out that even with conference interpreters, e.g. incorrect planning of interpreting booth locations where there is no clear field of vision for the speaker or PowerPoint or simply unforeseeable events such as overcrowded conference rooms so that standing listeners block the view are part of everyday life.<br />
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口译员对在口译室中“视野受限”表示埋怨态度，现在他们可通过虚拟现实或增强现实眼镜扩展视野。还应指出的是，即使是会议口译员，口译室摆放位置规划不准确也都是口译员日常生活的一部分,这会致使口译员看不清说话者、幻灯片或者难以预测的情况，比如说，会议室过于拥挤，使得站着的听众挡住了视线。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 15:05, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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研究报告指出困扰口译员的“视野受限”问题现在可通过虚拟现实或增强现实眼镜得到缓解。但仍不能忽视，即使在会议口译场合，同传箱位置不妥，导致看不到讲者或幻灯片，或是遭遇突发状况，如会场过于拥挤，站着的听众遮挡了视线，这些对于口译员来说都是家常便饭。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 07:08, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
b) The same applies to the unnaturalness of the discussion situation that was noted at the time. Since the perception of technology fades into the background, the technically mediated interpreting situation is increasingly been accepted as just as natural or unnatural as the analogue/presence.<br />
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同时，我们提到的翻译当中不自然的情况也同样会发生。科技翻译渐渐融入翻译实践，那么科技翻译出的一些机械的句子也越来越为人们所接受。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
同样的情况也适用于当时提到的讨论情况的不自然。由于人们对科技的运用越来越自然，机器翻译越来越为人们所接受，就像模拟和存在中自然或非自然的关系一样。<br />
--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 00:35, 12 October 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
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==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
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3. The Impact of Migration: Community Interpreting and Rare Languages <br />
Through migration, foreign-language people come into a community and are dependent on interpreting services in government offices and hospitals due to a lack of knowledge of the local language. While offices often leave the task of finding an interpreter to the foreign language speaker, they do not set any qualification or quality requirements.<br />
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移民的影响：社区口译以及移民带来的稀有语言，由于缺乏当地语言知识，外语人士融入社群时会依赖于政府机关和医院的口译服务。通常各机关单位会将寻找口译员的任务交给讲外语的人，但（对此）他们不作任何资历要求。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:16, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
移民的影响：社群传译以及移民活动带来的小众语言。外语人士融入一个新社群时，缺乏当地语言知识，依赖于政府机关和医院的口译服务。而这些机关单位通常会将寻找口译员的任务交给讲外语的人，但他们没有对这些人员设置任何相关资历要求。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
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As a result, relatives or acquaintances are often hired as one-time lay interpreters whom the foreign language speaker entrusts with the interpretation. However, the quality is often lower than that of trained interpreters. Trained interpreters would often be simply too expensive for the foreign language speaker in such situations (Moratto, 2020).<br />
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结果，外语人士经常雇佣自己信任其翻译能力亲朋好友作为一次性口译人员。然而，他们的翻译质量一般都逊于专业口译者。对于外语人士人来说，在这种情况下雇佣专业人员都太贵了。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
In the case of community interpreting in hospital, the patient is usually not responsible for providing an interpreter, e.g. because he or she arrived at the hospital unexpectedly or is restricted in mobility due to illness/injury or hospitalization and should not be burdened additionally. Accordingly, the hospital maintains a pool of community interpreters. As field studies, e.g. by Andres (2009), show, non-professional interpreters are also hired where necessary out of cost reasons.<br />
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关于医院的社区口译，病人一般不用自己提供口译人员，因为他们并不是有预测地来到医院，或者说由于病情、伤情或者住院导致行动能力受限，因此不应该再额外徒添负担。基于此，医院一般都有一群社区口译人员。基于安德烈斯的实地考察可看出，必要时也有为了降低成本雇用非专业口译人员的时候。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 13:31, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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至于医院的社区口译，病人一般无需提供口译人员，因为他们都是突发地来到医院，或者是因为疾病、伤痛或住院而行动能力受限，因此不应再添负担。因此，医院配备了一群口译人员。安德烈斯的2009年实地考察显示，出于经费原因必要时医院也会雇佣非专业口译人员。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:00, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
4. Existential Problems for the Interpreting Profession<br />
Due to networking via the Internet, unqualified interpreters are pouring into the market from low-wage countries, bringing the profession of the professional interpreter into disrepute as a result of dumping prices and poor-quality work, especially for inexperienced clients.<br />
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4. 口译职业存在的问题<br />
由于互联网建立起的人际关系网，不合格的口译员由低收入国家涌入市场，这些人的倾销价格与低质量工作导致专业口译员，特别是经验缺乏的当事人的职业声誉受损。<br />
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--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 04:11, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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4. 口译行业存在的问题<br />
不合格的口译员通过互联网正从低收入国家涌入市场，由于倾销价格和工作质量差，导致专业口译员的职业名誉扫地，对于那些没有经验的客户则更是如此。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 01:09, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
From my own field I know well-trained German and Chinese interpreters who interpret in their respective areas of competence for about 850 USD (750 Euros or 3,120 Yuan RMB) plus expenses for half a day or 1,700 USD (1,500 Euro or 11,700 Yuan RMB) for a whole day. But I have also taken part in conferences where an apparently not well-trained Chinese interpreter interpreted.<br />
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在我的专业领域，我了解到那些经过良好训练的德语和中文口译员，在翻译他们专业领域的一次的口译费用大约是850美元（750欧元或3120元人民币）外加半天1700美元（1500欧元或11700元人民币）。不过我也参与到过一些会议，其中有明显没有受过良好训练的中国翻译人员。<br />
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------[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 14:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
在我的专业领域，我认识一些训练有素的中德口译员，他们在各自领域的口译费约为半天850美元（750欧元或3120人民币），或者全天1700美元（1500欧元或11700人民币）。但是我也参加过一些会议，会议由没有受过专业训练的中国口译员进行翻译。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 03:03, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
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As a rule, the clients were inexperienced and had apparently based their decision on price in particular, and hired interpreters for 450 USD (400 Euros or 3,120 Yuan RMB) half-day or 850 USD (750 Euros or 5,890 Yuan RMB) per day.<br />
通常，客户由于经验不足，显然只能根据价格来聘用口译员，聘用的价格大概是半天450美元（相当于400欧元或3120元人民币），全天850美元（相当于750欧元或5890元人民币）。<br />
--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 04:14, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
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As a result, long passages were regularly left uninterpreted, there were pauses lasting seconds or entire speeches remained uninterpreted sometimes due to a lack of agreement between the interpreters, other times perhaps due to technical problems?.<br />
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结果，导致很长的一段话经常不予解释，有时会持续停顿几秒钟，或者整个演讲句子都无法翻译，有时是因为口译员之间没有形成共识，有时可能是由于技术方面的问题……--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 05:54, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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经常导致很长的一段话被遗漏而未进行翻译。有时由于口译员之间未协商好，有时由于翻译技术问题，以至翻译期间停顿数秒，甚至整段话都无法翻译。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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结果是导致长段句经常不予解释，或者是有时会持续停顿几秒钟，（最后导致）整个演讲句子都无法翻译，（更有甚者）是因为口译员之间没有达成共识，还有可能是由于技术方面的问题。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 14:32, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
结果，长的段落通常不予翻译，有时会持续几秒钟的停顿，或者整个语音仍然无法翻译，有时是由于口译员之间缺乏共识，有时是由于技术问题。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 10:30, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
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I especially remember a consecutive interpreter who 'interpreted' the various welcoming speeches at a German-Chinese friendship celebration in sections by repeating the same sentence in Chinese: "We are delighted to have such a good partnership which serves international understanding.”<br />
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我尤其清楚地记得一位口译员在中德友谊庆典上，将各种欢迎词都译为同一句话：“我们很高兴能发展一段有助于国际间理解的友好伙伴关系。”--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 03:39, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我尤其清楚地记得一位交替传译口译员在中德友谊庆典上，将各种欢迎词都译为同一句话：“我们很高兴能发展一段有助于增进国际间理解的友好伙伴关系。”--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 08:34, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我仍清楚地记得一名交替传译译员在中德友谊庆典上，将各种欢迎词都译为同一句话：“我们很高兴能发展一段有助于增进国际间理解的友好伙伴关系。”--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:45, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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For someone who was not familiar with the subject or did not speak both languages, the event made a perfect, all-round impression, the interpreting was apparently seamless, the audience clapped and laughed in the right places, solely because of the speaker's example and the interpreter's non-verbal signals. The German client was unable to judge the quality of the 'interpretation' due to a lack of language skills.<br />
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对于不熟悉该主题或不会讲两种语言的人，这次活动给人留下了完美且完备的印象，口译显然是无间断的，听众在正确的地方鼓掌大笑，这完全是因为演讲者所说的例子和口译员的非语言信号。 由于缺乏语言技能，德国客户无法判断“口译”的质量。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:09, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于不熟悉该主题或不会讲两种语言的人来说，这次活动给他们留下了完美且完备的印象，口译显然是无间断的，听众能适时鼓掌大笑，完全是因为演讲者所说的例子和口译员的非语言信号。 由于缺乏语言技能，德国客户无法判断“口译”的质量。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:08, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
It is not known whether the approximately 150 Chinese participants at the event thought that the German speakers always said the same thing, or whether they realised that the interpreter only interpreted the atmosphere but not the specific content of the speeches. Perhaps the interpreter was also competent, but out of political or other consideration avoided any concretization of the idea of international understanding by giving examples?<br />
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我们并不清楚在场约150名中国与会者是否认同德国发言人一直在说同一件事，或者他们是否意识到口译员仅仅描述了演讲的氛围，却没有翻译演讲的具体内容。也许这个口译者也能胜任这份工作，但是出于政治或者其他考虑，他通过举例避免将国际理解这个概念具体化。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 13:18, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在场约150名中国与会者是否认同德国发言人一直在说同一件事，或者他们是否意识到口译员仅仅传达了演讲的气氛，却没有翻译演讲的具体内容，这一点尚不清楚。也许这个口译者也能胜任这份工作，但是出于政治或者其他考虑，他通过举例说明避免将国际理解这个概念具体化。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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The listeners may also not have been aware that one of the speakers was the Lord Mayor, because his introduction and title of office by a moderator was also interpreted with: “We are delighted that we have such a good partnership that serves international understanding.”<br />
Experienced clients, on the other hand, are familiar with the quality assurance elements of the industry, such as membership in professional associations, recommendations, etc., and do not question the established fee rates.<br />
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听众们可能也没有注意到其中一位演讲者是市长，因为主持人也把他的自我介绍和头衔解释成:“我们很高兴能有如此良好的合作关系，这有助于国际间相互谅解。”另一方面，有经验的客户对行业的质量保证要素很熟悉，如专业协会的会员资格、推荐信等，并且不会对既定的收费标准提出质疑。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:29, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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听众可能还没注意到其中一位演讲者是市长，因为主持人在介绍他的时候，把他的头衔解释为：“我们很高兴能有如此良好的合作关系，这有助于国际之间的相互理解。”<br />
另一方面，有经验的客户熟悉行业的质量保证要素，例如专业协会的会员资格、推荐信等，不会对既定的收费标准提出质疑。”--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:13, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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4.1 Declining Payment Practice <br />
The 21st century witnesses the decline in payment morale, with interpreting services receiving delayed remuneration or subject to default in payment. While catering companies of the same event usually get their bills paid, interpreting services, especially for inexperienced clients, appear to be a service that cannot be concretely grasped, measured and seen. All this leads to a devaluation of the performance of the interpreter, his profession and even to a questioning of the role of an interpreter or translator in the modern age.<br />
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4.1 越来越多的人不愿支付翻译服务费用<br />
21世纪，越来越多的人不愿支付翻译服务费用，译员经常被拖欠服务费。一些餐饮服务公司重复举办相同的活动，每次都能获得报酬，而对于那些没有经验的客户来说，翻译服务质量不能把握，翻译水平也不好评估，甚至他们感受不到翻译的存在，自然就低估了翻译的作用和译员的业务能力，甚至还会怀疑现代社会口笔译员存在的意义。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:30, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
4.1 逐降的翻译服务费用<br />
21世纪，越来越多的人不愿支付翻译服务费用，经常拖欠甚至拒付翻译薪酬。然而一些餐饮公司重复举办某些活动却总能获得报酬。尤其对那些没有经验的客户来说，翻译服务质量难以正确把控，翻译水平不好评估，及难以识别翻译。他们自然就低估了译员的能力和专业性，甚至会质疑当代口笔译员的作用。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 14:18, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
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Should there really be a free artificially intelligent "conference interpreting version" of Google Translator one day, these clients will probably feel vindicated in their contempt for human interpretation.<br />
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5. Networking Takes Interpreting and Translation to a New Level of Quality<br />
In the case of machine-assisted translation, for example with terminology database systems such as Trados, there are several windows/screen areas and it can be displayed how you yourself have interpreted/translated a sentence or expression in the past or how other translators have done so.<br />
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如果有一天谷歌翻译真的出现了免费的人工智能“会议口译版”，那么那些客户就会理所当然的看不起人类的口译工作。<br />
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5.网络将口译和笔译提升到新的水平<br />
在机器辅助翻译的情况下，例如使用Trados等的术语数据库系统，它会有好几个窗口/屏幕区域，显示你自己以前是如何翻译一个句子或一种表达的，或者其它翻译人员是如何做的。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:02, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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如果哪天谷歌翻译真的出了免费的人工智能“会议口译版”，那么那些客户可能就会报复性的贬低人工口译了。<br />
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5.网络将口笔译的翻译质量提升到了一个新水平。<br />
在机器辅助翻译的情况下，例如，在使用Trados等术语数据系统时，它会出现好几个窗口/屏幕区域，显示你自己以前是如何翻译某个句子或某种表达的，或其它翻译人员是如何翻译的。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:30, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
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The consistent further development of such workstations for interpreters would show in real time how colleagues interpret/translate or have interpreted/translated things. This is conceivable, for example, in the case of important speeches broadcasted live, which are interpreted simultaneously by different interpreters (and possibly AI) for different clients. Thus, as in the case of simultaneous chat commentaries to a live stream, the work of different interpreters on a speech could be observed simultaneously.<br />
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口译员工作站不断的发展，最终将能实时显示同事们是如何翻译或以前是如何翻译的。 这是可以想象的，例如，在重要演讲直播的情况下，由不同的口译员（可能是人工智能）为不同的客户同时进行口译。 因此，就像直播能实时聊天评论一样，可以同时看到不同口译员对演讲的翻译。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:12, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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此类口译员工作站的持续不断发展将实时显示口译员们如何进行翻译工作或者之前是如何翻译的。 例如，我们可以想象到在现场直播的重要演讲中，不同的口译员（可能还包括人工智能）为不同的客户同时进行翻译。 因此，就像直播中能实时聊天评论一样， 也能看到不同口译员同时对演讲进行翻译。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:14, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
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If we take a closer look at this technical networking, parallels to an expanded, collective consciousness, which functions very much like the consciousness of an individual, come to mind. <br />
Artificial intelligence research focuses on the learning ability, self-perception and external perception of an individual in order to rebuild it with a machine. When a translator uses a Translation Memory (like Trados, DejaVu etc.), the artificial intelligence shows him/her how he/she him/herself has translated the same or a similar sentence earlier and, if the system is connected, how other translators have or are simultaneously translating the sentence.<br />
如果我们仔细观察这个技术网络，就会发现它与扩展的集体意识有相似之处，它的功能很像个人的意识。人工智能研究的重点是个体的学习能力、自我感知和外部感知，以便用机器重建个体。当翻译者使用翻译记忆(如塔多思、DejaVu等)时，人工智能会向他/她展示他/她自己之前是如何翻译相同或相似的句子的，如果系统连接起来，还会显示其他翻译者已经或正在同时翻译该句子的。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
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The translator, who has several windows open (a dictionary, a speech-to-text module, a machine translation module, a translation memory etc.) may unconsciously use the hints by the artificial intelligence to produce his/her translation or interpretation.<br />
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翻译人员在打开多个窗口（词典、语音文本转换模块、机器翻译模块、翻译记忆库等）的情况下，可能会无意识地利用人工智能的提示来进行笔译或口译。<br />
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When opening several windows such as a dictionary, a speech-to-text module, a machine translation module, a translation memory etc., translators may unwittingly translate or interpret with the clues provided by AI.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 07:21, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When a huge mass of individuals (even with different languages) react with their thoughts, comments sometimes interpretations on the same sensual impression, artificial intelligence, using Big Data analysis and self-learning algorithms, becomes more than the sum of its parts, crosses the line of swarm intelligence and may be called a consciousness.<br />
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当大量的个体(甚至使用不同的语言)对他们自己的想法、评论或者解释（对于同一种感官印象）做出反应时，人工智能使用大数据分析和自学算法，变得不仅是其各个部分的总和，跨越了群体智能界限，可以被称为意识。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:55, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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For example, someone is giving a speech, a global audience is watching and simultaneously commenting in their own languages. The AI can filter the most common reaction on the speech, can analyse cultural backgrounds or personality differences, can match similar comments in different languages. <br />
We have a stronger concordance of the stream of thoughts between individuals than in the purely passive reading of the texts of a foreign author between reader and foreign author.<br />
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比如，一个人演讲时，全世界都在观看并且各国观众用他们自己的母语进行点评。人工智能可以跳过那些演讲中最常见的反应，分析文化背景和个性差异，并配上不同语种的评论。<br />
与纯粹地被动阅读外国作者的文本相比，读者与外国作者之间产生的共鸣更强。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:33, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，某人演讲时，来自全球的观众都在同时观看并用母语发表评论。 这时候，人工智能可以过滤掉演讲中听众最常见的反应，可以分析文化背景或个性差异，还可以解读不同语言中相似的评论。<br />
纯粹被动地阅读外国作者的作品时，读者和作者之间会产生共鸣，但程度小于个体之间思想上的交流。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
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There are no brain cells linked between different individuals; rather the thinking during the translation work is visualized: I register how other individuals perform the same thought process and come to mostly different, but comparable, comprehensible results or even, in individual cases, to the same result. This process of constant comparison with the thinking of others is similar to the unconscious management process in the brain of the various subconscious thoughts, where the thought that is reinforced by the most similar thoughts makes it into consciousness.<br />
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不同个体之间没有大脑细胞相连。 而是将翻译工作中的想法可视化：我记录了其他人如何执行相同的思维过程，并得出了大部分不同但可比，可理解的结果，甚至在个别情况下也得出相同的结果。 这种与他人的思想不断进行比较的过程类似于各种潜意识思想的大脑中的无意识管理过程，在这种过程中，被最相似的思想所强化的思想变成了意识。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:45, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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When interpreting and translating, we have clearly defined thought processes that are predetermined by the source text, thus creating a manageable and thus, to a certain extent, laboratory situation. If it is possible to reach a predominant consensus here, a transfer to the thought process management of several users of the same avatar with the same controlled environment and to livestream situations with the same uncontrolled environment would be conceivable.<br />
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在进行口译和笔译时，我们已经明确定义了由源文本预先确定的思维过程，从而创造了一种易于管理的情况，或者从某种程度上说，一种各因素严格受控的情况。如果各方可能达成主要共识，那么我们相信处于同一受控环境下有相同头像的用户的思维过程转化是可以实现的，同一非受控环境下直播情况的转化也是可以实现的。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 03:41, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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在进行口译和笔译时，我们已经明确定义了由原文本决定的思维过程，从而创造了一种易处理的，从某种程度上说，各因素严格受控的情况。如果各方可能达成共识，那么我们相信处于同一受控环境下有相同头像的用户的思维过程转化是可以实现的，同一非受控环境下直播情况的转化也是可以实现的。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 13:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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The next step, therefore, would be to extend this technically supported interpreting and translating work to align the thinking of different individuals in the same situations and to allow common thoughts to form and be visualized as text, for example when enough users write the same thing that is "I am us.". Individual mistakes could thus not assert themselves in the mass, so-called swarm intelligence. Of course, there are also the necessary learning processes with setbacks and nonsense.<br />
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因此，下一步将是扩展这一技术所支持的口译和笔译工作，以协调不同人在相同情况下的想法，并允许共同想法形成并可视化为文本，例如，足够多的用户写相同的内容 “我就是我们”。 因此，个人的错误无法在大众中断言自己，即所谓的集群智能。当然，也有伴随着一些挫折和废话的必要学习过程。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 02:42, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，下一步将是扩展这一技术支持的口译和笔译工作，使不同个人在相同情况下的思维保持一致，并允许共同的思想形成和可视化为文本，例如，当足够多的用户写下“我就是我们”的相同内容时。因此，个人的错误无法在群体中自我断言，所谓的群体智能。当然，也有必要的学习过程，有挫折和无意义。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:08, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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The striving for meaning and for intelligent meaning is a sufficient driving factor for the establishment of a collective consciousness. Who does not shudder when we typed "How boring" during a live broadcast of the speech of the US President? These words were typed simultaneously by 13 million users and thus are selected by the artificial intelligence to be visualized as a statement of collective consciousness.<br />
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追求意义，追求智能意义，足够驱使人们建立共识。在直播美国总统演讲时，我们在屏幕上打出“太无聊了”，谁不会感到害怕？130亿网民同时打上这句话，然后人工智能将其呈现在大众面前，体现出我们的共识。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 07:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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追求意义，追求智能的意义，这足够驱使人们建立共识。在直播美国总统演讲时，我们在屏幕上打出“真无聊”，谁不会感到害怕？如果一千三百万网民同时打出这句话，然后人工智能将其呈现出来，这也体现出一种共识。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:28, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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On a much smaller scale shown below is the reaction “How exciting” stated by only 321 users, who therefore were unable to assert themselves. In this way, in a clearly defined setting with clearly defined rules of thought management, one could create collective meaning, e.g. by telling the progress of an action together in a digitally animated feature film, or, in the military use of artificially intelligent robots in war, by using swarm intelligence to develop/change a combat strategy simultaneously during the mission.<br />
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如下所示，只有321名用户表示“太激动人心了”，相对来说在数量上要小得多。这些人也因此无法主张自己的观点。这样来说，在一个有着清晰思想管理规则的明确环境下，人们就可以创造出集体意义。例如：通过一部动画电影来讲述一系列情节进展，或是，在战争中使用军用人工智能机器人，通过使用群体智能在任务的执行中同时制定/改变战争策略。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:13, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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6. Further Developing Translation and Interpreting Theories in the Present and the Near Future<br />
The history of translation and interpreting studies is as old as translation and interpreting itself, although it was established as a discipline only in the 1960s and 1970s. Translation and interpreting studies changed its paradigms already several times. In ancient times, it was prescriptive, favoring literal or free translation (or combinations like as literal as necessary, as free as possible). It later became more descriptive.<br />
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6.近来及不久的将来翻译理论的进一步发展<br />
尽管翻译学在20世纪六七十年代才确立为一门学科，但对翻译和口译研究的历史与它们本身一样悠久。翻译学的研究范式已经发生了数次改变。在古代，它是规定性的，倾向于直译或意译(或二者结合，尽可能意译，如必要则直译)。后来，翻译研究变得更具描述性。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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6.现在和不久将来口笔译理论的进一步发展<br />
尽管翻译学在20世纪六七十年代才确立为一门学科，但对翻译和口译研究的历史与它们本身一样悠久。口笔译研究范式已经发生了数次改变。在古代，它是规定性的，倾向于直译或意译(或二者结合，尽可能意译，如必要则直译)。后来，翻译研究变得更具描述性。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:42, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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6.笔译理论和口译理论在当下及未来的发展<br />
笔译研究和口译研究（翻译学研究）在20世纪六七十年代被确立为一门独立学科，但该学科发展历史之悠久，不亚于口笔译自身的发展。翻译学的研究范式已经发生了数次改变，古代采取的是规定性研究，倾向于直译或意译的翻译方法(或二者结合，尽可能意译，如必要则直译)，后来则更偏向于描写性研究。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:59, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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Contrastive-linguistic approaches with equivalency as the main topic were followed by communicative and then functional approaches. Since the functional approaches also considered cultural backgrounds, it was called the “Cultural Turn”. With the Skopos Theory, the equivalence of the purpose of the source and target texts are stressed over the sacredness of the source, and the translator/interpreter gets back into the focus. Recent developments turned towards a sociology, a culture and the ethics of translation.<br />
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等效性，作为对比语言方式的主要内容，位于交流方式和功能方式之前。从功能方式考虑文化背景以来，其被称之为“文化转向”。在目的论的帮助下，源语言和目的语的目的平衡，相较于源语言的真实性，是更加重要的。之后，翻译家重新得到注意。最近相关的发展慢慢成为了一种社会科学，一种关于文化和到得的翻译。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 01:42, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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以等值为主题的对比语言学方法，其次是交际语言学方法，然后是功能语言学方法。由于功能方法也考虑文化背景，因此被称为“文化转向”。目的论强调了源语与目的语的对等，而不是源语的神圣性，使译者/译者重新成为焦点。最近的发展转向了翻译的社会学、文化和伦理学。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:35, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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Algorithms have the characteristic that they do not have to understand any more, they just take a huge mass of data and come to results without knowing how. However, translation produced with these algorithms in general are of low quality. In a second step, the algorithms need to be able to learn from mistakes and adjust themselves. These translations are of better quality, but still qualitatively lower than human translations.<br />
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算法具有不再需要去理解的特征，它们只需要处理大量数据，而无需知道如何得出结果。 但是，用这些算法产生的翻译通常质量低下。 第二步，算法需要能够从错误中学习并自我调整。 这些翻译的质量较好，但仍低于人工翻译。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:01, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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算法的特点是无需理解，它们只需处理大量的数据并得出结果，不必知其处理方法。然而，用算法得出的翻译版本基本质量比较差。第二步，算法需要能够从错误中获取经验并自我调整。这些翻译的质量有所提高，但仍然比不上人工翻译。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 03:17, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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算法具有无需深入理解的特点，仅仅只是处理大量数据，进而得出结果，却并不知其所以然。然而，借助算法产出的译文一般都是很差劲的。第二步，这些算法要能够吸取教训并自我调整。这样才能产出优质的译文，不过其质量还是比不上人工翻译。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 05:25, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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So before the machine can take over, it needs to understand humans better and needs to be ‘made more human’. Therefore, the understanding we gained through the different translation theories and experiences, we need to put into a complex set of rules, to enable the artificial intelligence not just to come to better results, but also to ‘understand’ why and how.<br />
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因此，在机器能够接管之前，它需要更好地了解人类，并且需要“让更多的人”。因此，我们从不同的翻译理论和经验中获得的理解，需要把一套复杂的规则，使人工智能不仅能够取得更好的结果，而且能够“理解”为什么和如何。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:04, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，在机器能够代替人类之前，它需要更好地了解人类，并且需要更“人性化”。因此，我们需要把从不同的翻译理论和经验中获得的理解编入一套复杂的规则指令中，使机器不仅能够翻得更准确，而且能够“理解”为什么要这么翻和怎么翻。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:29, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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因此，在机器能够取代人类之前，它需要更好地了解人类，并且需要更“人性化”。因此，我们需要把在不同的翻译理论和实践中取得的认知编入一套复杂的规则指令中，使机器不仅能够翻得更准确，而且能够“理解”这么翻译的理由和方法。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:53, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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The new forms of translating and interpreting are mostly managed by artificial intelligence, which applies big data analysis and algorithms on human translation and interpretation to find the most appropriate and most comprehensible translation/interpretation for a specific target text recipient. <br />
口笔译的新形式大多由人工智能处理完成，人工智能将大数据分析和算法应用于人工口笔译中，为特定目标文本的接受者找到最适合和最容易理解的笔译/口译。<br />
Therefore, the focus shifts from the person of the translator/interpreter to appropriateness (which is defined by analysis of cultural background and individual personalities) and comprehensiveness, the latter moving the focus further towards the audience.<br />
因此，翻译的重点从译者本身转向了“恰当性”(通过对文化背景和个人性格的分析来评定是否恰当)和综合性，而综合性又将重点进一步放在了读者身上。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 15:23, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The new forms of translating and interpreting are mostly managed by artificial intelligence, which applies big data analysis and algorithms on human translation and interpretation to find the most appropriate and most comprehensible translation/interpretation for a specific target text recipient. <br />
新的口译和笔译形式主要由人工智能管理，人工智能将大数据分析和算法应用于人工笔译和口译，为特定的目标文本接收者寻找最合适和最易理解的笔译/口译。<br />
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Therefore, the focus shifts from the person of the translator/interpreter to appropriateness (which is defined by analysis of cultural background and individual personalities) and comprehensiveness, the latter moving the focus further towards the audience.<br />
因此，研究的焦点从译员本身转移到通过分析文化背景和个性分析所确定的适当性和综合性上来，后者又进一步地将焦点转移到听众身上。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:16, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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The new forms of translating and interpreting are mostly managed by artificial intelligence, which applies big data analysis and algorithms on human translation and interpretation to find the most appropriate and most comprehensible translation/interpretation for a specific target text recipient. <br />
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口笔译的新形式表现在其大多由人工智能完成，而人工智能将大数据分析和算法应用于人工口笔译中，为特定目标文本的接受者提供最适合和最容易理解的口笔译服务。 --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 03:03, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the focus shifts from the person of the translator/interpreter to appropriateness (which is defined by analysis of cultural background and individual personalities) and comprehensiveness, the latter moving the focus further towards the audience.<br />
因此，翻译的重点从译者本身转向了“恰当性”(通过对文化背景和个人性格的分析来评定)和综合性，而综合性又将重点进一步放在了读者身上。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 03:03, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
Since the translation or interpretation may look different depending on the individual recipient, the new translation and interpretation will be individualized and therefore the focus moves not just to the audience, but to the personality of the individual recipient and his/her social and cultural environment.<br />
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由于笔译或口译可能会因为接受者的不同而有所不同，因此新型笔译和口译将会注重个性化发展，其重点不仅仅针对于受众，而是针对于接受者的性格以及他/她的社会文化环境。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:42, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于笔译和口译可能会因为接受者的不同而有所不同，新型笔译和口译将会注重个性化发展，因此其焦点不仅仅转移到受众身上，也将关注每个接受者的性格以及他/她的社会文化环境。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:17, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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由于笔译或口译可能会因接受者个体的不同而有所不同，所以新的笔译和口译将会是个性化的，因而翻译的焦点不仅会转移到受众身上，也会转移到接受者的个性和他/她的社会文化环境上。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:21, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
7. The New Type of Interpreting<br />
The new type of interpreting is a human-controlled, digital-technically supported hybrid form. The interpreter requires technical and digital skills and aids. Translation and interpreting can no longer take place without real-time technology, the minimum requirement is internet access. Quality-reducing factors currently include the use of lay interpreters in community situations, unqualified underpaid interpreters due to a lack of appreciation of the profession by inexperienced clients, and automatic translation programs, e.g., for various language versions of websites. However, a long-term trend toward qualitative improvement of automatic interpreting/translating through AI research can be observed, so that extrapolating past developments, even the complete replacement of the human interpreter by an AI in the future does not seem completely impossible any more.<br />
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新型口译是一种人工控制的，由数字技术支持的混合形式。口译员需要专业的数字技能的帮助。 没有实时技术，口笔译活动都无法进行，网络顺畅是最低要求。很多因素都导致翻译质量下降，其中包括，在一般交际场合请用非专业口译人员，经验不足的客户和自动翻译程序公司因缺乏专业认识低薪聘用不合格译者，例如有多种语言转换需求的网站。但是，通过人工智能研究来提高自动口笔译质量的长期趋势仍然存在，因此根据过去的发展趋势，甚至将来人工智能完全取代口译员工作也并非完全不可能。 --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 00:25, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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新形口译呈人工控制,数字科技支撑的混合形式。口译员需拥有科技和数字技能和设备。 没有了实时科技的支撑，口笔译活动无法实现，而接通网络是最基本的要求。由于客户缺乏对该行业的了解，在交往中使用业余译员，资历不够的低价译员以及使用自动翻译程序，例如多语种网站，这些都是造成翻译质量下降的因素。不过，通过人工智能的研究，我们可以观测到自动化口译，翻译质量提高的长期趋势。所以根据过去发展的推断，在未来，即使用人工智能来完全取代人类口译员也不是完全不可能的事。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:42, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
Appropriateness as the Least Common Denominator of Translation and Interpreting<br />
Foreword by Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University, China<br />
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Interpreting theories and interpreting studies are as old as human languages. Interpreting practice is exercised as soon as two individuals meet, with verbal and non-verbal languages both being an individual and a shared thing. Every person has his or her personal language and therefore is used to processing input by interpreting.When the person modifies its output according to the recipient, this is also interpreting from the personal language into one which he or she believes is better to be understood by the recipient.<br />
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翻译理论和翻译研究和人类语言一样古老。两个人相遇那一刻，翻译实践就开始了，此时，口语语言和非口语语言都既是个人也是两人共享的事情。每个人都有自己的个人语言，因此所有人都要通过翻译来处理输入信息。某个人通过回馈信息修改输出语言，也是将自己的个人语言翻译成他所认为的能被接受者更容易理解的语言。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:36, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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适当性是翻译和口译的最不常见的特征<br />
中国湖南师范大学，吴漠汀的前言<br />
翻译理论和翻译研究和人类语言一样古老。两个人一碰面，翻译实践就开始了，此时，口头语言和非口头语言都既是个人又是两人共享的东西。每个人都有自己的个人语言，因此习惯通过口译来处理输入的信息。人通过接收的信息修改其输出，也是将自己的个人语言翻译成他或她所认为的能更好地理解的语言。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:21, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Similarly, a grandmother and her grandchild communicate in the (supposed) language of the grandchild, the grandmother constantly interpreting complex language into a simpler one. This concept of interpreting, also called polyphony, is still valid when it comes to different (‘national’) languages. Depending on personal language abilities, the Anglophone grandmother would also choose simple French to explain things to her francophone grandchild. And in the case of any lack of respective language abilities, she would simplify things in nonverbal communication.<br />
同样，祖母和孙辈用孙辈(假定)的语言交流，祖母会不断地把复杂的语言解释为较简单的语言。这种解释的概念，也称为复调，在涉及到不同(“国家的”)语言时仍然有效。根据个人的语言能力，以英语为母语的祖母也会选择简单的法语向讲法语的孙子解释事情。在缺乏各自语言能力的情况下，她会简化非语言交际。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:29, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同样，祖母和孙辈用孙辈(假定)的语言交流，祖母会不断地把复杂的语言解释为较简单的语言。这种解释的概念，也称为复调，同样适用于用不同(“国家的”)语言进行交流的情况。根据个人的语言能力，以英语为母语的祖母也会选择用简单的法语向讲法语的孙子解释事情。在缺乏各自语言能力的情况下，她会用非语言交流的方式来简要表达自己的想法。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 06:21, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The earliest evidence of interpreters dates back to 4th millennium BCE Egypt: They were held in high esteem, they were noblemen or priests. Of course translation as opposed to interpreting needs media (text and/or images etc.). In general, translation started with the introduction of the written script and the first texts around 3000 BCE in Mesopotamia, with Ancient Egyptian and the Yi language in the area of presentday China. The earliest Chinese texts date around 1500 BCE.<br />
追溯到公元前4000年，在埃及出现了最早的口译员，他们备受崇敬，多为名门贵族或牧师神父。当然，相对于口译，翻译则需要媒介，如文本或意象等。总而言之，从公元前3000年在美索不达米亚发现书面稿件和第一份文本，以及古埃及文字和目前中国所用的彝语出现时，翻译也随之兴起。而中国的文本最早可追溯到公元前1500年左右. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 12:34, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最早证明口译者存在的证据可追溯到公元前四世纪的埃及，他们备受崇敬，多为贵族或者牧师。当然，翻译不是解释，需要借助媒介（文本和形象，或者单纯是形象等）。总而言之，翻译始于公元前三世纪在美索不达米亚发现书面稿件和第一份文本，以及古埃及文字和目前中国所用的彝语出现之时。而中文文本最早可追溯至公元前一千五百年。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:59, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
Along the trade route which later was called the Silk Road to Europe. Along this Trade Route, archetype stories were transported and transformed into the languages along the Silk Road, so that we find the archetype of the great flood both in the Gilgamesh Epos around 3000-2500 BCE in Mesopotamia, around 1850 BCE in Egypt, around 950 BCE in the Shijing, around 350 BCE in the Shanhaijing, in ancient Indian tales and in 440 BCE in the Old Testament (of the bible).<br />
这条贸易路线，后来被称为通往欧洲的丝绸之路。沿着这条贸易路线，原型故事经沿丝绸之路传播并翻译为各种语言，因此我们能在大约公元前3000-2500年的美索不达米亚和公元前1850年的埃及、公元前950年左右的石景，山海经和古代印度传说中记载的公元前350年， 旧约圣经中公元前440年时，都能找到这次巨大洪水的原型。--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 12:22, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
Translators had an impact on the historical development of languages. The Roman dramatist Livius Andronicus (c. 285-204 BC) wrote a Latin version of the Odyssey (250 BCE) and a number of plays commissioned for the Roman Games of 240 BCE. His translations of Greek dramas into Latin founded the Roman drama tradition and shaped the Latin language. Already in the 2nd century BC translations from Greek to Latin were so popular that, for the first time in history, two translators (Plautus and Terence) were able to make a living from it.<br />
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译者对语言的历史发展有很大的影响。罗马剧作家Livius Andronicus(约公元前285-204年)写了拉丁文版的《奥德赛》(公元前250年)，并为公元前240年的罗马游戏创作了许多剧本。他把希腊戏剧翻译成拉丁文，开创了罗马戏剧的传统，塑造了拉丁语言。早在公元前2世纪，把希腊语翻译成拉丁语就已经非常流行，历史上第一次有两位译者(普劳图斯和特伦斯)能够以此谋生。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:40, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译者们对语言的历史发展产生了影响。罗马剧作家卢修斯·李维乌斯·安得罗尼库斯（公元前285至204年）撰写了拉丁语版本的《奥赛罗》（公元前250年），并为公元前240年的罗马游戏舞台创作了大量剧本。他将希腊的戏剧翻译成了拉丁语，开创了罗马戏剧的传统，同时也塑造了拉丁语言。在公元前2世纪，将希腊语翻译成拉丁语的翻译活动就已经非常流行了，因此历史上第一次有两位翻译者(普劳图斯和特伦斯)能够以翻译作品来谋生。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 04:48, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
The German language, for its part, was shaped by a translator Martin Luther, who translated the Bible, commonly read in Latin at the time, into German. <br />
The prescription, to translate “word for word” was raised both in China and in Europe at a very early time: In the 5th century Dao An, Director of the Imperial Translation School, advocated strict literal translation of the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. His prescription came from the fear to miss something from the original. It is important to mention that he did not know Sanskrit at all.<br />
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德语则是由翻译家马丁·路德塑造的，他把当时读者众多的拉丁语版的《圣经》翻译成德语。“逐字逐句”的翻译这种准则很早就在中国和欧洲提出：在公元5世纪，皇家翻译学院的院长道安主张严格将佛经翻译成中文。他这样做的出发点是因为害怕丢失一些原始的东西。值得一提的是，他根本不懂梵语。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:56, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
The Indian Buddhist monk Kumarajiva (350-410) carried out a great reform of the principles and methods for the translation of Sanskrit sutras. He advocated a free translation approach with the aim to transfer the true essence of the Sanskrit Sutras. He was the first person in the history of translation in China to suggest that translators should sign their names to the translated work.<br />
印度佛教僧侣鸠摩罗吉瓦(350-410)对梵文佛经的翻译原则和方法进行了重大改革。他主张采用意译的方法，目的是传递梵文佛经的真正精髓。他是中国翻译史上第一个建议译者在译著上签名的人。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:15, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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印度佛教僧侣鸠摩罗吉瓦（350-410）对梵文佛经的翻译原则和方法进行了重大改革，他主要提倡意译的方法，目的是传达梵文佛经的真谛。他是中国翻译史上建议译者在译著上签名的第一人。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:35, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Dao An’s prescription was partly based upon the understanding that the original texts were somehow “sacred”. A similar dogma of literal translations of religious texts was raised in Europe and even determined an ideological battle on free/literal bible translation for centuries. The translator Dolet in 1546 was burned for adding the phrase “Rien du tout. (Nothing.)” to a rhethorical passage about what existed after death.<br />
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原文某种程度上是“神圣的”。道安的译文正是部分基于这一理解而出的。在欧洲，对宗教文章进行直译时，就有一种类似于他这种观点的教条思想，这甚至可以说是几个世纪以来对《圣经》进行直译还是意译的思想之战。1546年，翻译家多莱因为在一篇描写死后有什么东西还存在的辞藻华丽的文章里面加入了“Rien du tout. (意思是“什么都没有”)”这一短语而被处以火刑。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:57, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
Cicero in his book De optimo genere oratum (The Best Kind of Orator) opposed word-for-word translation. For the orator, the target text had to be as forceful and convincing as the original text. Horace called translators, who translated word for word “slavish”. St. Jerome in his book De optimo genere interpretandi (The Best Kind of Interpreting) in 395 CE advocated: “Non verbum de verbo sed sensum de senso.” (Not word for word but sense for sense.)<br />
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西塞罗在其著作《论演说家》中对直译持有反对意见，对于演说家来说，目标文本必须像原文一样有强大的说服力。贺拉斯称直译者为“奴隶”。圣·哲罗姆则在公元395年完成的《最好的解释》一书中提出：“不能直译，而要意译。”--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:09, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西塞罗在其《论演说家》一书中反对逐字逐句的翻译。对演说家来说，目标文本必须与原文一样有强大的说服力。贺拉斯称逐字逐句翻译的人为“奴隶”。圣·杰罗姆在公元395年所著的《最好的解释》一书中主张“不要逐字逐句翻译，要意译。”--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:16, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西塞罗在其著作《论演说家》中反对逐字逐句的翻译。对于演说家来说，目标文本必须与原文一样有强大的说服力。贺拉斯称逐字逐句翻译的人为“奴隶”。圣·杰罗姆在公元395年所著的《最好的解释》一书中主张“不要逐字逐句翻译，要意译。”--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 06:40, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
However, Apuleius altered Greek dramas beyond recognition. Quintilian understood that translations shape also the target language, which he called “enrichment”. He further developed translation studies by establishing terms like metaphrasis (word-for-word translation) and paraphrasis (sentence-by-sentence translation), later further developed by Dryden (1680). Tytler (1797) advocated instead, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, with the same style, manner and ease.<br />
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然而，阿普列尤斯采用意译方法所译的希腊戏剧却令人难以理解。昆体良认为，翻译也可以对目的语进行塑造，这一观点被其称为“增润”（enrichment）。他通过建立诸如metaphrasis（逐词翻译）和paraphrasis（逐句翻译）之类的术语发展了翻译研究，随后德莱顿（1680）对此有了进一步的完善。而泰特勒（1797）则主张，译作应该完全复写出原作的思想，拥有与原作同一性质的风格和手法，并具备原作的通顺。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:31, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
In Republican times, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai were among the prominent advocates of a literal translation. Chinese translation studies has embraced the English term “translatology”, while internationally, the research is named “translation and interpreting studies”, which is also the term for the volume in hand.<br />
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But the dichotomy of free/literal did not shape the whole discourse in translation studies. Other dichotomies were foreignizing/localizing and imitation/re-creation (Dong Qiusi 1946).<br />
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民国时期，鲁迅和瞿秋白是直译的主要倡导者。中国翻译研究已包含英文术语“翻译学”，但在国际上，该研究称为“翻译和口译研究”，这也是手头卷的术语。<br />
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然而，意译和直译的二分法并没有塑造翻译研究的整个论述。其它二分法包括异化或归化以及模仿或再创作（董秋斯，1946）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:49, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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民国时期，鲁迅和瞿秋白是直译的杰出倡导者。中国翻译研究中已涵盖“翻译学”这一英文术语，但在国际上，该研究被命名为“翻译和口译研究”，这也是我手头这卷书中的术语。<br />
但意译和直译二分法并没有决定整个翻译研究的论述，其它二分法还包括异化/归化二分法及模仿/再创造二分法。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:29, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
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== Headline text ==<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
A prominent advocate of foreignizing was Schleiermacher in the 19th century, who advocated that the source text should shine through the target text, since thoughts would shape the language. This was further elaborated by Walter Benjamin and Ortega y Gasset. The Sapir/Whorf hypothesis is the assumption that different languages lead to a different understanding of the world.<br />
在19世纪，一位杰出的“异化”提倡者施莱尔马赫认为，因为思想塑造语言, 源文本应在目标文本中表现出来。沃特·本杰明与奥特嘉·伊·加塞特进一步详细阐述了这一点。萨皮儿/沃夫假说提出一种假设，即不同语言导致对世界不同理解。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 08:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
19世纪的施莱尔马赫是异化论的著名倡导者，他主张语言的形成是由思想决定的，所以源文本应该贯穿于目的文本。沃特·本杰明和奥特嘉·伊·加塞特对此做了进一步的阐述。萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说认为不同的语言会导致对世界的不同理解。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:37, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
Chinese translation studies is not at all referring to a Chinese tradition of translation studies, but to translation studies dealing (also) with Chinese as a language. However, most of the research conducted in this area holds also true for other languages and therefore for interpreting and translation studies in general. It might be questioned if a Chinese tradition of translation theories exists. Students of translation studies often choose the topic “Comparison of Chinese and Western Theories of Translation”.<br />
中文翻译研究根本不是指翻译研究的中国传统，而是指（也）涉及中文作为语言的翻译研究。 但是，在该领域进行的大多数研究对于其他语言也是如此，因此对于一般的口译和翻译研究也是如此。 可能会质疑中国是否存在翻译理论的传统。 翻译研究的学生经常选择“中西翻译理论的比较”这一主题。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 10:26, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
However, they get frustrated because they cannot find elaborated theories coming from China and they end up calling normative prescriptive concepts like “xin, da, ya” (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance) by Yan Fu “translation theory”. Yan Fu’s three ideals are better called a prescriptive recommendation for practical translation strategies. Of course the ideals are questionable, for why should a postmodern poem including the stuttering line “I, I c…, I can’t breath!” be translated into an elegant line in a different language?<br />
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然而，他们却因为找不到来自中国的详尽的理论而感到沮丧，最终将严复的“信、达、雅”(信、达、雅)等规范性概念称为“翻译理论”。严复的“三个要求”更确切地说是对翻译策略的一种规范性建议。当然，这些要求是有问题的，难道后现代主义诗歌中结巴的诗句“我，我…，我不能呼吸!”要被翻译成另一种语言的优美诗句吗?--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 00:18, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，他们却因为找不到来自中国的精辟理论而灰心丧气，最终把严复的“信、达、雅”等规范性概念称为“翻译理论”。严复的这三个理想标准，更确切地说是实用翻译策略的规范性建议。当然，这些理想标准是值得怀疑的，因为难道一首后现代主义诗歌，包括结巴的诗句“我，我…我不能呼吸！“，也应该被翻译成另一种语言的优雅诗句吗？--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 13:21, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
Similarly, the “transfiguration theory” by Qian Zhongshu with his concept of the “sublime” may count as an important statement, that translation and interpreting cannot be analyzed and understood to the last resort and keep their air of mystery. However, recent neurological research and artificial intelligence research have been tackling this last resort already.<br />
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同样，钱钟书的“转化理论”和他的“化境”概念可以作为一个重要的说明，即翻译和口译不能够被分析和理解到最后，并保持其神秘性。然而，最近的神经学研究和人工智能研究已经在解决这一最后的手段了。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:57, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
同样，钱钟书的“转化理论”和他的“化境”概念可以算作一个重要的说明，即不能够将笔译和口译分析和理解为最后一种手段，而忽略其艺术性。然而，最近的神经学研究和人工智能研究已经在解决这一最后手段了。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同样的是，钱钟书所提出的化境翻译理论，以“崇高”作为其概念，是一种重要的陈述，而笔译和口译不能被分析或理解成最后一种方式来保证其神秘。然而，最近的神经研究和人工智能研究已经开始处理这一最后步骤。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 01:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
Still, Chinese is an important language and it has some characteristics, which make research especially on Chinese in translation and interpreting studies valuable. One characteristic is that the meaning of a sentence may change totally until the very end of the sentence. Imagine just a “……的说法我反对。” (… is a statement I oppose.) at the end. Therefore, the decalage for conference interpreters interpreting from Chinese into other languages is quite long.<br />
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尽管如此，汉语还是一种重要的语言，并且具有一定的特征。这使得在翻译和口译的研究中对汉语的研究尤其有价值。其特征之一是，到了句子的最后，一个句子的意思还可能会完全改变。想象一下一个句子的最后是“……的说法我反对。” 因此，会议口译员将中文翻译成其他语言的时间相对较长。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 00:50, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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汉语仍然是一门重要的语言，并且具有一定的特征。这也就使得这些研究，尤其是关于汉语翻译和口译方面，更具有价值。汉语的特征之一就是，即使是到了一个句子的最后，这个句子的意思还可能会完全改变，（比如）想象一个句子的最后是“……的说法我反对“。因此，会议口译人员将中文翻译成其他语言的时间会比较长。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:51, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Seyed Hossein Heydarian has analyzed the statistical occurrences of certain translation strategies with different pairs of languages. According to his findings, every language has a specific fingerprint of translation strategies, each fingerprint referring to specific language pairs.<br />
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The first lay interpreters naturally reflected on their interpreting work and this was the start of theories and studies. As soon as the written language was invented, critical reflection also started and with it translation theories and translation studies.<br />
Seyed Hossein Heydarian分析了不同语言对中某些翻译策略的统计出现情况。根据他的发现，每种语言都有一个特定的翻译策略指纹，每个指纹指向特定的语言对。第一批外行译员反思自己的口译工作，这是理论和研究的开始。书面语言一出现，批评性反思也随之开始，翻译理论和翻译研究也随之开始。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 03:34, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
The first thoughts about transferring the meaning of one language into a similar one of another language were prescriptive with precepts and principles, sometimes exaggerated into dogma with people not adhering to them being tortured or executed, especially in the religious context, when the original was declared “holy” and certain groups claimed the monopoly authority of interpreting. During translation history, the perspective changed from “prescriptive” to “descriptive”, reflecting a more neutral approach of analysis.<br />
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一开始将一种语言的含义转换为另一种相似含义的语言的想法是有规定和原则的，它有时被夸大为教条，尤其是在宗教环境中，当宣布原语言为标准或某些团体声称拥有口译权的时候。人们不会遵循这些规定而遭受酷刑或处决， 在翻译历史中，观点从“规定性”变为“描述性”，反映了一种更为中立的分析方法。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:00, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
将一种语言的含义转换为另一种语言的类似含义，对于这一最初想法，人们奉为规定性原则。在某些情况下，尤其是宗教环境中，这一“原则”甚至被夸大为教条，声称原文是神圣的东西，一些团体甚至扬言有权垄断翻译。因此，人们只要是不遵守，要么接受酷刑，要么直接处死。在翻译历史中，观点从“规定性”变为“描述性”，反映了一种更为中立的分析方法。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:47, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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一开始将一种语言的含义转换为另一种相似含义的语言的想法是要遵循约定俗成的规定和原则的，它有时被夸大为教条，人们便不会遵循这些规定因而遭受酷刑或处决，尤其是在宗教环境中，当宣布原语言为标准或某些团体声称拥有口译权的时候。 在翻译历史中，观点从“规定性”变为“描述性”，反映了一种更为中立的分析方法。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:47, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
However, translation theory needs to be able to go beyond the description of translation to show parallels and differences between different translation processes in order to come to a generalized model which could serve to help understand the process better. Translation theories can also offer different translation methods/strategies depending on intersubjectively comprehensible criteria.<br />
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然而，翻译理论不只是翻译描述，还应体现不同翻译过程之间的异同，以得出一个通用模式，从而有助于更好地理解翻译过程。翻译理论也可根据主体间易理解的标准，提供不同翻译方法/策略。<br />
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--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 15:08, 10 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
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但是，翻译理论需要能够超越翻译描述，以显示不同翻译过程之间的异同，以便得出可以帮助更好地理解翻译过程的广义模型。翻译理论还可以根据主体间可理解的标准来提供不同的翻译方法/策略。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:49, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，翻译理论不仅仅是对翻译的简单描述，还应该要指出不同翻译过程中的异同，得出一个广义模型，以便人们更好的理解翻译过程。此外，翻译理论还可以根据主体间可理解的标准来提供不同的翻译方法/策略。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 03:20, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
In the Renaissance, the most extensive treatise on the topic of translation is the Interpretatio linguarum (1559) by Laurence Humphrey. It is situated in the context of a debate initiated by Joachim Périon in 1540, who analyzed Cicero’s recommendations on translation. Cicero proposed, that the purpose of a translated speech was to be persuasive, therefore the translator needed to be free in his translation and not be bound by the original and by the request of a literal translation.<br />
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文艺复兴时期，在翻译这个主题上最广泛的专著是劳伦斯•汉弗莱的《翻译语言》（1559）。此专著的写作背景是约阿希姆•佩里翁于1540年发起的一场辩论，约阿希姆•佩里翁对西塞罗的翻译建议进行了分析。西塞罗提出，翻译演讲的目的是有说服力，因此译者在翻译时必须是自由自在的，不受原文和直译要求的束缚。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:30, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
Périon shifted the focus from the dichotomy of literal/free to the people involved in translation and to the interpersonal act. Humphrey understood translation as self-expression, a very modern understanding. There is an interesting new study by Sheldon Brammall (2018) in the Review of English Studies 68 (288) documenting the debate. It includes an annotation of the Interpretatio in 1570 by Gabriel Harvey. He recognized the text as an important document of early English translation studies. The text questions the applicability of the concepts in Interpretatio.<br />
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佩里昂将关注点从文字或自由二分法转向了翻译人员和人际交往行为上。汉弗莱认为翻译是自我表达，这是一种非常当代的理解。谢尔顿·布拉姆莫尔在《英语研究评论68》（288）中做了一项新的有趣的研究，记录了这场辩论。这个研究包含了加布里埃尔·哈维在1570年对《翻译》的注释。他认为这一文本是早期英文翻译研究的重要文献。它对概念在翻译中的适用性提出了质疑。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:03, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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佩里昂将关注点从直译或意译的二分法转向了翻译人员和人际交往行为上。汉弗莱将翻译视作自我表达，这是一种非常现代化的理解。谢尔顿·布拉姆莫尔在2018年做了一项有趣的新研究，他在《英语研究评论》第68期第288页中记录了这场辩论。这个研究包含了加布里埃尔·哈维在1570年对《翻译》的注释。他认为这一文本是早期英文翻译研究的重要文献。这一文本对概念在《翻译》中的应用提出了质疑。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:59, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
In the 1960s, translation was simply an element of language learning. Translations of Aesop’s Fables in several languages (including in Chinese by Jesuit missionaries in China) were efforts at transmitting language learning textbooks. Only in the 1970s, did translation studies start to become aware of itself as an academic discipline, starting with a volume edited by André Lefevere. Some scholars chose the perspective of the contrastive approach.<br />
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20世纪60年代，翻译仅仅是语言学习的要素之一。《伊索寓言》多种语言的译本（包括耶稣会传教士在中国翻译的中文译本）促进了语言学习教科书的传播。仅在20世纪70年代，翻译研究开始意识到其自身作为一门学科，这一研究活动始于安德烈▪勒菲弗尔编辑的一卷书。一些学者选择从对比分析法的角度开始研究。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:22, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在20世纪60年代，翻译只是语言学习的一个要素。为了传播语言学习教材,《伊索寓言》被翻译成多种语言(包括耶稣会传教士在中国翻译的中文)。直到20世纪70年代，翻译研究才开始意识到自己是一门学术学科，其始于安德烈·莱弗维尔(Andre Lefevere)编辑的一部著作。一些学者选择从对比分析法的角度开始研究。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 08:29, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
Eugene Nida, a bible translator, derived theory from practice while introducing linguistic theory and formal equivalency into translation studies. He defined verbatim translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, compilation, free translation, authentic translation and communicative translation. Later, his research was further elaborated with strong linguistic approaches and theories of equivalency and was followed by methods from discourse analysis and the speech act theory (translation as a communicative act in a social cultural context).<br />
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圣经翻译家尤金·奈达在实践中总结了理论，又将语言学理论和形式对等引入了翻译研究。 他定义了逐字翻译，直译，忠实翻译，语义翻译，编译，意译，真实翻译和交际翻译。 后来，他用强大的语言学方法和对等理论以及后来的话语分析和言语行为理论（将翻译视为在社会文化语境中一种交流行为）将研究进一步完善。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 06:27, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
There was a revival of the descriptive approach, which regards the target text as most important, and then the Skopos theory, which advocats functional equivalency and values the translator as most important. In the early 1990s, as a reaction to linguistic ‘scientific’ analysis, the theoretical and methodological shift in Translation Studies towards cultural studies is primarily associated with the works of Susan Bassnett, André Lefevere, and Lawrence Venuti.<br />
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描述方法再次兴起，其认为目标文本最为重要，其次才是目的论理论（Skopos theory），而后者主张功能对等并强调了译员的重要性。在20世纪90年代初，翻译研究在理论和方法方面向文化研究转变，以对语言“科学”分析进行回应，这主要与苏珊·巴斯奈特，安德烈·勒弗弗雷和劳伦斯·文努蒂的著作有关。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:52, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
The volume at hand is both from practitioners in the field and scholars who embed their research in the theoretical framework of the field as well as into its development. In the field of translation and interpreting studies, the claim about Asian or Western traditions is overcome. We have international scholars from both sides whose only qualification is their expertise in the field. Still the voices are diverse, since they cover a large range of topics and perspectives, symbolizing how diverse the research is today. The key word today is transdisciplinary research.<br />
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现有的这本书是由该领域的从业人员和研究理论框架及其发展的学者所编写的。在口笔译研究领域，关于亚洲或西方传统的言论已经消除。我们拥有来自亚洲和西方精通专业的国际学者。至今人们仍持有不同的声音，因为它们涵盖了广泛的主题和观点，体现着现如今研究的多样性。当今的关键词是跨学科研究。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:18, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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现有的这个版本是由该领域的从业人员和研究理论框架及其发展的学者所编写的。在口笔译研究领域，关于亚洲或西方的传统言论已经消除。我们拥有来自亚洲和西方专业的国际学者。至今人们对此仍持有不同的看法，因为它们涵盖了广泛的主题和观点，体现着当代研究的多样性，关键词是跨学科研究。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 01:57, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
In translation history, especially when translation studies consisted mostly of prescriptions, ideals were pursued and equivalency was sought for, although a source text and a target text can never be totally equivalent. The myth of untranslatability was created by Wilhelm von Humboldt in the 19th century and further elaborated by L. Weisgerber in the 20th century, although everything is translatable.<br />
在翻译史上，尤其是当翻译研究主要集中在翻译方法方面时，翻译就开始追求完美和对等，即使源语和目标语根本不可能完全对等。虽然一切语言都是可译的，但是19世纪威廉·冯·洪堡创造了不可译性这个谬误，20世纪里奥·韦斯伯格又对这一观念进行了进一步阐释。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:57, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在翻译史上，尤其是当翻译研究主要集中在翻译方法方面时，翻译就开始追求完美和对等，即使源文本和目标文本根本不可能完全对等。虽然一切语言都是可译的，但是19世纪威廉·冯·洪堡创造了不可译性这个谬误，20世纪里奥·韦斯伯格又对这一观念进行了进一步的阐释。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:06, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君== <br />
It is more a question of appropriateness and acceptance of a translation. Evaluation criteria for the quality assessment of translations have been developed, although it can never objectively be judged, how far the translation result (also called “translat”) corresponds to the source text. In certain situations, it is appropriate to translate a pear into an apple (for example if the function of this fruit in the story stays the same and for the target audience apples are as common as for the source audience pears).<br />
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这更多的是一个翻译的适当性和接受性的问题。翻译质量评估的评价标准已经形成，但翻译结果(又称“译文”)与原文的对应程度始终无法客观地加以评判。在某些情况下，把一个梨翻译成一个苹果是合适的(例如，如果这个水果在故事中的功能保持不变，并且苹果对于目标读者而言跟梨对于原文读者而言一样常见）。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 04:57, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
As we have witnessed during the history of translation studies, the concentration has been on the different actors in the field of translation: “Skopos” concentrating on the function for the target audience and on the person and intention of the translator, “foreignizing” the text by moving it closer to the source author (and staying loyal to him/her) or “localizing” it, thus moving it closer to the target audience.<br />
在翻译研究的历史中，我们见证了翻译领域中不同的行动者的关注:“目的论”关注目标受众的功能，关注译者的个人和意图，“异化”文本，让其更接近原文作者(并保持对原文作者的忠诚)，或者“本土化”文本，从而更靠近目标受众。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 14:30, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在翻译研究史上，对翻译领域不同角色均有所关注：“目的论”关注目标受众，注重译者自身及其目的，“异化”强调使译本尽量接近原文作者（并忠实于原文作者），亦或“本土化”，强调使译文尽量接近目标语受众。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 02:03, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在翻译研究的历史中，我们见证了翻译领域中不同的行动者的关注:“目的论”关注目标受众的功能，关注译者的个人和意图，“异化”文本，让其更接近原文作者(并保持对原文作者的忠诚)，或者“本土化”文本，从而更靠近目标受众。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 14:30, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在翻译研究史上，对翻译领域不同角色均有所关注：“目的论”关注目标受众，注重译者自身及其目的，“异化”强调使译本尽量接近原文作者（并忠实于原文作者），亦或“本土化”，强调使译文尽量接近目标语受众。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:07, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
“Hybrid men-machine translation” moves the focus to the individualization of the target texts, tailoring translations to the needs of individual readers/spectators. Neurology will map the thought processes necessary to create a thinking artificial intelligence and even tackles issues like consciousness, (self-)awareness, understanding as well as artificially enhanced human translation, swarm intelligence and consciousness.<br />
“人机混合翻译”关注目标文本的个性化，以满足读者或观众的个性化需求。人们根据神经学原理打造出会思考的机器人。机器人可以向人一样思考，甚至还具有意识，自我意识，理解能力，以及人为强化人工翻译，群体意识和意识。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:28, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
<br />
“人机结合翻译”关注的是目标文本的个性化，根据读者或观众的个人需求提供量身定制的翻译服务。神经学将编制出一套思维程序，必要时打造出一个可以像人一样思考的机器人，甚至还能解决问题，不仅具有意识、自我认知和理解能力，同时具有人为强化的人工翻译、集群智能和集体意识。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Besides this trend towards individualization, there is a growing interest in sociology to understand translations as social processes and to concentrate on the interaction between the different actors.<br />
<br />
<br />
除了这种趋向个性化的趋势外，社会学界对将翻译理解为社会过程并专注于不同行为者之间的相互作用的兴趣日益浓厚。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:41, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
除了这种个性化的趋势外，社会学更倾向于把翻译理解为社会过程，并专注于不同行为者之间的相互作用。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 14:16, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
除了这种个性化的趋势外，社会学也越来越把翻译理解为社会过程，并且越来越关注不同行为者之间的相互作用。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 00:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Certain things have turned out to be of eternal wisdom. It is also important to know your native language well, not just the foreign language.<br />
结果证明有些事是永恒的智慧。不仅是学习外语，学习母语也很重要。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 14:24, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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有些事本是永恒的智慧。学习外语的同时，更应擅长母语。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 15:07, 10 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
We have also witnessed a journey of theories over the centuries, which all highlight different aspects of the phenomenon. They constrain themselves to the medium, the area, the grammatical level, the text-type, to certain problems (like establishing equivalence), they are oriented at products, functions or processes.<br />
<br />
纵观数世纪以来翻译理论的发展，都从不同方面强调了这一现象。翻译理论面向产品，功能和过程，并从媒介，地域，语法，文本类型和诸如建立对等关系等特定问题入手进行研究。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 10:21, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
All these theories are at hand today to explain different parts of the translation process. We see different functional approaches, empirical-pragmatic ones, including didactic questions instead of old normative/prescriptive translation studies, approaches from the neurological and the social sciences, all trying to become aware of the translation process.<br />
<br />
所有的这些理论都可以用来解释翻译过程中的不同部分。我们所看到的功能派理论、经验主义-实用主义派理论（采用说教式的提问方法而非老式的规范化的翻译研究方式）以及从神经学和社会科学衍生出来的理论都在力图掌握诠释翻译的过程。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:19, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
However, as Mary Snell-Hornby requested already in 1988 with her proposition of “integrated translation studies”, these theories need to be seen together as one today.<br />
<br />
然而，正如Mary Snell-Hornby在1988年提出的“整合翻译研究”的主张所要求的那样，这些理论在今天需要被看作是一个整体。<br />
<br />
All of these theories can be boiled down to one question they serve: Is the translation appropriate? In other words, is it adequate, suitable, reasonable, fair, just, apt, situationally fitting, does it work in the target language/culture?<br />
<br />
所有这些理论都可以归结为一个问题:这样翻译合适吗? 换句话说，它是否充分、合适、合理、公平、公正、恰当、应景，在目标语言/文化中是否仍适用?--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 08:23, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
Therefore, the “Appropriateness Theory” is the final theory of all translation theories. Of course there may be different answers to the question of appropriateness in different times and from different actors, perspectives, disciplines etc. An evaluation of the appropriateness of a translation can only be relative and never absolute.<br />
<br />
因此，“适当性理论”是所有翻译理论中的的终极理论。 当然，从在不同的时间，不同的人群，不同的视角，不同的领域等方面来看，什么是适当性会有不同的答案。对翻译适当性的评估只能是相对的，绝不能是绝对的。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 08:55, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
因此,"得体论"是所有翻译理论的终极理论.当然,不同的时代,不同的译者,不同的观点,不同的学科对"得体论"的解释也会有所不同.对译文是否恰当的评价只能是相对的,而不能是绝对的.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:58, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
Therefore it is necessary to establish a system of evaluation, valuing the different aspects such as the function of the text, loyalty to the author, the ideals of literal/free translation, and how far a translation can ‘work’ in the target language.<br />
<br />
Of historical importance is the question for appropriateness, which in turn leads us to fundamental ethical questions: Should you report things you overheard from the foreign negotiation team to your own team to enhance your own team’s chances?<br />
<br />
因此有必要建立一个评估体系，从文本的功能，对作者的忠实度，直译或者意译的标准程度以及在目的语中译文能发挥多大的作用等不同角度对译文进行评估。<br />
<br />
翻译得体问题是一个具有历史意义的问题，它反过来又引导我们提出基本的伦理问题。你是否应该把你在国外谈判团队无意中听到的消息汇报给自己的队伍，以增加自己团队的机会呢？--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 02:37, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
Is it appropriate to tell a standard joke in the target language when the country’s leader has told a racist joke? What implications does it have about the foreign country’s leader, when he laughs at your standard joke? The country’s leader may think he laughed at his (racist) joke. Is it appropriate to take over the role of a negotiation participant when you are hired for interpreting? (See the contribution in this volume.) When you are a wartime interpreter: Is it appropriate to translate propaganda and to interpret for a dictator?<br />
<br />
当国家领导人说了一个种族主义笑话时，译员用目的语说一个普通笑话是否合适？外国领导人因译员的普通笑话发笑，这对他有什么影响？国家领导人可能认为外国领导人在笑种族主义笑话。受聘为口译员后，接管谈判参与者的身份是否合适？（详见本文内容）当你作为一个战时口译员，为独裁者翻译宣传和口译是否合适？--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:24, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Is it appropriate to translate the German order “Feuer!” [Shoot!] by the German commander into French if the collaborating French soldiers would commit a crime against humanity when they understood and executed the order? Where to draw the line to refuse to translate? What consequences does it have if you refuse? What responsibilities do interpreters and translators have? The Appropriateness Theory is complex and shows us that a Code of Ethics needs to be established.<br />
<br />
Bochum/Germany, September 30, 2020<br />
<br />
德国指挥官发出命令“开火”，把这一德语命令翻译成法语，合作的法国士兵们要是听懂并执行了，就违背了人道，那这样翻译是否恰当？在哪里划分拒绝翻译的界线？如果拒绝翻译会有什么后果？口笔译者们有什么责任？恰当性理论十分复杂，表明我们需要确立道德规范。<br />
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2020年9月30日 德国/波鸿--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 09:48, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
当德国指挥官手下的法国士兵一旦听懂其长官用德语说的“开火”命令，就会执行军令，做出违背人道主义的行为时，是否还应该将德语的“开火”翻译为对应的法语？什么时候可以不翻？如果不翻会产生怎样的后果？口笔译译员承担着怎样的责任？适当性理论较为复杂，告诉了我们道德规范准则建立的重要性。<br />
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德国，波鸿 2020年9月30日 --[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:55, 10 October 2020 (UTC)</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20200928_trans&diff=11622420200928 trans2020-12-20T05:02:59Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Zhou Luoping 周罗平 */</p>
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<div>Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage].<br />
<br />
Dear students, this is the homework of Sep 28, due in October 2020.<br />
<br />
=Task=<br />
An English book on contemporary Chinese literature was submitted to the Chinese editor. He has not enough time and asks his students to help to translate it paragraph by paragraph into Chinese. So this time it is easier than last time, because the translation is into Chinese. He also asks the students to help improve the translation of at least one fellow student und asks them to sign their translations with the signature button (buttons on the top, third from right).<br />
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Since it is a book on contemporary Chinese literature, some quotations from Chinese novels in English need to be identified in the original language (Chinese) instead of retranslate the translations into Chinese.<br />
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==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
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The Chinese contemporary literature at the beginning of the 21st century appears hardly compatible with the German book market. Many stories of the mostly young writers from the Middle Kingdom, who are often celebrated like pop stars, publish their books partly in millions of copies, such as Guo Jingming郭敬明, seem too bizarre. This cult literature is translatable, however loses its cult status.<br />
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21世纪初的中国当代文学很难融入德国图书市场。很多来自中国如明星般受欢迎的年轻作家，他们的有些作品十分畅销， 郭敬明就是其中之一，而他书中的故事看起来很荒谬。这种崇拜文学作品虽然可以翻译成不同语言，但其他国家的读者并不买账。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 07:09, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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21世纪初的中国当代文学作品似乎难以与德国图书市场相适应。很多来自中国的出名的年轻作家，比如郭敬明，他们的书一出版就是数百万册，这似乎太离奇了。这种文学作品虽然可以翻译成其它语言，但并没有得到外国读者的认可。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 05:28, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, trends can be seen that reflect the extreme social upheaval process in China: Zhang Ailing 张爱玲 created women's literature with the inner view of the Shanghaier big city singles, for example, which has found a whole generation of successors. Or the vagabond literature (liumang wenxue 学 文学) of a Wang Shuo, which has become long since an establishment and whose current is attributable to the scandal literature.<br />
然而，趋势反映了中国社会的极端动荡过程。例如，张爱玲是从上海大城市单身人士的内心观点出发来创作女性文学的，这些人已经找到了整整一代的接班人。或者说王朔的流氓文学，它在该流派成立之前就早已存在，其潮流可归因于丑闻文学。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 05:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，这些趋势反映了中国极其动荡的社会发展。例如，张爱玲通过了解上海那些大城市里的单身汉的内心想法来创作女性文学，这些人已经找到了整整一代的接班人。又比如王朔的流氓文学，它在该流派成立之前就一直存在，其如今的趋势也得益于丑闻文学。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:11, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，种种趋势反映了中国社会跌宕起伏的发展。比如，张爱玲从上海大城市单身人士的内心出发创作女性文学，这一文学影响了整整一代人。又比如说王朔的流氓文学，早在该流派建立之前就已存在，而其得以发展得益于丑闻文学。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 11:22, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，这些趋势反映出中国社会的大动乱：例如：张爱玲以一个上海大都市的单身人士的内心出发，创作了女性文学，这一文学已经影响了接下来的一整代人。又如王朔的流氓文学，成立至今已久，其现在的趋势可归因于丑闻文学。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 15:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
The wave of nostalgia with new interpretations of classics such as Confucius, Menzius, or the novel "Three Kingdoms," e.g. from the professor and television presenter Yu Dan.<br />
Finally, the young, realistic literature with autobiographical traits and fictive elements of an alienated urban youth, which ultimately seeks the happiness of love between alcohol, drugs and party excesses. This literature certainly belongs to youth literature, since the protagonists belong to the younger generation. The authors themselves remain ephimatic, as long as they have not made the leap into the establishment, as Mian Mian.<br />
<br />
自著名教授兼电视节目人于丹对孔孟经典、《三国志》进行新的诠释后，掀起了怀旧浪潮。最后，现实主义年轻文学具备了被疏远的城市青年的自传体特性和虚构元素，青年们最终在酒精、毒品、狂欢中追求爱的幸福。这些文学作品肯定属于青年文学范畴，因为主人公都是青年一代。作家们只要没能在文学界站住脚跟，就会像棉棉（当代中国作家）那样，一直保持谦逊。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自著名教授兼电视人于丹对《孔子》《孟子》《三国志》等经典作品进行新的诠释后，掀起了一股怀旧浪潮。最后，年轻的现实主义文学具备了被疏远的城市青年的自传体特性和虚构元素，青年们最终在酒精、毒品及狂欢中追求爱的幸福。这些文学作品肯定属于青年文学的范畴，因为主人公都是青年一代。作者们只要没能在文学界站稳脚跟，就会像棉棉（当代中国作家）那样，一直保持谦逊。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 12:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
<br />
Surprising newcomer is the author Han Han, known for his critique of youth literature, who is bearing a humorous social criticism in his new work »Glory Days«, about a group of drop-outs in the style of Magical Realism, or almost a critical Surrealism.<br />
A colorful dance, which tells from another world, no longer as exotic as before, but still strange and fascinating.<br />
令人刮目相看的新人作家正是以青春批判文学而小有名气的韩寒。他的新作《辉煌的过往》以一种魔幻现实主义甚至说近乎超现实主义的方式，讲述了一群辍学的青年，自带一种幽默的社会批评主义。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 14:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br />
一段讲述外来世界的绝世舞蹈，不再似以往带着异域风情，却仍旧奇幻无比。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 14:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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出人意料的新人作家正是以青春批判文学而小有名气的韩寒。他的新作《光辉岁月》以魔幻现实主义或者说是近乎超现实主义的风格对一群辍学的青年进行了幽默的社会批评。一段讲述外来世界的绝世舞蹈，不再似以往带着异域风情，却仍旧奇幻无比。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:15, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
<br />
Before the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009, this little booklet will give an orientation guide and a small, certainly very subjective overview of the Chinese literature, as it appears at the book fair.<br />
在2009年法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子将会提供一个入门介绍，同时也会给予一个小小的，主观性十足的中国文学概述，这是毋庸置疑的，就像它在书展上展示的那样。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:39, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在举办2009法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子将对展会进行一个初步介绍，并呈现给人们一个小小的、颇具主观性的中国文学概要，就像图书展会上展现的那样。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:51, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
在2009年法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子会提供一个入门介绍，并呈现中国文学泛泛而十分主观的概况，就像其在书展上展示的那样。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:40, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
2009年法兰克福书展举办之前，这本小册子的出现其实跟书展一样，会给对中国文学感兴趣的人提供一个阅读指南，也会对中国文学进行一个简略的概括。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 11:59, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
在举办2009年法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子正如在展会上呈现的那样，会就中国文学给人们一个指引，以及浅显但却非常主观的概括。--[[User:Gu Dongfang|Gu Dongfang]] ([[User talk:Gu dongfang|talk]]) 02:40, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
Who is also interested in the actual Chinese literature of the present day (because the book fair shows a section, which for various reasons is not at all representative of the Chinese contemporary literary literature) should be referred to the book "Chinese Cult Literature 2008/2009".<br />
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Bochum/Munich/Beijing/Shanghai<br />
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Summer 2008/ Summer 2009<br />
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Martin Woesler<br />
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对当代真正的中国文学感兴趣的人可以去参考《中国流行文学2008/2009版》这本书。（由于种种原因，本次图书展览会只展示了部分内容，并不能完全代表中国当代文学作品。）<br />
波鸿/慕尼黑/北京/上海<br />
2008年夏/2009年夏<br />
吴漠汀--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
By Chen Jiaxin--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
对于地道的中国当代文学感兴趣的人可以参考《中国流行文学》（2008版/2009版）这本书。（由于某些原因，此书中仅展示了部分中国当代文学代表作）<br />
波鸿/慕尼黑/北京/上海<br />
2008年夏/2009年夏<br />
吴漠汀（德）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 10:54, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
Chinese literature at the Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
<br />
China - the big department store<br />
<br />
With China's economic prosperity since 1978 came the leisure time. Unlike in Western countries, where this time has been filled with consumption, the new middle class of the Chinese use their leisure time in two ways:<br />
法兰克福图书展上的中国文学<br />
中国—一个大百货商场<br />
自1978年中国经济大繁荣后，人们开始有了自己的休闲时间。但与西方国家不同的是，中国的新兴中产阶级不会把休闲时间都花在消费购物上，而是花在这两个方面：--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 13:56, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
法兰克福书展上的中国文学<br />
中国--大型百货商场<br />
1978年以来，随着中国经济的繁荣，人们拥有了休闲时间。但与此时的西方国家不同的是，中国的新兴中产阶级并没有把休闲时间花在消费购物上，而是花在以下两个方面：--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 14:43, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国文学在法兰克福书展<br />
<br />
中国—巨大的百货商场<br />
<br />
1978年中国迎来经济繁荣之后，人们终于有了闲暇时光。不像西方人总把闲暇用来消费，中国的新中产阶级用以下两种方式来度过闲时：--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:20, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
法兰克福书展上的中国文学<br />
<br />
中国-大型百货商场<br />
<br />
自1978年中国经济蓬勃发展后，人们拥有了闲暇时间。与闲暇时喜欢消费购物的西方人不同的是，中国的新兴中产阶级用这两种途径打发闲暇时间：--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:15, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
法兰克福书展上的中国文学<br />
中国——大型百货商场<br />
自1978年起，随着中国经济的繁荣，人们拥有了自己的空闲时间。但中国的新兴中产阶级并不像西方国家一样喜欢把时间花在消费上，他们通常用这两种方式来度过他们的闲暇时间： By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:52, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
<br />
On the one hand, one has an irresistible ambition to catch up with the Western advance in time-lapse, to learn from the West and to overcome it, which is reflected in travel, learning English and foreign studies. Even at the party school management courses are taught.<br />
一方面，人们无法抑制自己想要赶上西方国家发展脚步、向其学习然后战胜他们的野心，这一点反应在旅行、英语学习以及外国研究上。甚至党校也开设管理课程 。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 11:08, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
一方面，人有赶上西方先进技术、向他们学习并打败他们的雄心壮志，这些反应在旅游、英语学习以及外国研究上，甚至党校管理课程也在效仿。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
一方面，人们雄心勃勃，想渐渐赶上西方的发展步伐，想向西方学习并且战胜西方，这些都在旅行，英语学习和外国研究有所体现。甚至党校也开设管理课程。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
<br />
On the other hand, according to the zero point of the Cultural Revolution, ten years without school education in 1966-1976, the Chinese have a greed for knowledge - they devour Internet, newspapers, books and are willing to pay enormous fees for private schools.<br />
<br />
另一方面，以十年文革（即1966年-1976年这十年间学校教育停滞不前）为基准点，中国人渴求获得知识-他们如饥似渴地浏览网页、报纸和各类书籍，愿意花重金上私立学校。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:34, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，经历文革十年（1966-1976）教育缺席的中国人求知若渴——他们如饥似渴地学习互联网，阅读报纸书籍，甚至愿意花一大笔钱去上私立学校。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 13:14, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，由于文化大革命（1966-1976）使得中国在这期间没有学校教育，受教育程度变得极低。但是中国人极度渴望从网络，报纸，书本获得知识，他们不惜花巨款去私立学校。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 04:16, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，由于文化大革命（1966-1976）使得中国在这期间没有严格意义上的学校教育，这使得全体中国人民受教育程度变得极低。但是中国人极度渴望从网络，报纸，书本获得知识，甚至他们不惜为此花巨款去私立学校求学。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:49, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，文革期间，1966—1976这十年期间，学校教育荒废，从零开始，所以中国人渴求知识-他们如饥似渴，从互联网，报纸，书本中获取知识，也乐于花重金读私立学校。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:26, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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另一方面，中国人渴望学习知识，就像十年文化大革命期间即1966-1976年无法上学的人们那样。他们竭尽全力在网络和报纸上学习新知识，甚至愿意为了去私立学校就读而掷重金。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，十年文革（1966年至1976年）使得中国的教育停滞不前。中国人民渴望获取知识——他们不遗余力地探索互联网世界，翻阅报刊书籍，甚至不惜花重金前往私立学校接受教育，为的就是满足他们对知识的渴求。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 12:59, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
<br />
Both trends in leisure design coincide with a flood of translations into Chinese.<br />
两次时尚设计潮流都伴随着大量翻译作品涌入中国。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这两次轻奢设计潮流都恰好随着大量翻译作品进入中国。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这两次休闲理念的潮流都伴随大量翻译作品涌入中国--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这两次休闲设计的潮流都通过大量的翻译涌入中国。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:44, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
休闲款式的两次走红期间，都有大量的翻译作品涌入中国。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 06:11, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
这两次休闲设计潮流在中国的风靡都伴随着大量翻译作品的涌入。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 08:11, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
<br />
The situation in Western countries is quite different, the interest for China is rather an exotic and reflectes in esotericism and few works that are translated. These are then selected to serve or even enhance the foreign character of the Chinese image. One still believes in the West, as the pioneer of modernization it is the place where the action is happening.<br />
在西方国家，情况则大相径庭。他们对中国的兴趣是充满异域情调的，如中国本土宗教及为数不多的译本。然而这样的选择仅仅是为了迎合甚至加深西方对中国固有的形象。至今仍有人认为率先进入现代化的西方，也是唯一正在经历现代化的地方。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:41, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在西方国家，情况则大相径庭。他们对中国的兴趣是充满异域情调的，并反映在神秘主义和少数翻译作品中。然而这样的选择是为了迎合甚至加深西方对中国固有的形象。至今仍有人认为率先进入现代化的西方，也是唯一正在经历现代化的地方。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
在西方国家，情况则大相径庭。他们对中国的兴趣充满异域情调，这反映在神秘主义和为数不多的译本中。这些选择是为了迎合甚至是为了加深中国形象的异域特征。至今仍有人认为，作为现代化先驱的西方仍是唯一正在经历现代化的地方。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 11:47, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
<br />
Newspapers are not yet as exciting as in Hong Kong and Japan because of the state information monopoly in China and so one reads in the subway no newspapers but books. China is just different. The books cost only 2 € to 3.50 € and sometimes reach millions of copies. And this, although the texts are long before on the Internet. Some authors have even found a publisher only after having a fanbase of their blog on the Internet.<br />
<br />
中国的情况恰好不同。由于中国对国家信息的垄断，报纸尚未像香港和日本那样流行。因此人们在地铁上阅读的不是报纸，而是书籍。这些书籍仅售2欧元至3.50欧元。书籍的发售量有时高达数百万册，尽管它们的文本内容在互联网上早已出现。有些作者甚至只有在互联网上拥有自己的博客粉丝团之后，才去寻找出版商。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 11:44, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由于中国的国家信息垄断，报纸并未像在香港和日本那样流行。因此人们在地铁上不看报纸，而是阅读书籍。中国则恰好不同。这些书籍仅售2欧元至3.50欧元，有时销售量可达百万册。尽管这些文本在互联网上早已出现，有些作者甚至只有在互联网上拥有自己的博客粉丝团后才会去寻找出版商。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:28, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
<br />
Cult literature<br />
<br />
The Chinese bestsellers of contemporary literature of 2009 appear to be hardly compatible with the German book market, in which China is honorary guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair. Many stories of the mostly young, often celebrated like pop stars writers from the Middle Kingdom appear to be too bizarre, with their books partly written in millions, like Guo Jingming (26 years, Shanghaier, Tears against the Stream C 2007, first place of the Chinese bestseller list 2007, circulation: 550,000). Without life experience, Ms. Lin Huafeng has to raise her daughter alone after the divorce. She has to prostitute herself and her mental conflict worsens daily. The author, the Shanghai student Guo Jingming is a cultureless enfant terrible, but loved by the youth. What bears his name is immediately sold out. In the meantime, he has given his name to works by colleagues, and his book series best sellers (C 2008-2009) is a collage of love tales, comics, photographs, styling tips, etc., wrapped in foil so that all the gimmicks do not Fall out. Here, the advertising of the proper lipstick is added to the story. This cult literature is a teen phenomenon, the authors of this youth literature are pop stars. It is translatable, but however it loses the cult status. The German publishers have not chosen the books which the Chinese read, but the German readers might find interesting. In this article, these books, which are only available at the Book Fair from October, are already being presented.<br />
<br />
邪教文学<br />
<br />
中国2009年有关现代文学的畅销作品似乎与德国的图书市场难以相容，而中国却是法兰克福书展的荣誉嘉宾。 中国作家大多是年轻人，他们经常像流行明星一样出名，他们的许多作品看起来都太过奇异，他们的书部分以百万计，比如郭敬明（26岁，上海人，2007年出版的作品《悲伤逆流成河》荣获中国2007年畅销书排行榜第一，发行量55万册）。离婚之后，没有生活经验的林华凤必须独自抚养女儿，她不得不靠卖淫过活，因此她的心理问题也日益加剧。作者郭敬明在上海求学，他文化不高，又年少不可一世，但是却深受年轻人喜爱。带有他名字的书马上就会售罄。与此同时，郭敬明以自己的名字命名了同事的作品，他2008年至2009年的系列畅销书是一副拼贴画，其中包括了爱情故事、漫画、照片以及造型技巧等，该作品由箔纸包裹，这样所有的噱头才不会掉出来。该画作里适当地添加了一些口红广告。这种邪教文学是一种青少年现象，这种青年文学的作者都是流行明星。这些作品是可以翻译的，但是却失去了值得让人崇拜的地位。德国出版商没有选择中国人读的书，但是德国读者却可能会感兴趣。在这篇文章中，这些只在10月份法兰克福书展有售的书已经在展出了。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:30, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
崇拜文学<br />
<br />
中国2009年的当代文学畅销作品似乎和德国图书市场难以相容，而在法兰克福书展上，中国却是一位荣誉嘉宾。中国作家大多是年轻人，他们像流行明星一样受人追捧，但是他们笔下的故事读起来似乎过于离奇，部分书籍的篇幅几乎以百万计算，如作家郭敬明（上海人，26岁，其代表作《悲伤逆流成河》于2007年出版，并登上当年中国畅销书排行榜的榜首，发行量高达55万册）。在其小说《悲伤逆流成河》中，没有生活经验的主人公林华凤，离婚之后必须独自赡养女儿。为此她不得不靠卖淫为生，其精神状态每况愈下。郭敬明于上海求学，大学未能毕业，其性情乖张，却深受年轻人喜爱。凡带有他名字的书立马告罄。此外，郭敬明也把自己的名字借给他的同事。他2008年至2009年畅销书系列是大杂烩，包括了爱情故事、漫画、照片以及造型技巧等。书籍由箔纸包裹，以确保噱头不会遗漏。书中适当地添加了一支口红广告。这种崇拜文学盛行于青少年中，而这些青年文学的作者都成为了流行明星。这些作品是可译的，但是不值得让人崇拜。德国出版商没有选择中国读者常读的书，而是德国读者可能感兴趣的。在本文中，已经列举了法兰克福书展只在10月份售出的书。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 03:20, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
<br />
Chinese world literature<br />
<br />
This is the famous wedding scene from the novel "Dream of the Red Chamber" (C 1759 G 2009) by Cao Xueqin (1715-1763?). This was the last novel of world rank written in China, and this is 250 years ago. The novel is available in all major languages, and in German only a shortened paraphrase has been written down to one third. This shortcoming is fixed by the book fair: the European University Press presents a three-volume bound edition of books with more than 200 historical illustrations and a more favorable paperback edition of 2350 pages at the book fair. It was only in the 1920s and 1930s that the literature in China in times of the republic was able to develop again, and Lu Xun's stories from this period are reissued from the publishing house Unionverlag to the book fair. Another classic, Qian Zhongshus (1910-1998) essay collection "Written on the Edge of Life" (C 2000), is translated but is still searching for a publisher. Masterful tales are certainly also Yu Huas (49) "Brothers" (C 2005).<br />
中国世界文学<br />
这是曹雪芹（1715-1763？）的《红楼梦》（C 1759 G 2009）中著名的婚礼片段。《红楼梦》是250年前中国最后一本世界级的小说，这部小说被翻译成了世界上所有主要的语言，（但）在德语中，只简单的翻译了这本书的三分之一。一次书展弥补了这个不足：欧洲大学出版社在书展上展示了三卷内含200多幅历史图的精装本和更受欢迎内含2350页的平装本。直到20世纪二三十年代，民国时期的中国文学才得以再次发展，鲁迅在这段时期的小说也从Unionverlag出版社重新发行到书展。 另一本经典著作，钱钟书（1910-1998）的杂文集《生活的边缘》（C 2000）已经被翻译，但仍在寻找出版商。大师级别的小说，当然实属余华（49）的“ 兄弟”（C 2005）。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 05:39, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
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Vagabond literature<br />
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"Diwidi? Everything there: Hollywood, Japanese, Korean, Oscar-crowned classics ",<br />
The German reader as a tourist in Peking may have been approached like this by the flying merchants.<br />
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流浪文学<br />
<br />
“去迪维迪吗？那里什么都有：有好莱坞的，日本的，韩国的，奥斯卡得奖的经典作品”。德国读者去北京旅游的话，可能已经有流动的批发商们像这一样跟他们接洽了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:58, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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流浪文学<br />
<br />
“去迪维迪吗？那里什么书都有：有美国好莱坞的，日本的，韩国的，还有拿过奥斯卡的经典作品。”德国的读者来北京旅游可能会碰上当地批发商这样上前推销。--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
流浪文学<br />
<br />
“是去迪维迪吗？那里什么都有，包括那些好莱坞、日本、韩国、甚至是得了奥斯卡奖的经典作品”，四处流动的商人很可能已经跟在北京旅游的德国读者像这样搭过讪了。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:53, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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流浪文学<br />
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“要DVD吗？啥片都有，好莱坞的，日本的，韩国的，得过奥斯卡的。”德国读者去北京旅游的话，可能已经有流动的批发商们这般跟他们接洽了。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
<br />
This scene comes from the story "Running Through Zhongguancun" (C 2008, G 2009). Here the German reader can slip for the first time into the role of the seller, who is embodied by the 25-year-old Huang. Xu Zechen (31, lives in Beijing) has drawn the milieu authentically, the characters with dry humor and yet refreshingly lively. He describes a life between hot pavement and basement hole, between the dream of making big money and bitter setbacks, the daily cat-and-mouse game with the police. He experiences the world of the crooks as shark pond and as a conspiratorial community, in which everyone gives someone the shirt off one’s back, lose their existence, but get up again, he experiences the arbitrariness and corruption of the police. Here, worlds collide: the army of unemployed agricultural workers, who become small-scale criminals, and the urban population. The world of youth, who loves the freedom of the street, and the elderly, who appreciate the security of the wealth. This is one of the most recent and most promising stories from China, which show us a completely different China than the perfectly enacted Olympia organizer.<br />
<br />
这个场景来自于《穿越中关村》中的故事。在这里，德国读者第一次进入买方身份，25岁的黄先生就是典型代表。作者徐则臣（31岁，现居北京）对本书背景环境描写真实，书中人物带有冷幽默，但精神抖擞、栩栩如生。作者描写了一个介于炙热人行路面和地下室洞之间，介于赚大钱的梦想和痛苦挫折之间的人生，该人生主人公的日常就是和警察玩“猫鼠游戏”。他生活在一个坏蛋横行的世界，跟生活在鲨鱼池塘或者阴谋密布的社区中没有什么区别。在这个世界里，每个人都会在别人背后捅刀子，这些人死去又重生。他还经历过警察的专横和腐败。在这里，世界冲突有：失业农工军队（变成了小规模罪犯）与城镇居民之间的矛盾；年轻人渴望街道自由，老年人希望财富得到保障。这是来自中国最近且最具希望的故事之一，这个故事给我们展现了一个完全不同于奥林匹克运动会完美组织国的中国。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:58, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
这个场景来自于《穿越中关村》中的故事。通过这本书德国读者第一次进入卖方身份，25岁的黄先生就是其中一位典型代表。作者徐则臣（31岁，现居北京）对本书背景环境描写真实生动，书中人物带有冷幽默，栩栩如生，令人耳目一新。作者描写了一个介于炙热人行路面和地下室洞之间，介于赚大钱的梦想和痛苦挫折之间的人生，该人生主人公的日常就是和警察玩“猫鼠游戏”。他生活在一个坏蛋横行的世界，跟生活在鲨鱼池塘或者阴谋密布的社区中没有什么区别。在这个世界里，每个人都会在别人背后捅刀子，这些人失去了一切，又挣扎着爬起来。他还经历过警察的专横和腐败。在这里，世界冲突有：失业农工军队（变成了小规模罪犯）与城镇居民之间的矛盾；年轻人热爱街道自由和老年人希望财富得到保障之间的矛盾。这是来自中国最近且最具希望的故事之一，这个故事给我们展现了一个完全不同于奥林匹克运动会完美组织国的中国。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:46, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
<br />
The novel "Die Taschendiebe" also fits into this realistic (C 2007, G 2009), Liu Zhenyuns (51), who was ranked No. 1 in the bestseller list in China in 2008, is a mix-up thriller about a interchanged bag, whose content can become dangerous for several important people. These types of stories appear several times at the book fair. In China, they are devoured by the young, urban audience. Wang Shuo (50) had created this kind of vagabond literatur, and his novel "Playing for Thrills" was sold 250,000 times in 2007, and stayed in place 6. One is getting deeper into storytelling with Jia Pingwa’s novel "Happy" (C 2007), which is about a farmer who sells his kidney to the city and finds a brittle happiness with a prostitute. It was sold in China 100,000 times. His even more famous novel "Ruined City" (C 1993) is also almost completely translated and is still looking for a publisher in Germany.<br />
<br />
刘震云（51岁）的小说《我叫刘跃进》（2007）也符合现实主义文学，并在2008年的中国畅销书排行榜中名列第一。这是一部关于拿错包的惊悚片，这个包牵涉到上流社会的几条人命。这些类型的故事在书展上出现过好几次，受到中国年轻观众的喜爱。王朔（50岁）创造了这种流浪文学。2007年，他的小说《玩的就是心跳》售出25万册，销售量保持在第6位。贾平凹的小说《高兴》（2007）更加深入人心，它讲述的是一个农民将自己的一颗肾卖给了城里人和一个妓女找到了脆弱的幸福。这本书在中国售出了100,000册。他更著名的小说《废都》（1993）也完全翻译成德语，并且仍在德国寻找出版商。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
刘震云（51岁）的小说《我叫刘跃进》（2007）也是现实主义文学，这本书名列2008年中国畅销书单首位，结合了惊险小说风格，讲述了一个拿错包，而这个包牵涉到上流社会的几条人命的故事。这些类型的小说在书展上出现过好几次，在中国广受都市的年轻人追捧。王朔（50岁）创作了这种流浪文学，他的小说《玩的就是心跳》在2007年售出25万册，销量排在第6位。贾平凹的小说《高兴》（2007）更加深入人心，它讲述了一个农民将自己的肾卖给了城里人和一个妓女在支离纷崩中找寻幸福。这本书在中国售出了100,000册。他小说《废都》（1993）更为著名，全篇译成了德语，且仍在德国寻找出版商。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 14:27, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
<br />
Critical Surrealism <br />
<br />
This quotation comes from the story "Glory Days" (C 2007 G 2010) of another young author, Han Han (26). He describes the experiences of a Chinese dropout troop. Han Han enjoys a similar cult status as the same-aged Guo Jingming. He is equally famous as a critical blogger, sings his own pop songs (ghost town strategy), and drives car racings on the weekend. He also wrote his first stories as a pupil (Triple Door C 2000), became famous through a literature casting, writes humorously with a pointed pen, hardly anyone has got what was coming to one. In the 1990s, with his "critical student literature", he provoked a teenage fever, brought out a sociocritical humorous novel with "Glory Days", which sold itself in 2007 with others of his books about 200,000 times and thus ranked 13th Of the Chinese bestseller list. The author says he wanted to write in the style of "Magical Realism" for the first time, the novel is very angry humorous, sociocritical and grotesque in some places, it can be better described as Critical Surrealism. His latest book, "His Kingdom" (C 2009), ranked first place in the Chinese bestseller list in April 2009.<br />
<br />
批判超现实主义 <br />
<br />
这句话出自另一位青年作家韩寒（26岁）的故事《光辉岁月》（C 2007 G 2010）。他描述了一支中国退伍军人的经历。韩寒和同龄的郭敬明一样，享有盛名。他同样是著名的评论博主，有自己的流行歌曲（鬼城攻略），周末还会去赛车。他还在学生时代写下了自己的第一篇小说（2000年的《三重门C》），通过文学比赛成名，用尖锐的笔尖写出了幽默的作品，几乎没有人得到过一个人的青睐。上世纪90年代，他以 "批判性学生文学 "引发少年热，出版了《光辉岁月》这样一部一部社会批判性幽默小说，2007年与他的其他著作一起销售，销量约20万册，位列中国畅销书排行榜第13位。作者说，他第一次想用 "魔幻现实主义 "的风格来写，小说中充满了愤怒幽默，社会批判，怪诞奇谈，不如说是一种超现实注意更好些。最新著作《他的国度》（C 2009）2009年4月在中国畅销书排行榜上排名第一。--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 04:08, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Gu Dongfang<br />
<br />
批判超现实主义<br />
<br />
这句话出自另一位青年作家韩寒（26岁）的小说《光荣日》（C 2007 G 2010）。他描述了一群退出主流社会、大学毕业放弃分配的中国青年人的经历。韩寒和年纪相仿的郭敬明一样享誉盛名。他同样是一名著名的评论博主，有自己的流行音乐（空城计），周末还去开赛车。学生时代，他还写下了自己的第一篇小说（《三重门》C 2000），通过一次文学比赛一战成名。他笔触尖锐而不失幽默的写作使人们很难猜到下一步的情节发展。上个世纪九十年代，他的"批判性学生文学"在青少年中激发热潮，他又出版了一部带有社会讽刺色彩的幽默小说，即《光荣日》。2007年，《光荣日》与他的其他作品一起发售，销量约20万册，在中国畅销书排行榜上排名第13位。该作者说，他第一次以“魔幻现实主义”的风格写作，小说中一些地方充满愤怒幽默、社会批判以及荒谬怪诞，可以用批判超现实主义来形容。他的最新著作《他的国》（C 2009）在2009年4月的中国畅销书排行榜上位列第一。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 06:22, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
<br />
Underground literature<br />
<br />
... so writes Mian Mian (38 years old, lives in Shanghai, "La la la" HK 1997, G 2000, C 2009, "Your night my day" G 2004, C 2009). With her revealing description of her own life as a partygirl, she has shaped the Shanghai youth. Mian Mian has become a lifestyle. Ultimately she also seeks the happiness of love. She was the first to write about sex, drugs and alcohol, and was promptly banned in China. Therefore it is remarkable that the KiWi publishing house is brave enough to present her latest novel Panda Sex (C 2009, G 2009) at the book fair. Also in France her novel came out and was immediately praised by the daily newspaper "Le Monde". And even in China times change: her last four novels were finally released in February 2009 and were sold out immediately.<br />
<br />
地下文学<br />
<br />
...作家绵绵（38岁，现居上海，《啦啦啦》，香港 1997，G2000，C 2009，《你的黑夜，我的白天》 G2004，C2009）这样写道。绵绵用生动的语言描述了自己作为派对女王的经历，同时，她也塑造了一代上海青年的形象。绵绵已然活成了一种生活态度。然而，追根究底她也在追寻情爱的欢愉。她是中国第一位在作品中描写做爱，吸毒和酗酒，并被立即封杀的作家。因此，KiWi出版社敢于在书展中展出绵绵的最新小说《熊猫》(C 2009, G 2009) ，实在是一大壮举。无独有偶，《熊猫》在法国出版，且荣获日报《法国世界报》好评。即使是在中国，人们亦生出了时过境迁之感：2009年2月，绵绵的最近四部小说出版，并一售即空。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:09, 5 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 03:50, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
<br />
Yearnings<br />
<br />
Literature of yearning has a great market in China. With this literature one can escape the materialistic everyday life in order to be carried away into an exotic but strangely familiar world. This literature of yearning is served by two sides in China: through the Tibet exoticism and the nostalgic wave. And Tibet is a topic that is well received abroad, therefore a safe investment for publishers, even though the stories from Tibet may still be too exotic and do not show the true Tibet. Also in China, Tibet is simply ‚in’. The presentation of the own Lama's shrine in the bedroom is the highlight of every house party. Even men wear carved cherry stone bracelets. The more superstition associated with these fetishes, the more chic.<br />
渴望风<br />
渴望文学在中国有着巨大市场。这类文学能带领人们逃离物质至上的现实生活进入到一个熟悉却又陌生的异域世界。在中国渴望文学由两类构成：西藏风情和怀旧浪潮。西藏这个主题在国外反响良好，因此对出版商来说是个安全的投资，即使这些西藏故事仍十分具有异域色彩并且未展示出真实的西藏。在中国，西藏风格也一样很流行。卧室中放置的喇嘛的神龛会成为每场别墅聚会的亮点。即使男人也会戴上用雕刻的樱桃核制成的手镯。这些物神与之相关的迷信越多，就越为流行。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:28, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
渴望风<br />
<br />
渴望文学在中国有着巨大市场。借着这类文学，人们可以不用整天崇尚物质，而是进入一个陌生又熟悉的异域世界。在中国，渴望文学分为两类：西藏风情和怀旧浪潮。西藏是一个在国外反响良好的主题，即使这些讲述西藏的故事仍十分具有异域色彩，而且未展示出真实的西藏，但对出版商来说是个安全的投资。在中国，西藏风也很流行。卧室中放置的喇嘛神龛会成为每场别墅聚会的焦点。甚至男人也会戴上雕刻樱桃核制成的手镯。你越迷信这些奉若神明之物，就越时髦。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:17, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
<br />
Tibet exoticism<br />
<br />
so the story "Distant Sources" (C 2005, Unionsverlag G 2009) by the Tibetan author Alai (50) begins. Yes, even Tibetan authors are among the winners of this year's book fair. They are particularly in demand by Swiss publishers. At the confederate Chinabooks several young Tibetans are represented: Alai, Jamyang, Taering Öser, Tenzin Tsundue (34). Is it surprising that Ma Jian (56), who left Beijing for the first time and went on journeys, promptly went on a pilgrim to Tibet? "Red Dust"(C 2003). 220,000 times, the "Tibet-Code" of the hermitic He Ma, which has not yet been published in German, has sold itself, followed by three sequels. Gao Yi, who lives in Düsseldorf, writes adventure stories as well with Tibet exoticism and fantastic elements: "The Tibetan Child", "The Oracle" and "The Roman Ring" (C 2004). At the same time, a flood of nonfiction books about Tibet appears in German-speaking countries, often with mysterious titles such as "The Secret Life of the Dalai Lamas. The Story of the God-kings of Tibet "(G 2007, PB 2009)," Fleeing through Ice and Snow "," The Way of the White Clouds"or " Escape from Tibet".<br />
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西藏风情<br />
<br />
西藏作家阿来的故事就此展开。没错，今年书展的赢家中也包括不少西藏作家。他们的作品在瑞士颇具市场。中国图书板块中的几位西藏作家分别有阿来、嘉木样、Taering Öser和Tenzin Tsundue。出去旅行之前，马健从未离开过北京，但这次旅行他却意外的选择去到西藏进行朝圣，从而写出《红尘》一书。何马的《西藏密码》虽尚未在德国出版，但其后的三个续作都已与出版社签约。住在杜塞尔多夫的高宜同样喜欢具有西藏风格的冒险题材，并写下了名为《藏族男孩》、《神谕》和《罗马指环》的故事。与此同时，在德国以及其他说德语的地区，有关西藏的非虚构类作品接连出版，它们常常有着神秘的标题，例如《达赖喇嘛的秘密生活》、《西藏神王秘史》、《冰雪逃亡》、《白云之路》和《逃出西藏》等。<br />
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--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
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Nostalgia<br />
<br />
Through China flows a nostalgic wave, the overthrown Communist ideology has been replaced by the return to traditional values. In 1974 Confucius had been dismantled in a campaign, since 2007 Confucius institutes have been opened all over the world. Also on the bestseller lists this literature stands at the top. The professor Yu Dan (Beijing) interpreted Confucius in a television series. Her book "Confucius from the Heart" (C 2006, G 21.08.2009) with modern commentaries around the Confucius classics "Talks" landed in China with 503,000 sold copies in 2007. It makes Confucius in simple language, with lively pictures and Current examples from everyday life. Since the trend in China goes to the second book, i. That a second book of the same kind is being postponed to a successful book, she continued to comment on the philosopher Menzius. Does this commentary also work in Germany, where one hardly knows the original texts? At the book fair, the Confucius commentary is also available, the Droemer publishing house has taken the risk and presents the comment in German translation, but not as in the Chinese edition with original text in the appendix. This nostalgia literature in China also includes comments on the classic novel "Three Kingdoms" (C 2006) by Yi Zhongtian (62), which ended up in 2007 with 340,000 copies of the bestseller list, the historical novel about the last imperial dynasty. “The Qing Prime Minister” (C 2007) by Wang Yuewen (46) and "War Drums" (C 2006) by Dou Liang (55) about old Beijing, all of them had at least 200,000 sold copies in 2007.<br />
<br />
怀旧风<br />
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中国正掀起一波怀旧浪潮。传统价值观的回归代替了已经推翻的共产主义意识形态。1974年，孔学在一场运动中逐渐推出历史舞台，但是从2007年开始，孔子学院已向全世界开放。同时孔学相关书籍也在畅销书的榜首。于丹教授（北京）把孔子翻拍成了电视剧。她的书《论语心得》（C 2006, G21.08.2009）带有孔学经典《论语》的现代评论2017年在大陆发售已超过503，000册。这本书使得孔学理论以一种简单的语言，生动的图片和日常生活的例子呈现出来。自从这孔学潮流在中国推出了第二本书，i. 相同类型的第二本书的成功销量是要晚一些。于丹继续在考究着哲学家孟子。是否这种评论会在德国起到相同的效应呢，毕竟德国对原著几乎都不了解？在书会上，可以见到孔学评论相关书的身影，德语出版社冒险展出了其德语版本，但是和中文版本不同的是在附录上没有原文。这种怀旧文学在中国还包括了易中天（62）的评论关于经典小说《三国志》（C 2006），一部描述最后一个帝王朝代的历史小说，其销量在2007畅销排行榜年达到了340，000册。 王跃文（46）的《秦始皇》和窦亮（55）描写老北京的《战鼓》（C 2006），一共销售了200，000册在2007年。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 03:32, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
怀旧风<br />
<br />
中国掀起了怀旧的浪潮，传统价值观的回归取代了已经推翻了的共产主义意识形态。1974年，孔子塑像在一场运动中被拆除，但是从2007年开始，孔子学院已向全世界开放。并且孔学相关书籍也占据了畅销书榜单的榜首。于丹教授（北京）在一系列电视节目中诠释了孔子。她的书《论语心得》（C 2006, G21.08.2009），一本围绕孔子经典对话的现代评论于2007年在大陆发售，销量为503，000册。这本书用生动的图片和当代日常生活的例子将孔子以一种简单的语言呈现出来。因为这本书的风靡，于丹教授在中国推出了同系列的第二本书。第二本书的畅销势头减弱，于是于丹继续评论了哲学家孟子。但是在人们对原著都不了解的德国，这种评论会有相同的影响吗？在书会上，同样可以见到孔学评论相关书籍——德勒默尔出版社冒险推出了其德语版本，但是和中文版本不同的是，在附录页没有附上原文。在中国，这种怀旧文学还包括了易中天（62岁）评经典小说《三国志》（C 2006），其销量截止2007年在畅销排行榜达到了340，000册，王跃文（46岁）的关于最后一个帝国王朝的历史小说《大清相国》（C 2007，）和窦亮的记述老北京的小说《战鼓》（C 2006），所有这些在2007年一共销售了至少200，000册。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 10:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
<br />
Women's literature<br />
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The literature of the mega cities looks different in Beijing and Shanghai: just as in Beijing, the vagabond literature of a Wang Shuo is at home, Shanghai also developed with Zhang Ailing (1920-1995) her own literature, in this case an autobiographical literature of women that describes the emotional life of Shanghai single women. Mian Mian is the latest appearance of this woman literature, although her female figures often seem to depend on their partners. However, Mian Mian is the only female writer that is taken seriously and translated for the book fair. In "Frauenboxen" by Bi Shumin (57) the female figures seem, as the title suggests, more self-consciously, therefore the book has been sold 180,000 times. Her feminine novel "Female Psychologist" (C 2007) was so successful that several volumes were published. On the bestseller list, she is closely followed by Annie Baobei (34), with 175,000 first-person narrations sold, under the title "Fat years, meager years" (C 2007), in which the young women see the world with their own eyes. With 160,000 copies follows the marriage counselor follows "Holding Hands " (C 2007) of Wang Hailing (55).<br />
<br />
大城市的文学作品，像北京和上海，是大不相同的：就比如说在北京有王朔的痞子文学；而在上海流行的是张爱玲的文学小说，这种文学属于女性自传文学，主要描述了上海单身女性的情感生活。棉棉是女性文学代表人物的新兴面孔，尽管她所塑造的女性角色看起来似乎非常依赖她们的伴侣。然而，她是唯一一个认真对待书展，并且为书展做翻译的女性作家。在毕淑敏的作品《女性》中，女性人物的形象正如标题一样似乎显得更有自我意识，因此这本书畅销18万次。毕淑敏的女性小说《女心理家》（C 2007)创作地非常成功，因此出版了很多册。在畅销书单列表中，紧随其后的是安妮宝贝，她的第一人称叙述小说热销175000本，其中有一本叫《素年锦时》，主要讲述了年轻的女性用她们自己的视角看待世界。王海鸰的《牵手》成为了婚姻顾问的参考指导书，160000本复印版下发至婚姻顾问。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 03:56, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
女性的文学<br />
像在北京和上海，大城市的文学是不同的：就像北京有王朔的流浪汉文学，而上海则是孕育出了张爱玲的女性自传文学，主要描述了上海单身女性的情感生活。棉棉是这类女性文学最早出现的女性角色，尽管她所代表的女性形象似乎常常依赖于自己的伴侣。然而，棉棉是唯一一位在书展上受到重视并被翻译的女性作家。正如书名所示，从毕淑敏57岁时的作品《女性》来看，女性形象似乎更具自我意识，因此这本书的销量达18万次。她的女性小说《女性心理学家》(2007年)成功地出版了好几卷；在畅销书排行榜上，紧随其后的是34岁的安妮·宝贝(Annie Baobei)的作品，名为《素年锦时》(2007年左右)。此书以第一人称叙述，热销17.5万本，在书中年轻女性站在自己的角度去看待世界。而55岁的王海鴒的《牵手》(2007年)成了结婚顾问的参考书，由此热销16万本。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 06:35, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
女性文学<br />
在北京和上海这种大城市，他们的文学是不同的: 就像在北京,代表的有王朔的地痞文学，上海则是出现了张爱玲式的(1920 - 1995)自传文学。此种女性自传文学描述了一种上海单身女性的情感生活。棉棉则是这类女性文学的最新兴典型形象，尽管她似乎常常依赖于自己的伴侣。然而，却是唯一会为书展做认真翻译的女性作家。毕淑敏的《女性》(57)中，正如书名所示，女性形象似乎更多了些自我意识觉醒，因此这本书被畅销18万本。她的女性小说《女心理学家》(2007)也非常成功，甚至出版了好几卷。在畅销书排行榜上，紧随其后的是34岁的安妮宝贝(Annie Baobei)，这本名为《素年锦时》(2007)的书，以第一人称叙述，热销17.5万册，书中主要讲述了年轻女性用自己的角度看世界的内容。王海鸰（55）的《牵手》（2007）复印本则成了婚姻顾问们“人手一本”的参考书，狂销了16万本。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:51, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
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Literature of mental distress<br />
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Finally, there is still the literature of mental distress, mastermind Mo Yan has pointed out abysses of human behavior in his "Sandalwood Death" (C 2001). The framework is the German colonial history in China, the railway construction and the revolt of the boxer. Mo Yan describes a fictitious story in which Guomindang General Yuan Shikai, with the last imperial headman, wants to conduct a cruel execution by torture against a man who rebelled after his family had previously been desecrated and killed by Germans. Contrasted with this, Mo Yan portrays the last opera singer of the Maoqiang local opera from the region around Gaomi. The language is pathetic, symbolic and emotionally charged. The description of the inner conflict of the physician, who is told to keep the victim alive until the German colonizers see him, is shattered. His only advice "Remove the sandalwood!" is not obeyed, since this is precisely the torture. In this book the search for a translator was more difficult than usual, thanks to Chinese government-funded support, it was finally realized at the publishing house Insel-Verlag. Equally doubtful is the wisdom, which may result from the influential book "Wolf Totem" (C 2004 G 2009) by Jiang Rong (63), since the author wants to explain the Chinese people's folklore:<br />
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关注精神苦闷的文学作品<br />
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最后，仍然有关注精神苦闷的文学作品，作家莫言在他的《檀香刑》（C 2001）中指出了人类种种恶行，如临深渊。这部小说主要讲述了中国受德国殖民统治时期，当时铁路建设情况和义和团的起义。《檀香刑》是一部虚构的小说，莫言刻画了国民党将领袁世凯和大清帝国最后一位皇帝与一位反抗者的矛盾，二人企图对反抗者酷刑相加，残酷处决，而此前反抗者的家人被德国人亵渎并杀害。在书中莫言还描绘了高密地方戏曲“茂腔”，和其最后一位传承歌者，这与骇人听闻的酷刑事件截然相反。小说的语言充满悲剧性、象征性，情感充沛。当医生接到通知，在德国殖民者发现受害人之前要确保他活着，这一段关于医生内心冲突的译文描写支离破碎。他唯一的建议是“删除檀香！”遭到拒绝，因为这正是酷刑所在。因此，要给这本书找一位合格的译者比往常都难，好在中国政府给予该项目资金支持，《檀香刑》最终由岛屿出版社出版。另一本享誉中外的书——《狼图腾》(C 2004 G 2009)，作者姜戎着力刻画流传在中国人口中的民间传说，因而翻译这本书的翻译是否妥当，同样让人疑虑。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:49, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
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This also means hope for freedom and democracy. A good adventure novel, but the moral of the story, natural laws instead of civilization, in today's materialistic Chinese reality the wrong advice. The book is stagnating in the middle of the bestseller lists in China, but remains there until 2008. It was heavily advertised, Random House paid for the German edition 20,000 € in license rights after Goldblatt had laid for the English 100,000 USD - somehow the investion has to roll in and so it is called in the advertising texts "The most successful book since the Mao Bible" - this decision is left to the reader.<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 16:28, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这也意味着对自由和民主的希望。一部好的冒险小说，但其寓意却是用自然规律代替文明，这在当今物欲横流的中国现实中提出了错误的建议。这本书在中国畅销书排行榜的中间位置停滞不前，但一直保持到2008年。这本书的广告宣传做得非常好，在戈德布拉特花了10万美元买了德国版的许可证后，兰登书屋花了2万欧元购买了德文版的许可证——不知怎么的，投资滚滚而来，因此其在广告中宣称“这是自毛泽东圣经以来最成功的书”——这要留给读者定夺。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 05:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这也意味着对自由和民主的希望。一本不错的冒险小说，但其寓意在于自然法则会代替文明，这是在当今物欲横流的中国现实中提出的错误建议。这本书在中国的畅销书排行榜中部停滞不前，但一直到2008年，它的广告力度变大，兰登书屋为德文版支付了2万欧元的许可权，而戈德布拉特则为英文版支付了10万美元。不知为何，这些投资滚滚而来，所以在广告文案中，它被称为 "自《毛泽东圣经》以来最成功的一本书"，这个决定权留给了读者。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 13:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
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Discrepancy Chinese Literature - Book Fair<br />
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All these currents will be represented at the Frankfurt Book Fair. Some of them are preparing to refute the withering verdict of the sinologist Wolfgang Kubin from 2006, who referred to the Chinese literature since 1949 as "garbage" and especially attacked writers like Mian Mian, making her one of the most controversial writers. Although she has long been forbidden in China, had no benefits from the Chinese government's promotion of translation, and does not belong to the carefully selected semioffical writers' delegation, besides the short story "Running Through Zhongguancun", narratives such as "Brothers", "Taschendiebe" and perhaps a classic like "Dream of the Red Chamber", will be Mian Mian's book "Panda Sex" one of the bestseller of the book fair. In the following editions we will introduce individual authors and currents and begin with her - Mian Mian.<br />
中国文学差异-书展<br />
所有这些潮流将在法兰克福书展上展出。 他们中的一些人准备反驳自2006年以来的汉学家沃尔夫冈·库宾的残酷判决，自1949年以来就将中国文学称为“垃圾”，特别是像绵绵这样的受攻击的作家，这使她成为最有争议的作家之一。 尽管她早已在中国被禁止，她没有从中国政府的翻译推广中获得任何好处，并且不属于经过精心挑选的半官方作家代表团，除了短篇小说《穿越中关村》，还有诸如《兄弟》之类的故事， 《棉铃儿》，也许是《红楼梦》之类的经典作品，将成为棉棉的书《熊猫性爱》的畅销书展之一。 在接下来的版本中，我们将介绍个人作者和最新动态，并从她开始-Mian Mian。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 16:28, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
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Bestseller list of Chinese authors 2007<br />
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Last update: 9.11.2007, researched and reviewed in note form<br />
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In the question of what to understand by contemporary literature, one has to clarify various assumptions:<br />
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2007年中国作家畅销书排行榜<br />
最后更新:2007年9月11日，以注释形式研究和审查<br />
在如何理解当代文学的问题上，人们必须阐明各种假设:--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 14:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2007年中国畅销书排行榜<br />
最新更新：2007年9月11日，以注释形式进行了研究和审查<br />
关于当代文学应理解什么的问题，必须阐明各种假设：--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 16:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2007年中国作家畅销书排行榜<br />
最新更新：2007年9月11日，以注释的形式进行研究和审查<br />
在当代文学应该理解什么的问题上，人们必须阐明各种假设。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 05:53, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
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Is the complete literature taken into account, or are certain categories of literature excluded? In the current case, we restrict us to literary books (no nonfiction books, for which there are often separate bestseller lists). Thus every objectively well-sold book will be named. It is only in a second step, in the evaluation for the German book market, that children's literature is excluded.<br />
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是将完整的文献考虑在内，还是将某些类别的文献排除在外?在目前的情况下，我们把考虑范围限于文学书籍(不包括非小说类书籍，因为它们通常有不同的畅销书排行榜)。因此，客观上，每一本很畅销的书都会被提及。在对德国图书市场的评估中，把儿童文学排除在外也只是第二步。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 10:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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是将完整的文献考虑在内，还是排除某些类别的文献？目前，我们仅考虑文学书籍(不考虑非小说类书籍，因为此类书籍畅销排行榜通常不同)。因此，客观上，每本畅销书都会被提及。在对德国图书市场的评估中，排除儿童文学也只是第二步。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 12:34, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong<br />
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是把所有的文学类别考虑在内，还是把某些特定的文学类别排除在外？目前，我们把考虑范围限于文学书籍（不包括非小说类书籍，它们通常有不同的畅销书榜单）。因此，客观上，每本畅销书都将被提及。在对德国的书籍市场的评估中，把儿童文学排除在外也仅仅是第二步。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 12:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
是将完整的文学作品考虑在内，还是将某些类别的文学作品排除在外？ 在目前的情况下，我们把我们的范围限制在文学书籍上（不包括非小说类书籍，因为非小说类书籍往往有单独的畅销书排行榜）。 因此，每一本客观上畅销的书都会被命名。 只有在第二步，即对德国图书市场的评估中，儿童文学才会被排除在外。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 01:51, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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是涵盖所有文学类别，还是剔除某些特定的文学作品？目前，我们仅考虑文学书籍（不包括非虚构类图书，因为此类书籍往往有单独的畅销书榜单）。因此，客观上而言，每本畅销书都将榜上有名。所以在对德国图书市场的评估中，将儿童文学作品排除在外还仅仅只是第二步。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:06, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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Are the books objectively presented by sales figures? Is this the only criterion for evaluating commercial success? This has the implication that high-minded literature usually ends up further down on the bestseller list as the dime novel. An exception in the West may be e.g. Harry Potter, who has besides his youthful target group, also at least in the English original literary claim.<br />
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这些书单能够代表客观的销售数据吗？这是衡量商业成就的唯一标准吗？这暗指着，在最畅销的书单上，高尚文学经常比廉价文学排名要低很多。这其中可能有一个例外，那就是《哈利波特》，因为它不仅有其年轻的读者群体，也至少属于英语本土文学之列。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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销售数据能代表这些书籍吗？销售数据是衡量商业成功的唯一标准吗? 这暗示着：相较于廉价小说，高尚文学通常在畅销榜单上不见其名。西方文学中的一个例外可能是《哈利波特》。这本书除了有年轻的读者群体之外，至少也符合英语原著文学的主张。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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销量的高与低就能客观的代表书籍的好与差吗？难道销量是衡量商业成功的唯一标准吗？这意味着，高尚文学通常会像廉价小说一样在畅销书排行榜上排名靠后。西方文学的一个例外可能是《哈利·波特》，除了有年轻的读者群体之外，它还属于英文原著文学之一。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 14:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
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It is striking that there is hardly any accordance between the list of bestsellers with the list of actually translated literature and also not with the list of government-sponsored translations. The most important reason is that the bestseller list in 2007 is the current literature, as it was read in China at the beginning of 2008. But for the book fair the publishers have commissioned much older books for translation. Only in a few titles is the translation market already as fast as e.g. in the translation of American novels into German, e.g. "Wolf Totem," "Confucius from the Heart," or Mian Mian's "Panda Sex."<br />
令人惊讶的是，畅销书清单与实际翻译文学清单之间以及政府赞助的翻译清单之间几乎没有任何一致。最重要的原因是，2007年的畅销书是当下的文学，而它是在2008年初才开始在中国阅读。但对于书展，出版商则委托翻译更古老的书籍。只有在少数书目中，翻译市场已经如火如荼，比如将美国小说翻译成德语，如 "狼图腾"、"论语心得”以及棉棉的 "熊猫"。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 01:49, 5 October 2020 (UTC)Jiang Hao<br />
<br />
<br />
令人惊讶的是，畅销书单上的作品与实际翻译的文学作品并不相符，与政府资助的翻译书籍也不尽相同。最重要的原因是，2007年畅销的当代文学，中国的读者要在2008年才能读到。但对于书展，出版社则委托翻译更早的书籍。只有少数的书籍，能在翻译市场迅速转化，比如，将美国的小说翻译为德语，如《狼图腾》、《论语心得》、棉棉的《熊猫》。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 06:07, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
This bestseller list and the evaluations were presented at the technical lecture "Rotes Kornfeld" in the German Publishers and Booksellers Association for the Frankfurt book fair on the 29th April 2008, so that the publishers who had sent their lecturers and the other translators could consider the presented titles in the planning. Some of the titles were realized. Others may stay interesting for a later time.<br />
2008年4月29日，在德国出版商协会为法兰克福书展举行的“红高粱”科技讲座中，公布了畅销书单以及相关评价。已经举办讲座的出版商和翻译人员可以考虑计划中给出的标题，其中部分已被采用，另一部分还有待商榷。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:55, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2008年4月29日，德国出版商和书商协会在为法兰克福书展举办的“红高粱”专业性讲座中公布了畅销书单及相关评价，方便已经进行演讲的出版商和其他翻译人员可以考虑计划公布的标题。这些标题中，部分已经采用，另一部分还有待商榷。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
For the development of the number of translations from Chinese I refer to appropriate investigations. <br />
<br />
First of all, the full list, followed by the criteria after the list has been cleared with regard to the German book market.<br />
<br />
我参考了些许相关的调查，用来研究中文的译文数量发展。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 12:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
首先，一份完整的畅销书单后面是其评判的标准，而德国图书市场正是通过这一标准对各种书目进行清理排除，得出了最终的书单。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 12:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
<br />
Note: The book cover and photos of the authors were provided by the publishers for reproduction and are reproduced here for this scientific study. Copyrights and reproduction rights of the illustrations remain at the respective publishers or rights holders.<br />
注：书的封面和作者的照片由出版商提供，用于复制，并且在这里复制，用于本次科学研究。插图的版权和复制权保留在各自的出版商或版权持有者手中。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 12:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
注：由于要再版或者出于科研目进行再版，出版商会提供书的封皮和作者的照片。插图的版权和复制权保留在各自的出版商或版权持有者手中。--[[User:Monan|Monan]] ([[User talk:Monan|talk]]) 13:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
<br />
1st place: Guō Jìngmíng / Guo Jingming郭敬明(born 6.6.1983, lives in Shanghai), 550.000 sold copies, »Tears against the Stream«郭敬明Changjiang literature and art publishing house, 5/2007, 340 pp. Rating: 1.0. Without life experience, Ms. Lin Huafeng has to raise her daughter alone after the divorce. She has to prostitute herself and her mental conflict worsens daily.<br />
<br />
This novel could also become a bestseller within the framework of China literature in Germany.<br />
The Shanghai student Jingming Guo is something like a cultureless enfant terrible, grades worse than Han Han, but loved by the youth.<br />
<br />
His series "Bestseller"最小说is rated 4.0. The novels are collage-like and also composed of foreign languages. They are illustrated in color and presented with all sorts of tips and gimmicks (recipes, make-up, pictures) etc. Further details and translation, see next chapter.<br />
<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki><br />
第一名：郭敬明（生于1983年6月6日，现居于上海），作品《悲伤逆流成河》共售五十五万册，长江文艺出版社2007年5月出版，全书共340页，评分1.0.<br />
书中讲述了没有生活经验的林华凤离婚之后不得不独自抚养女儿。她被迫沦为暗娼，精神问题也日益严重。基于中国文学的框架，这本小说在德国也成为了畅销书。这位上海学子郭敬明就像一个没有文化的婴儿，尽管作品得分低于韩寒，却倍受年轻人的喜爱。他的畅销小说集《最小说》评分有4.0分。这本小说集爱用拼贴画并由多种外语组成，其中作品附有彩色插画并通过各种技巧和手段呈现，如食谱、美妆、图片等。更多细节和翻译可见下章。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:17, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
<br />
2nd place: Yú Dān / Yu Dan于丹(born 28.6.1965, lives in Beijing), "Thoughts on the conversations of Confucius" "论语"心 得, 503.000 copies sold, Zhonghua Book Company, 11/06 157 pp. , Evaluation score: 1.7.<br />
第二位:于丹，(生于1965年6月28日，现居北京)，《于丹<论语>感悟》、《于丹<论语>心得》，销量503,000册，中华书局，11月6日发行，第157页，评分:1.7.--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
第二名：于丹（生于1965年6月28日，现居北京），作品《于丹<论语>心得》销量503,000册，中华书局出版，11月6日发行，共157页，评分1.7.<br />
Yu Dan is the moderator of a TV discussion on Confucius. In this book she explains the two-thousand-years-old classic, which the Chinese memorize by referring to the present.ud<br />
于丹曾主持过一档关于孔子的电视评论栏目。在这本书里，她解读了一部写于两千多年前的经典名著，直至今日，这本著作<br />
仍被中国人提及。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
于丹曾主持过一档关于孔子的电视评论栏目。在《于丹<论语>心得》这本书中，她解读了这部具有两千年历史的经典之作，直至今天这本著作仍被中国人奉为经典。<br />
The translation presents a special challenge because the German reader lacks the background knowledge. Here, the publishing house found the solution to attach the original in an existing translation in the appendix.<br />
Translator: Johannes Fiederling (Munich), Publisher: Knaur.<br />
阅读这本著作对于德国人来说是一个特殊的挑战，因为他们缺乏与之相关的背景知识。出版社找到了一个解决办法，将一篇已有的翻译附加在原著的附录上。译者:约翰内斯·费德林<br />
对于德国读者而言，翻译这本著作是一个特殊的挑战，因为他们缺乏与之相关的背景知识。而出版社找到了一个解决办法，将原著附在已有的翻译--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 5 October 2020 (UTC)的附录上。译者:约翰内斯·费德林(Johannes Fiederling)(慕尼黑），出版商:科努尔(Knaur)<br />
Yú Dān于丹»Yu Dan’s Notes on Zhuangzi« "《庄子》心得Zhonghua Book Company, Rating: 4.0.<br />
This is a typical second book. This should only be tackled when the first book becomes a success.<br />
《于丹<庄子>心得》，中华书局，评分:4.0.<br />
这本书是于丹第二本经典书籍。只有读懂第一本书后，才能读懂这本书。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
<br />
3rd place: Yì Zhōngtiān / Yi Zhongtian 天 中天 (born 8.2.1947, lives in): »Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms« Volume 1-2品三国（上下), 340.000 sold copies 2007, Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House , Vol. 1 7/06 248 pp., Vol. 2 3/07 274 p. Rating: 3.0.<br />
<br />
Explanations on the classical novel "Three Kingdoms", typical title of the nostalgic wave. Even less popular with the German public.<br />
<br />
4th place: Zhèng Yuānjié / Zheng Yuanjie郑渊洁 (born 15.6.1955): »Pipi Lu; Rock the Wolf "皮皮鲁总动员;大灰狼罗克, 285.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Children's books.<br />
<br />
5. Ráo Xuěmàn / Rao Xueman 饶雪漫 (born 1972), "Sweet-sour" 甜酸 11/07, 235 pp., New World publishing house, 260.000 sold copies. Rating: 3.7.<br />
Love story for teenagers / sentimental kitsch.<br />
<br />
Sandglass Volume 1-3, 沙漏, 279 pp., Gegenwartswelt Publishing House, Rating: 3.7.<br />
Love story for teenagers / sentimental kitsch.<br />
<br />
第三位：易中天，（生于1947年2月8日）,《三国志》第1、2卷，2007年售出34万册，上海文艺出版社，第1卷7/06248页，第2卷3/07274页。评分：3.0。解读经典小说《三国演义》，怀旧浪潮的典型标题，在德国公众中不受欢迎。<br />
第四位：郑渊洁，（生于1955年6月15日），《皮皮鲁总动员》和《大灰狼罗克》售出28.5万册，评分：4.0，儿童读物。<br />
第五位：饶雪漫，（生于1972），《甜酸》，新世界出版社，售出26万册，评分：3.7，描述青少年的爱情故事和多愁善感的媚俗。《沙漏》1-3卷，279页，当代世界出版社，评分：3.7分，描述青少年的爱情故事和多愁善感的媚俗。<br />
--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:51, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
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6th place: Wáng Shuò / Wang Shuo: 王朔 (born 23.8.1958): "Playing for Thrills" 玩的就是心跳, 250.000 sold copies. Rating: 1.3.<br />
Already translated by Ulrich Kautz, Diogenes 5/1997.<br />
<br />
7th Place: Yáng Hóngyīng / Yang Hongying杨红樱(born 1962), "Children’s Stories about Love"爱的童话, 240.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Children's books<br />
<br />
8th place: Cáo Wénxuān / Cao Wenxuan曹文轩 (born 1.1954) »Fantasy: King's Books - The Yellow Pagoda«大王书——黄琉璃, 225.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Fantasy.<br />
<br />
9th place: Wáng Yuèwén / Wang Yuewen王跃文 (born 26.9.1962) »The Qing Prime Minister« 大清相国, 217.500 sold copies, 3/07, 493 pp.<br />
Rating: 3.7. Historical civil servant novel, difficult to transfer, only suitable for expert audience.<br />
<br />
10th place: Yú Qiūyǔ / Yu Qiuyu余秋雨 (born 23.8.1946): »A Life Borrowed « 借我一生, 215:000 sold copies. 8/04, 617 pp., Autorenverlag.<br />
Rating: 2.0. Autobiography of a famous Chinese writer.<br />
<br />
第六名：王朔（出生于1958年8月23日）：《玩的就是心跳》，售出25万册。评分：1.3。Ulrich Kautz译，1997年5月出版。<br />
第七名：杨红樱（出生于1962年），《爱的童话》，售出24万册。评分：4.0。儿童读物<br />
第八名：曹文轩（出生于1954年1月），《大王书——黄琉璃》售出22.5万册。评分：4.0。幻想。<br />
第九名：王跃文（出生于1962年9月26日），《大清相国》，售出21.75万册，2007年3月出版，共计493页。评分：3.7。历史悠久的公务小说，转换较难，只适合专家读者阅读。<br />
第十名：余秋雨（出生于1946年8月23日）：《借我一生》，售出21.5万册。2004年8月出版，共计617页，Autorenverlag。评分：2.0。中国著名作家的自传。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
<br />
11th place: Cài Jùn / Cai Jun蔡骏 (born 23.12.1978): »Destiny volume 1: The city in deep sleep«天机: 第一季: 沉睡之城, 202.500 sold copies. 9/07, 240 pp., Shaanxi Pedagogical College Publishing House陕西师范大学出版社4 volumes. Rating: 4.0. Historical adventure / fantasy novel after the pattern of "Lost".<br />
<br />
12th place: Dōu Liáng / Dou Liang都梁(born 6.1954): "War Drums in Beijing"狼烟北平, 200.000 sold copies, Changjiang Literature and Art Publisher, 4/06, 371 pp. [Second user: Folk Literature Publishing House].<br />
Rating: 2.0. War novel about the 1930s in Beijing. Also interesting for Germans.<br />
<br />
13th place: Hán Hán / Han Han韩寒(born 23.9.1982): "Glory Days" 光荣 日, 190.000 sold copies. 6/07, 186 pp., 21st Century Publishing House. <br />
Rating: 1.0. Seven graduates drop out, instead of working in a foreign company. They perform pioneering work in the village (house construction, primary school, vegetable growing). Social critical novel with wit.<br />
第11位：蔡骏(生于1978年12月23日）《天机：第一季：沉睡之城》，销量202,500册，9/07，240页，陕西师范大学出版社。全书共四季，评分：4.0.属于“迷失”题材后的历史冒险或玄幻小说。<br />
第12位：都梁（生于1954年6月）《狼烟北平》，销量20万册，长江文艺出版社。4/06,371页，[第二个出版社：民间文学出版社].评分：2.0. 一本关于1930年北京的战争小说，该书同样引起了德国人的兴趣。<br />
第13位：韩寒（生于1982年9月23日）《光荣日》，销量19万册，6/07，186页，21世纪出版社。评分：1.0.该书叙述了7位研究生退学后，没有在外国公司上班，而是在一个村庄里开拓创新（房屋建设、小学工作、蔬菜种植）的故事，是一本充满智慧的社会批评小说。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
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14th place: Bì Shūmǐn / Bi Shumin毕淑敏 (born 1952): "Women's Boxes"女儿拳, 182.500 sold copies. 254 pp., Blindenschrift Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 2.0, women's narratives.<br />
<br />
Female Psychologist« 女心理师4/07 Chongqing Publishing Group, 253 pp., 2 vols. Rating: 2.0, women’s novel.<br />
<br />
15th place: Ānnī Bǎobèi / Annie Baobei安妮宝贝 (born 11.7.1974): »Fette Jahre, magere Jahre« 素年锦时, 175.000 sold copies, 9/07 264 pp., Authors Publishing House.<br />
<br />
Rating: 1.3. The female first-person narrator of these stories is in each case a young woman who sees the world with her own eyes.<br />
<br />
16th place: Wáng Hǎilíng / Wang Hailing王海鸰 (born 12.1953): »Holding Hands« 牵手, 160.000 sold copies. 7/07 346 pp. Authors Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 4.0. guidebook.<br />
<br />
17th place: Hǎi Yán / Hai Yan 海岩 (born 1954): »Five-Star Hotel« 五星大酒店, 157.500 sold copies. 8/07, 342 pp. Authors Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 2.0. Novel about a student from simple circumstances, who becomes the heir to a Korean financial group, and his girlfriend.<br />
<br />
第14位：毕淑敏（1952年生）《女儿拳》 售出182500本 254pp., 布兰登斯克瑞夫特（Blindenschrift）出版社 评分：2.0 女性记叙文 《女心理师》 4//07 重庆出版集团 253pp 2卷 评分：2.0 女性小说<br />
<br />
第15位：安妮宝贝（1974年11月7日生） 《素年锦时》 售出175000本 9/07 264pp., 作者出版社 评分1.3 她是第一位女性讲述者，无论任何境遇下都用自己的眼光看待整个世界的一位年轻女性<br />
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第16位：王海鸥（1953年12月生） 《牵手》 售出160000本 7/07 346pp., 作者出版社 评分：4.0 指导书<br />
<br />
第17位：海岩（1954年生） 《五星大饭店》 售出157500本 8/07 342pp., 作者出版社 评分：2.0 小说讲述一位成为韩国大财团继承者的平民学生和他的女朋友的故事--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
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18th Place: Yán Chóngnián / Yan Chongnian阎崇年(born 24.4.1934): »Beijing: The Treasures of an Ancient Capital«中国古都北京, 150.000 sold copies. 1/08, 302 pp., Democracy and Law Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 4.0. Specialized book.<br />
<br />
19th place: Tiānxià Bàchàng / Tianxia Bachang天下霸唱(born 1978): »A bizarre story of ghost blowing out the light« 鬼吹灯, 140.000 sold copies.<br />
Vol. 1 The Perfect Ancient City, Vol. 2 The Weasel Grave, Bd. X The Valley of Insects. Rating: 4.0. Magic series on Harry Potter wave.<br />
<br />
20th place: Lù Tiānmíng [Lu Tianming] 陆天明 (born 1943): »Provincial Secretary« 省委书记, 125.000 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 4.0. The very title is currently not enforceable on the German book market.<br />
<br />
21st place: Shí Zhōngshān [Shi Zhongshan] 石钟山(born 10.1964): »Underground, Overground«地下,地上115.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Plagiarism?<br />
<br />
第18位：Yán Chóngnián / Yan Chongnian阎崇年(1934年4月24日生): 《中国古都北京》, 售出150.000 本. 1/08, 302 pp., 中国民主法制出版社.<br />
评分: 4.0. 专业书籍.<br />
<br />
第19位: Tiānxià Bàchàng / Tianxia Bachang天下霸唱(1978年生): 《鬼吹灯》, 售出140.000 本.<br />
卷一：精绝古城，卷二：黄皮子坟，卷三：云南虫谷. 评分: 4.0. 哈利波特魔法系列.<br />
<br />
第20位: Lù Tiānmíng [Lu Tianming] 陆天明 (1943年生): 《省委书记》, 售出125.000本.<br />
评分: 4.0. 该标题目前在德国图书市场上不可发行。<br />
<br />
第21位: Shí Zhōngshān [Shi Zhongshan] 石钟山(1964年10月生): «地下，地上》售出115.000 本. 评分: 4.0. 抄袭？--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 14:23, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第18位：阎崇年(1934年4月24日生): 《中国古都北京》, 销量为15万册. 1/08, 302页, 中国民主法制出版社.<br />
评分: 4.0. 专业书籍.<br />
<br />
第19位:天下霸唱(1978年生): 《鬼吹灯》, 销量为14万册.<br />
卷一：精绝古城，卷二：黄皮子坟，卷三：云南虫谷. <br />
评分: 4.0. 哈利波特魔法系列.<br />
<br />
第20位:陆天明 (1943年生): 《省委书记》, 销量为12. 5万本.<br />
评分: 4.0. 该书名目前在德国图书市场上不可发行。<br />
<br />
第21位:石钟山(1964年10月生): 《地下，地上》 销量为11. 5万册. <br />
评分: 4.0. 抄袭？--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
22nd place: Dāngnián Míngyuè [Dangnian Mingyue] 当年明月 (born 1980): "Storys about Ming Dynasty (volume Yuanzhang Zhu, volume 2, 3, 4)« 明朝哪些事（朱元璋卷）, 2, 3, 4. 112.500 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 2.0. Historical novel about the Ming period (The 1st Emperor of the Ming Dynasty was transformed from beggar to emperor).<br />
<br />
23rd place: Liú Xīnwǔ [Liu Xinwu] 刘心武 (born 1942): »Liu Xinwu about …« 刘心武说, 100,000 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 4.0.<br />
Series with at least 3 volumes.<br />
<br />
24th place: Yáng Zhìjūn [Yang Zhijun] 杨志军 (born 1955): »The Tibetan ethnic group Zang'ao (Vol. 1, 2, 3)« 藏獒1, 2, 3. 90.000 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 4.0.<br />
Ethnological-historical representation<br />
<br />
第22位: 当年明月（生于1980年）：《明朝那些事（朱元璋卷）》，2，3，4. 售出112500本。<br />
评分：2.0. 一本关于明朝的历史小说（明朝的第一位皇帝最初是乞丐）。<br />
<br />
第23位：刘心武（生于1942年）：《刘心武说》，售出100000本。<br />
评分：4.0.<br />
这本书至少有三卷。<br />
<br />
第24位: 杨志军（生于1955年）：《藏獒》，1，2，3。售出90000本。<br />
评分：4.0.<br />
一本关于民族历史的书。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:37, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
<br />
25th place: Jiǎ Píngwā [Jia Pingwa] 贾平凹 (born 21.2.1952): »Happy« 高兴, published 9/07, 461 pp., Authors Publishing House.<br />
75.000 sold copies.<br />
<br />
Rating: 2.0.<br />
Novel about a farmer who sells his kidney to the city and finds a brittle happiness with a prostitute in the city.<br />
<br />
Not yet published in German by the same author:<br />
<br />
»Ruined City« 废都. 381 pp., 1993, Culture and Art Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 1.7.<br />
Novel with erotic elements about male men and female women, about the rotten urban life (exists to a half)<br />
<br />
第25位：贾平凹（wā）（1952年2月21日生）：《高兴》，2007年9月出版，461页，作家出版社。销量达75000册。评分：2.0<br />
小说讲述了一个农民将自己的肾卖到城市，并在城市里和一个妓女找到了脆弱的幸福。<br />
同一作者尚未出版德语版的作品：《废都》，381页，1993年，文化艺术出版社。评分：1.7<br />
小说中有关于男女的，关于腐朽的城市生活的情色元素（占了一半）--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 04:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
小说讲述了一个农民在城里卖肾，并且和一个妓女找到了脆弱的幸福的故事。该作者尚未在德国发行的作品：--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 17:12, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Selection procedures on the recommendations for publishers<br />
<br />
The basis for this was the bestseller list in 2007. The following exclusion criteria were applied afterwards:<br />
Already released: Wang Shuo (Playing for Thrills) - Diogenes<br />
Children's books: Zhèng Yuānjié (Pipi Lu; Rock the Wolf), Yáng Hóngyīng (Children's Books about Love)<br />
Suspicion for plagiarism: Shí Zhōngshān (Underground, Overground)<br />
Guidebook: Wang Hailing (New Age of Marriage)<br />
出版商建议的选择程序是以2007年的畅销书排行榜为基础的。随后，又应用了如下淘汰标准:已发行的有:王硕《玩得就是心跳》<br />
儿童书籍:郑渊洁《皮皮鲁》；《大灰狼罗克传》，杨红樱（关于爱的儿童书籍），有抄袭嫌疑的:石钟山《地上，地下》，指南:王海鸰《新结婚时代》--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 07:26, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
Specialized books: Yán Chóngnián (Beijing: The Treasures of an Ancient Capital), Yáng Zhìjūn (The Tibetan ethnical group Zang'ao)<br />
Sentimental Kitsch: Ráo Xuěmàn (Sweet-sour, Sandglass)<br />
Fantasy (Potter epigones): Cáo Wénxuān (Kings books: The yellow pagoda); Cài Jùn (Destiny volume 1: The City in deep Sleep, historical adventure / fantasy novel after the pattern of "Lost"); Tiānxià Bàchàng (A bizarre Story of Ghost blowing out the Light: Bd. 1 The Perfect Ancient Town, Vol. 2 The Weasel's Grave, Bd. X The Valley of Insects)<br />
专著：阎崇年（中国古都北京），杨志军（藏獒）<br />
言情：饶雪漫（甜酸，沙漏）<br />
奇幻（仿哈里·波特）：曹文轩（大王书：黄琉璃）；蔡骏（天机1：沉睡之城，历史冒险/发生在“失踪”后的奇幻故事）；天下霸唱（鬼吹灯：第一部：精绝古城，第二部：龙岭迷窟，第三部：云南虫谷）--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 17:13, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
Other socialization: Yì Zhōngtiān (comments on the "Three Kingdoms" volume 1-2); Wáng Yuèwén (The Qing Prime Minister = historic civil servant novel); Lù Tiānmíng (The secretary of the Provincial Party Committee - the title alone is not conceivable at the German book market); Liu Xīnwǔ (Liu Xinwu says: ... - The author is largely unknown in Germany, so one does not want to know anything about his multivolume sentiment about everybody and his dog - tradition such as Suixiang lu by Ba Jin.)<br />
<br />
其他社科书籍作者：易中天（《品三国》1-2卷）；王跃文（《大清相国》，一本关于举足轻重的官员的小说）；陆天明（《省委书记》——仅仅这个标题在德国图书市场来说就是不可想象的）；刘心武（《刘心武说》……该作者在德国广为人知，所以人们并不想知道他对与他有关的所有人和他的狗的写成多卷书的随感——这种随感的传统包括巴金的《随想录》）。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:09, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
<br />
National hype: Guo Jingming (novel bestseller = Bestseller. The novels are collagen-like and also composed with foreign texts. They will be illustrated in color and presented with all kinds of tips (recipes, make-up), etc. Success can only be explained by enfant terrible Guo Jingming.) <br />
Tip: conclude general contract with Chinese publisher for an author (like Piper with Shan Sa)<br />
<br />
国内的炒作：郭敬明（新奇的畅销书也是畅销书。他的小说就像拼贴画一样，其中还有外文文本。书中有彩色插图，展示各种技巧(如食谱，化妆)，等等。年少成名，郭敬明是成功二字唯一的阐释者。小贴士:他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同(如派伯（Piper）出版社与山飒（Shan Sa）的合同一般)。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:46, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国内炒作：郭敬明（小说畅销书也就是畅销书。他的小说就像拼图贴画一样，其中与外文文本相结合。书中有彩色插图，展示各种技巧(如食谱，化妆)，等等。年少成名，郭敬明是成功二字唯一的阐释者。小贴士:他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同(如派伯（Piper）出版社与山飒（Shan Sa）的合同一般)。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 02:58, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国内炒作：郭敬明（畅销的小说也就是畅销书。郭敬明的小说是拼图版式并且常与外文文本相结合。书中有彩色插图，提供了各种各样的技巧（如食谱、化妆等）。郭敬明向我们诠释了“成功”这两个字。。小贴士：他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同（如派伯出版社和山萨的一同一般）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 04:20, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国内炒作：郭敬明（畅销小说也代表着畅销书作者。他的小说像胶原蛋白一样含量多，内容广，书中还结合了外文文本。书中有彩色插图，展示各种技巧(如食谱，化妆)，等等。年少成名，郭敬明是成功二字的不二诠释者。小贴士:他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同(如派伯（Piper）出版社与山飒（Shan Sa）的合同一般)。<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 22:27, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
<br />
Further recommendations for German publishers for publication<br />
<br />
At the translator meeting in Frankfurt, I had recommended two more works, which are not on the current bestseller lists, but which are absolutely necessary to translate and actually appeared at the book fair:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the "secret bestseller", Mian Mian's Panda Sex, which was forbidden in China, appeared in Hong Kong and became a bestseller in China under the shop counter and on the Internet. It was only in February 2009 that a censored version could be published in China, which was sold out immediately after the release.<br />
<br />
对德国出版商出版的进一步建议<br />
在法兰克福的翻译家大会上，我又推荐了两本书，虽然未能进入畅销书排行榜，但把它们翻译出来并使之现身书展显然十分必要。 <br />
一方面，“秘密畅销书”（在中国大陆被禁止）棉棉的《熊猫》在香港发行售卖，在商店柜台下和网上成为了中国的畅销书。直到2009年2月，审查版本才在大陆出版，此书一经发行，立马被抢购一空。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 06:41, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
<br />
1. Mián Mián棉棉 »Panda Sex« 熊猫. Prohibited in the People's Republic of China. Published in revised version 2/2009, 1st edition immediately out of print.<br />
German translation by Martin Woesler with Lihua Ji, Kiepenheuer & Witsch 2009.<br />
Published in Chinese: 12/04, 181 pp., Massenverlag Publishing House<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Scandal book about a Shanghai love affair in free love, cf. La la la, Candy, Your night my day, cf .: Wei Hui: Shanghai Baby.<br />
<br />
For details, see one of the following chapters.<br />
棉棉《熊猫性爱》。此书在中华人民共和国禁止发行。修订版于2009年2月出版，第一版立即绝版。2009年德译版译者：Martin Woesler，纪丽华，Kiepenheuer & Witsch。中文版:12/04,181页，Massenverlag出版社评分:1.3。关于上海恋爱的丑闻书，《啦啦啦，坎迪，你的黑夜我的白天》，魏慧:上海宝贝。<br />
了解详细信息，请参阅以下章节之一。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 13:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
棉棉的《熊猫性爱》禁止在中国发行。其修订版于2009年2月出版，第一版立即绝版下架。<br />
2009年德译版译者：Martin Woesler，纪丽华，Kiepenheuer &Witsch。<br />
中文版:12/04,181页，Massenverlag出版社评分仅1.3分。<br />
关于上海风流韵事的丑闻书，《啦啦啦，坎迪，你的黑夜我的白天》，魏慧:上海宝贝。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 00:12, 5 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
<br />
2. Cáo Xuěqín 曹雪芹 » Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone« 红楼梦.<br />
This book appears in 2009 in a bound edition in three volumes and in a paperback edition in a volume.<br />
Approx. 1759, 2300 pp.<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Everlasting bestseller in China, could become a longseller in Germany. Previously there was only a 70% shortened version by Franz Kuhn. The new version is uncut.<br />
曹雪芹的《红楼梦》这本书，于2009年出版了三卷的精装版以及一卷的平装版。<br />
大约有1759到2300页<br />
评分为1.3分。<br />
这本书在中国永远都是畅销书，在德国也应该会长期畅销。之前德国只有弗朗兹.库恩翻译的只包含原文70%的删减版，但最新版是无删减的版本。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 05:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Cáo Xuěqín 曹雪芹 » Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone« 红楼梦.<br />
This book appears in 2009 in a bound edition in three volumes and in a paperback edition in a volume.<br />
Approx. 1759, 2300 pp.<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Everlasting bestseller in China, could become a longseller in Germany. Previously there was only a 70% shortened version by Franz Kuhn. The new version is uncut.<br />
曹雪芹的《红楼梦》，于2009年出版了三卷的精装版以及一卷的平装版。<br />
大约有1759到2300页；<br />
评分:1.3；<br />
这本书在中国十分畅销，在德国应该会长期畅销。之前有弗朗兹.库恩翻译的删减版，只包含原文70%，但最新版是无删减的版本。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 06:29, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
3.Cáo Xuěqín 曹雪芹 » Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone« 红楼梦.<br />
This book appears in 2009 in a bound edition in three volumes and in a paperback edition in a volume.<br />
Approx. 1759, 2300 pp.<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Everlasting bestseller in China, could become a longseller in Germany. Previously there was only a 70% shortened version by Franz Kuhn. The new version is uncut.<br />
曹雪芹的《红楼梦》（又称《石头记》），这本书以三卷精装版和一卷平装版在2009年面世。<br />
大约有1759到2300页。<br />
评分：1.3。<br />
红楼梦在中国是经久不衰的畅销书，在德国应该亦然。在此之前，此书只有一个包含原文70％内容的删减版，由弗朗茨.库恩所译，而新版本是未删减的。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:01, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
<br />
On the situation of Chinese publications in Germany (selection list before the book fair)<br />
<br />
Here is a list of Chinese publications in German translation before the book fair.<br />
In 2008, only 11 literary works from Chinese to German were translated.<br />
<br />
An important translator is Ulrich Kautz, here some of the translated novels<br />
<br />
Unfortunately many translations do not come directly from Chinese, but rather from the indirection of English or French, as one of the more famous novels: Gio Waeckerlin Induni (Transl. f. Fr.) Dai Sijie: Balzac and the little Chinese Seamstress <Piper> 192007<br />
<br />
关于在德国中文出版物的情况（书展前的入选名单） <br />
这是书展前的德译中出版物清单。 <br />
2008年，仅有11部德译中的文学作品。<br />
其中一位重要的译者是乌尔里希·考茨（Ulrich Kautz），他曾翻译过一些小说。 但是，许多翻译并不是直接来自中文，而是来自英语或法语的间接翻译，因为这些译本似乎更出名：乔·瓦克林·英杜尼 戴思杰：巴尔扎克和小中国裁缝--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 09:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关于德国的中文出版物情况（书展前的入选名单） 这是书展前的德语版中文出版物清单。 2008年，仅有11部中国文学作品翻译成德语， 其中，一位重要的译者是乌尔里希·考茨（Ulrich Kautz），这些是他翻译过的小说。 但是，许多翻译并不是直接从中文翻译过来的，有些是从英语或法语间接翻译过来的，比如一本著名的小说：乔·瓦克林·英杜尼 戴思杰：巴尔扎克和小中国裁缝--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 11:18, 4 October 2020 (UTC）<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
Recent Literary History: "Modern Chinese Literature in Translation - Historical Development and Current Trends"<br />
<br />
1. Development<br />
<br />
Chinese literature is traditionally received in Germany because of its exoticism (Diederich’s Yellow Series, etc.). In Germany operated especially the exotic translator - with a tremendous amount of translation work: Franz Kuhn.<br />
The last great Chinese literature was Dream Of The Red Chamber ca.1760<br />
<br />
近代文学史：中国近代翻译文学的历史发展及现状<br />
1.发展<br />
中国文学因其异国风味在德国得到承认（如德里奇的黄色系列等）。在德国，异国译者尤其多，如弗兰兹•库恩。他翻译了大量作品，其最近的一部伟大的中国文学作品是《红楼梦》（1760年）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 05:39, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
In the period of the Republic appeared (about 1911-1937) great novels such as Ba Jin: The Family (cf. Buddenbrooks), the end of the Republic saw the beginning of the functionalization of literature (anti - Japanese resistance, civil war parties Guomindang and the Communist Party), intellectuals contributed to the reform with essays, experimental literature was written (Lu Xun: Diary of a Madman and The True Story of Ah Q, which were as revolutionary as Kafka with minimally reduced fictional elements in realistic spelling) and essays (suibi of Zhou Zuoren and socio-critical My Miscellaneous Studies杂文 zawen from his brother Lu Xun).<br />
<br />
民国时期（约1911-1937年年间）涌现了许多优秀的作品，如巴金的《家》。民国后期出现了功能主义文学（即反日本侵略，反国共内战），文人学者们推动了文学变革，出现了实验性文学作品（如鲁迅的《狂人日记》和《阿Q正传》（这两部作品的划时代性，有如卡夫卡在写实作品中减少虚构书写的变革））和散文（如周作人的《随笔》和鲁迅的杂文集等）。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 02:02, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
民国时期(1911年-1937年左右)涌现大批优秀小说，如巴金的《家》。民国晚期出现了功能主义文学（即以抗日战争和内战时期国共两党为题材的文学作品）。知识分子推动了散文写作领域的变革，首先是实验性文学作品的出现，像鲁迅的《狂人日记》和《阿Q正传》，这两部作品在文学领域的革命性有如卡夫卡在现实主义写作中极力减少虚构元素的创举；其次是在散文（周作人的随笔及鲁迅的社会批判性杂文）。 --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 07:47, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
In Communism, the functionalization of literature (tendency literature) and censorship (Ba Jin censored e.g. his novel The Family by himself) lowered the level, which was ultimately left to the cultural revolution, which wanted only a few model pieces to survive.<br />
在共产主义时期，文学功能化(走向文学)和审查制度(巴金审查了他自己写的小说——《家》)降低了，但是这些特征只持续到了文化大革命时期，文化大革命只想让极少几类文章保留下来。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 11:05, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在共产主义时期，文学的功能化（倾向文学）以及日渐放宽的审查制度最终延续到了文化大革命时期（巴金审查了他自己写的小说《家》）。而文化大革命只允许少部分模范作品保留下来。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
Today the exoticism begins to disappear for the first time because there is an approximation of the cultural background of the Chinese authors with the international authors, and because the functionalization has been replaced by commercialization (mass literature phenomenon Wang Shuo - but not pure fiction like Konsalik, but rather very socio-critical, language of the youth, unmasking the hollowness of slogans through use in the everyday language).<br />
现在异国情调首次出现消失的迹象，因为中国作家与国际上的作家的文化背景相近，并且由于功能化已被商业化所取代（大众文学现象 王硕-但不是像孔撒李这样的纯小说 ，但相当具有社会批判性的年轻人的语言，通过使用日常语言来揭露标语的空心性。）--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:34, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由于中国作家与国际作家的文化背景相似，并且商业化已经代替了功能化（大众文学现象王朔-不是像孔萨利克这样的纯小说，而是非常具有社会批判性的年轻人的语言，通过使用日常语言来揭露标语的空洞，这使得如今的异国情调初现消失的迹象。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 16:32, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
Even within China, literature has become pure consumption, has lost its reputation, and loses itself towards other media consumption (Internet / film / DVD) audience.<br />
In the last decades, German publishers have published less Chinese literature, while other media genres, such as the Chinese cinema, have been particularly popular because of the exoticism of the images.<br />
<br />
Secondary literature: Martin Woesler: "50 Years of 'Impossible Literature' in the People's Republic of China: Unfreedom, the 'Attempt to End the Enlightenment' and the Lack of Quality ', in: Between Mao and Confucius, Bochum 1999, pp. 151-188.<br />
<br />
甚至在中国，文学也已经成为了纯粹的消费品，失去了其原有的名声，并且执着于向媒体消费观众方向(网络/电影/光盘)发展。在过去的几十年里，德国出版商出版的中国文学作品越来越少，而如中国电影这些其他的媒体流派则因其影像的异国风味大受欢迎。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 06:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
二次文献:马丁·沃斯勒:中华人民共和国的五十年的'不可能文学':无自由，试图结束启蒙运动和缺乏质量，毛泽东与孔子，波1999年，151-188页。<br />
<br />
Even within China, literature has become pure consumption, has lost its reputation, and loses itself towards other media consumption (Internet / film / DVD) audience.<br />
In the last decades, German publishers have published less Chinese literature, while other media genres, such as the Chinese cinema, have been particularly popular because of the exoticism of the images.<br />
<br />
Secondary literature: Martin Woesler: "50 Years of 'Impossible Literature' in the People's Republic of China: Unfreedom, the 'Attempt to End the Enlightenment' and the Lack of Quality ', in: Between Mao and Confucius, Bochum 1999, pp. 151-188.<br />
甚至在中国，文学已经成为了纯粹的消费品，失去了其原有的名声，并且迷失自我，转而向其他媒体消费(网络/电影/光盘)的观众倾斜。在过去的几十年里，德国出版商出版的中国文学作品越来越少，而其他的媒体类型，比如中国电影，则因其异域风情的形象大受欢迎。<br />
<br />
二次文献:马丁·沃斯勒:中华人民共和国的五十年'不可能文学':无自由，试图终结启蒙运动和缺乏质量，毛泽东与孔子，波鸿，1999年，151-188页。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 15:06, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
2. Present<br />
<br />
In the present, there is a counter-movement to mass literature, such as Shanghai's extreme individualists (Bei Bei, Wei Hui, Mian Mian)<br />
<br />
2.1 Another characteristic of contemporary literature is the mass: Helmut Martin estimated that about 800 novels appeared annually at the beginning of the nineties; after 1995 the number had increased to about 1000. In the 1980s, only 100 novels a year!<br />
<br />
2. 现在<br />
<br />
目前，社会上存在反对大众文学的运动，比如上海的某些极端个人主义者：北北、卫慧、棉棉。<br />
<br />
目前，有一场反大众文学运动，如（北北，卫慧，棉棉）等上海极端个人主义者都是该运动的拥护者。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:58, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1 当代文学的另一个特点是大众化：马汉茂先生曾估算，90年代初每年出版大约800本小说；1995年之后，数量已增加到1000本。而在80年代的时候，每年只有100本！--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 03:42, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.现在<br />
<br />
目前，有一场反大众文学的运动，如上海的极端个人主义者(贝贝、卫慧、绵绵)<br />
<br />
2.1当代文学的另一个特点是大众化:赫尔穆特·马丁估计，在90年代初，每年大约有800部小说问世;1995年以后，这个数字增加到大约1000人。在20世纪80年代，每年只有100本小说!--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 04:13, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
2.现况<br />
目前，存在反对大众文学的运动，如上海的极端个人主义者：贝贝，魏慧，绵绵<br />
<br />
2.1当代文学的另一个特征是大众性：赫尔穆特·马丁估计，在90年代初，每年约有800部小说问世。 1995年以后，这个数字增加到1000左右。而在1980年代，每年只有100部小说！--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 14:12, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2. 现状<br />
目前，掀起了反大众文学的运动浪潮。例如，上海存在极端个人主义者（贝贝，卫辉，绵绵）。<br />
<br />
2.1 现代文学的另一个特点是数量众多。赫尔穆特·马丁估算，90年代初，每年大约出版800部小说；95年后，这个数字增至了1000左右。然而在80年代，一年只能出版约100本！--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:28, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
2.现状<br />
现如今，出现了一场反大众文学的运动，例如，上海的一些极端主义者（北北，卫慧，棉棉）就是其中的代表。<br />
2.1 当代文学的另一个特征就是大众化：赫尔穆特·马丁说：“九十年代初，每年大约有800部小说出版，1995年之后，这一数字达到1000，但在80年代，每年只出版100部。”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:11, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
<br />
2.2 ,Young Literature’: It has only been defunctionalized since the 1980s, recognizes that it has started from a zero point, begins with the repressed coping with the past, dares the experiment as in the autobiographical urban literature.<br />
Wang Shuo (born 1958), Masters of Mischief, Zurich: Diogenes, 1997, Playing for Thrills, Zurich: Diogenes, 1995<br />
<br />
2.2、“青年文学”:从20世纪80年代开始才被去功能化，认识到它已经从一个原点、从压抑的应对过去开始，敢于像自传式都市文学那样进行实验。<br />
王朔(1958年出生)，《恶作剧大师》，苏黎世:第欧奇尼斯，1997年;《刺激》，苏黎世:第欧奇尼斯，1995年--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:54, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2，“青年文学”：它1980年代以来才取消功能化的，也认识到此文学作品是从零开始的,始于对过去的压抑应对，敢于像自传城市文学中那样进行尝试。 王硕（生于1958年），《恶作剧大师》，苏黎世：第欧根尼，1997年，《玩刺激》，苏黎世：第欧根尼，1995年。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
<br />
Literature: Geremie Barmé: "Wang Shuo and ,Liumang’ (Hooligan) Culture," in: The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs (1992.2), pp. 23-64; Yusheng Yao: "The Elite-Class Background of Wang Shuo and His Hooligan Characters," in Modern China. An International Quarterly of History and Social Science (2004.4), pp. 431-469.<br />
Yu Hua余华(born 1960) Mastermind<br />
Mo Yan莫言(born 1956) Mastermind (figurative)<br />
Wang An-yi王安忆 (born 1954)<br />
Bei Dao北岛 (born 1949) poet<br />
<br />
文学：白杰明（Geremie Barmé）的《王朔与流氓文化》刊载于《澳大利亚中国事务杂志》（1992.2），第23-64页；姚玉生的《王朔及其流氓人物的精英阶层背景》刊载于国际历史与社会科学季刊《现代中国》（2004.4）第431-469页。余华（1960-）策划<br />
莫言（1956-）策划<br />
王安忆 (1954-) <br />
诗人北岛 ( 1949-) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 06:12, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
文学：白杰明（Geremie Barmé）的《王朔与流氓文化》刊载于《澳大利亚华人事务杂志》（1992.2），第23-64页；姚玉生（Yusheng Yao）的《王朔及其流氓人物的精英阶层背景》刊载于《国际历史与社会科学》季刊《现代中国》（2004.4）第431-469页。<br />
余华（1960-）策划<br />
莫言（1956-）形象策划<br />
王安忆 (1954-) <br />
诗人北岛 ( 1949-) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:18, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
<br />
1.Su Tong 苏童 (born 1963) <br />
<br />
Su Tong 苏童（生于1963年）--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.Wei Hui 衛慧 (born 1973): 上海寶貝Shanghai Baby, Munich: Ullstein, 2002; Marrying Buddha, Munich: Ullstein, 2005; 熊貓(not yet published in German: Pandasex)<br />
<br />
Mian棉棉(born 28.8.1970): La la la, Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2000; Your Night, my Day, Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2004; Candy糖, 2000.<br />
<br />
Wei Hui 衛慧（生于1973年）：《上海寶貝Shanghai Baby》,慕尼黑：乌尔斯坦，2020；《嫁给活佛》，慕尼黑：乌尔斯坦，2005；熊猫（还未在德国出版：熊猫之性）<br />
<br />
Mian Mian 棉棉 （生于1970年8月 28日）：《啦 啦 啦 》，科隆：Kiepenheuer & Witsch出版社，2020；《你的黑夜，我的白昼》，科隆：Kiepenheuer & Witsch出版社，2004；Candy糖，2020.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.Literature:<br />
Jie Lu: "Cultural Invention and Cultural Intervention: Reading Chinese Urban Fiction of the Nineties", in: Modern Chinese Literature and Culture (2001.1), pp. 107-139.<br />
<br />
A comparison between Zhang Jie张洁(born 1937) and Mian Mian / Wei Hui: James Farrer: Opening up. Youth Sex Culture and Market Reform in Shanghai (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).<br />
<br />
文学：<br />
杰露：“文化发明与文化干预：阅读中国九十年代城市小说” 刊载于：现代中国文学与文化（2001.1）107-139页<br />
<br />
张洁与棉棉/卫慧之比较：刘雅格：开放. 青年性文化与上海市场改革（芝加哥：芝加哥大学出版社，2020）.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
Thilo Diefenbach: "Chinese Literature under the Sign of the 'Upturn': Liu Jiming, Zhang Wei, Liu Qingbang<br />
And their Answer to the big City Literature, "in: Bulletin of the German China Association 2006 (in preparation) [rural China, critical against upturn]<br />
Thilo Diefenbach: Liu Jiming, Zhang Wei, Liu Qing-bang, Bochum 2006<br />
迪芬巴赫：“中国文学渐有好转迹象 ：刘继明，张伟和刘庆邦等对大城市文学的看法”刊载于2006年德中协会公报（筹备中）【中国农村，关键在好转】迪芬巴赫：刘继明，张伟，刘庆邦，波鸿（德国） 2006--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 07:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
迪芬巴赫：“中国文学有好转迹象 ：刘继明，张伟和刘庆邦等对大城市文学的看法”刊载于2006年德中协会公报（筹备中）【中国农村，关键在好转】迪芬巴赫：刘继明，张伟，刘庆邦，波鸿（德国） 2006--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 09:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
<br />
3. Specific problems on the Chinese-German translation process<br />
3.1 Translator = additional filter (further filter: place, possibly time, especially difficult, because great cultural difference)<br />
<br />
3.2 Since in Chinese with 413 phoneme combinations only a fraction of what is possible in German is available, phonetic expressions in Chinese sound strangely clumsy for German ears: "汪wāng" instead of the variations in German "Wau" and "Wuff", 喔喔喔wōwōwō" instead of ‘kikeriki’ "as in German and Czech, cf. “kokekoko” in Japanese, "cocorico" in French, "cook-a-doodle-doo" in English,"kuckeliku" in Swedish.<br />
3.中德互译中的几个问题<br />
3.1 议员=特殊的转换器（更高级的转换器：空间，或时间，由于巨大的文化差异而十分困难）<br />
3.2由于中文的413个音节组合仅有一小部分在德语里通用，中文发音对德国人也十分困难：中文的“汪”在德语里是“嗷呜”和“呜咈”；“喔喔喔”在德语和捷克语为“咯咯咯”，在日语里为“kokekoko”，法语里为“cocorico”，英文里为“cook-a-doodle-doo”，瑞典语里为“kuckeliku”。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
<br />
At the same time the Chinese is essentialy more rhythmically accentuated by the syllable and character structure and the lack of flexion, and because of the numerous homophonies and the tonal system invites to play with the notes. Especially in pre-modern poems, the original song melodies have been lost, and the tone sequences of the reconstructed spoken language at that time are hardly to render adequate with the non-tonal and less rhythmic possibilities in German, especially since rhymed poems in German nowadays seem very antiquated. However, since the effect is important, many translators fall back on the unbounded language. Volker Klöpsch has shown that bounded translations of prehistoric Chinese poems are still not inferior to their unbounded younger sibling translations in the translation quality, since the bounded translations require more effort.同时，由于音节和汉字的结构和缺乏屈折，汉语基本上更具节奏感，而且由于大量的谐音和声调系统都被用来搭配文字。尤其是在前现代诗歌中，原有的歌曲旋律已经丢失，重建的口语语调序列很难与德语中的非调性和节奏性差的可能性相适应，尤其是现在德语的押韵诗显得非常陈旧。然而，由于翻译效果的重要性，许多译者只能依赖于无限的语言。Volker Klöpsch的研究表明，史前汉语诗歌的有边界翻译在翻译质量上仍不逊于无边界的后来的翻译，因为有界翻译需要付出更多的努力。--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 02:54, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
同时，由于突出的音节和文字结构且缺乏起伏，并且由于众多的谐音和音调系统，汉语在节奏上更加注重音韵。 尤其是在前现代诗歌中，原始的歌曲旋律已经丢失，并且当时重建的口语的音调序列几乎无法适应德语中的非调性和较少的节奏性，尤其因为德语中的押韵诗如今看似很陈旧。但是，由于效果很重要，因此许多翻译员会退回到无限制的语言。 VolkerKlöpsch已经证明，史前中国诗歌的有界翻译在翻译质量上仍不逊于其无边界的的后来的翻译，因为有界翻译需要更多的努力。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 02:04, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
<br />
As in the translation from English into German, the brevity of Chinese words presents a problem which can hardly be solved, especially in the case of lyrics. One can just make contractions or e.g. to make one from two stanzas.<br />
<br />
Metaphors in Chinese usually have different meanings than in German; in Chinese, symbols, signs, quotations, and allusions are used more frequently than in German to make associations to other poems, historical events or persons.<br />
就像英语一样，汉语句子相对简洁，因此将汉语翻译成德语十分困难，特别是翻译汉语诗歌时。英汉诗人可以使用缩写把本该是两个诗节的内容简略成一个。<br />
汉语诗歌隐喻表达的含义与德语不太一样，汉语诗歌所用的象征，引用或者典故，更倾向于关联其他诗歌，历史事件或者历史人物。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 11:29, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
同英语翻译成德语的问题一样，中文的简洁往往会使汉语翻译成德语十分的困难，这在翻译诗歌时尤为明显。诗人只需用缩写就可以把两个诗节的内容简写成一个。 一般来说，汉语诗歌中隐喻的用法和德国的不同。在汉语诗歌中，象征，引用以及典故都比德国诗歌使用的更加频繁，这是因为汉语诗歌更习惯于和其他诗歌，历史事件或历史人物相关联。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 02:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
正如将英文翻译成德文，汉语词汇的简洁使得汉译德十分困难，尤其是翻译汉语诗歌时。诗人可以使用缩写把原本两个诗节的内容简缩成一个诗节。<br />
通常，汉语诗歌中隐喻表达的含义与德语不同。汉语诗歌较德语诗歌更为频繁使用象征、引用或典故，以同其他诗歌、历史事件或人物产生关联。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:43, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
3.3 Trend: Globalization simplifies translating <br />
Kubin complained in 1991,<br />
"The average German translator of Chinese literature goes unprepared to work. He is neither trained as a translator, nor does he bring any experience with him. Even a most sympathetic criticism is usually closed, for the goal of having not translated it wrong seems to him the only and highest command, if attained. "<br />
3.3 趋势：全球化简化了库宾在1991年所抱怨过的翻译，他抱怨道：“德国的中国文学翻译家一般都对工作毫无准备。他们既没有受过翻译训练，也没有任何经验。即使是最有同情心的批评，他们也常常是闭口不谈的，因为在这些人看来，翻译没有错误是唯一也是最高的要求。”--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 23:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
3.3 趋势:全球化简化了1991库宾（Kubin）抱怨过的翻译，他抱怨道:“从事中国文化的译者一般都对工作毫无准备。他们既没有受到专业的训练， 也没有任何实战经验。即使是最受欢迎的批评作品，这些译者也是闭口不谈。因为对于这些译者而言，翻译不出差错是唯一且最高的要求。”--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 02:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
<br />
However at the beginning of the 21st century the cultural embedding of the translation appears to be more consciously perceived:<br />
Due to the overlapping of the experience horizon by traveling and global media experiences, e.g. tragedies such as the tsunami in Southeast Asia, or Hollywood films, which are also known in China, literature is nowadays more easily translatable.<br />
不过，在21世纪初，翻译中的文化嵌入似乎更多是有意识的：由于旅游和全球化媒体体验的带来的经验和视界重叠影响，使得文学如今更加容易被翻译介绍了，比如在中国同样广为人知的东南亚海啸悲剧或与之相关的好莱坞电影。----[[User:Monan|Monan]] ([[User talk:Monan|talk]]) 13:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而在21世纪初，人们似乎更容易地感知到翻译的文化植入现象：这是因为旅行和全球传媒界限的交叉。例如，在中国也能知道像东南亚海啸的悲剧，或者好莱坞的电影，现如今，文学的可译性更强了。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
然而在21世纪初，人们似乎更有意识地感知到翻译的文化植入现象：<br />
这是因为旅行和全球传媒界限的交叉,例如，在中国也能知道一些悲剧，如东南亚的海啸，或者好莱坞的电影，现如今，文学的可译性更强了。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:09, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
<br />
Some translators and perhaps even readers share the author's experiences, such as the events in June 1989 or alienation by the anonymisation of the urbanization, thus the cultural distance reduces.<br />
<br />
In particular, the backlog of Chinese intellectuals since 1917, which selected themselves national literature at first and translated what was just tangible, but then also the personal experience abroad of these intellectuals during their studies, which flowed into their works, made them to translators of a special kind of culture translators. The same may be true in the other direction for early translators like Franz Kuhn.<br />
<br />
一些译者甚至读者分享了作者的经历，比如1989年6月的政治风波，将城镇化匿名化的异化翻译，从而缩短了文化距离。<br />
尤其是自1917年以来，积压的中国知识分子首先选择翻译民族文学，翻译那些有形的东西，之后他们在国外进行研究的个人经历也流入了他们的作品，这使得他们成了一种特殊的文化翻译者。对于像弗兰兹·库恩这样的早期译者来说，反过来也可能是这样。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:17, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
一些译者甚至可能有读者分享了作者的经历，比如1989年6月的政治风波，将城镇化匿名化的异化翻译，从而缩短了文化距离。<br />
尤其是自1917年以来，因难觅出路而积压过剩的中国知识分子首先选择翻译民族文学，翻译那些有形的东西，之后他们在国外进行学习的个人经历也流入了他们的作品，这使得他们成了一种特殊的文化翻译者。对于像弗兰兹·库恩这样的早期译者来说，反过来也可能是这样。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:22, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
<br />
Edward Hall (Beyond culture) ordered in 1976 Chinese culture to be "high-context cultures" and the German to be "low-context cultures". While the history of humanity worldwide is characterized by an intensified coding (documentation, digitization, information exchange, translation, etc.), which has become an overcoding of modern industrial societies since modernization, industrialization and the introduction of dual bookkeeping, at the same time it can be observed that there is a trend that the high-context cultures develop into low-context cultures.<br />
<br />
It remains to be noted that the convergence of the horizons of experience and the lifeworlds of the authors, translators and foreign-cultural readers strengthens the intersubjective traceability of the translator's and reader's recipe process. For the translator, the effort for the embedding of non-textual context is thus reduced in the present time.<br />
<br />
爱德华·霍尔1976年在《文化之外》中指出中国文化是“高语境文化”，德国文化是“低语境文化”。世界人类史具有被编码强化的特点（记录、数字化、信息交流以及翻译等等），自从现代化，工业化和引入双重簿记以来，这已成为了现代工业社会的过度编码。但与此同时，可以看出高语境文化向低语境文化发展成为了一种趋势。<br />
仍然需要注意的是，经验的范围和作者、译者和外来文化读者的生活世界之间的融合加强了译者和读者理解过程的主体间可追溯性。于译者而言，现如今，为植入非文本语境所花的功夫已在减少了。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 01:47, 5 October 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
<br />
3.4 Translators<br />
Florian Reißinger (The Family), Wolfgang Kubin (re-poetry), Wolf Baus (Taiwanese Lit.), Volker Klöpsch (Tang Poems), Ulrich Kautz (Modern Figures such as Wang Meng, Wang Shuo, Lu Wenfu, Yu Hua): Dream of the Red Chamber (Rainer Schwarz, Martin Woesler).<br />
Studies of translating with a literature part at the universities in Germersheim and Bonn.<br />
3.4 译者<br />
弗洛里安·瑞辛格（家庭），沃尔夫冈·库宾（重新诗歌），沃尔夫·鲍斯（台湾文学），沃尔克·克洛普施（唐诗），乌尔里希·考茨（现代人物如王蒙，王朔，陆文夫，余华）： 红楼梦（雷纳·施瓦兹·马丁·沃尔斯勒）。<br />
盖默斯海姆和波恩大学的文学翻译研究。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 03:16, 5 October 2020 (UTC)欧阳静兰<br />
3.4 译者 <br />
弗洛里安·瑞辛格（家庭），沃尔夫冈·库宾（重新诗歌），沃尔夫·鲍斯（台湾文学），沃尔克·克洛普施（唐诗），乌尔里希·考茨（现代人物如王蒙，王朔，陆文夫，余华）： 红楼梦（雷纳·施瓦兹·马丁·沃尔斯勒）。 <br />
盖默斯海姆和波恩大学的文学翻译研究。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 13:35, 5 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
<br />
4. Literature recommendations<br />
<br />
4.1 Bilingual literature (especially for studying sinologists): hardly available, only the following are known:<br />
<br />
4.1.1 Lyric<br />
<br />
Reclam: Chinese Literature (out of print)<br />
Reclam: Chinese lyricism of the twentieth century (out of print, reissued in the European University Press as "Bogenlinien")<br />
Arbeiterverlag: Black Suns (representative selection of German lyric, out of print)<br />
In collections (anthologies, magazine "die horen") occasionally individual Chinese poems<br />
Pohl (eds.): Tao Yuanming<br />
<br />
4.文献推荐<br />
<br />
4.1 双语文献（特别针对于正在进行研究的汉学家）：稀缺，已知文献仅如下：<br />
<br />
4.1.1 抒情诗<br />
<br />
《雷克拉姆世界文库：中国文学》（已停印）<br />
<br />
《雷克拉姆世界文库：二十世纪的中国抒情诗派》（停印后由欧洲大学出版社再版，名为"Bogenlinien（线）"）<br />
<br />
《工人阶级：黑日》（德国抒情诗代表作，已停印）<br />
<br />
由个人创作的中国诗合集（收录于"die horen(牛角)"杂志）<br />
<br />
《波尔：陶渊明》<br />
--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
<br />
Interesting new releases are commented in e.g. minima sinica, ORIENTations, booklets for East Asian literature, Bulletin of the German China Association, magazine of the German Oriental Association etc.<br />
4.1.2 Essays<br />
<br />
"The Dragon" (bilingual reissue to the book fair of "Selected Chinese Essays of the 20th Century in Translation")<br />
《袖珍汉学》杂志评论了一些新发表的有趣的文章。这本袖珍杂志是东亚文学的方向标、它反映了中德关系，隶属于德国东方协会。<br />
“龙”（20世纪中国翻译作品选读书展的双语再版作品）--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《袖珍汉学》期刊评论了一些新发表的有趣的文章，这本期刊定位是：东亚文学的小册子，中德协会的小报，德国东方协会的杂志。4.1.2期<br />
《龙》（20世纪中国翻译作品选读书展的双语再版作品）--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 14:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
<br />
4.2 Monolingual translations: literary lists of universities<br />
4.2.1 University of Trier, reading list basic studies [Fats by me]<br />
4.2.1.1 Philosophy<br />
Kungfutse [Kong, Qiu]. Conversations [Lunyu]. Assigned and published from the Chinese by Richard Wilhelm. Munich: Diederichs, 1990.<br />
Laotse [Laozi]. Tao-te-king [Daodejing]. The Book of Sense and Life. Translation and with a commentary by Richard Wilhelm. Cologne: Diederichs, 1985.<br />
* Schwarz, Ernst (ed. and trans.). Thus spoke the sage. Chinese ideas from 3 thousand years ago. Berlin: Rütten + Löning, 1986.<br />
4.2 单语翻译: 大学文学名录<br />
4.2.1 特里尔大学，阅读名录基础研究《由我而胖》<br />
4.2.1.1《哲学功夫》[孔，秋]，《论语》由理查德·威廉编著并出版。慕尼黑:Diederichs, 1990。<br />
老子编著的《道德经》，是一本关于感觉和生活的书，由理查德·威廉翻译和评论。科隆:Diederichs, 1985。<br />
由施瓦兹，恩斯特编辑并翻译。圣人曾这样说，中国人的思想始于3000年前。柏林:鲁特顿和隆宁，1986--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 01:30, 5 October 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
4.2 单语翻译：大学文献名录<br />
4.2.1 特里尔大学阅读名录基础研究《由我而胖》<br />
4.2.1.1 哲学<br />
孔子的《论语》。由理查德·威廉根据汉语版本整理出版。慕尼黑：迪德里希斯，1990。<br />
老子的《道德经》。一本关于感觉和生活的书。由理查德·威廉翻译评论出版。科隆：迪德里希斯，1985。<br />
＊施瓦兹·厄恩斯特编辑并翻译到，圣人曾这样说，中国人的思想始于3000年前。柏林:鲁特顿和隆宁，1986--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 02:20, 5 October 2020 (UTC)OuRong<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
<br />
4.2.1.2 Older literature<br />
Cao, Zhan [Cao Xueqin; Gao E]. The Story of the Stone [Hongloumeng]. A novel in 5 volumes. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Pr. // A Dream of red Mansions. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1978, 1980.<br />
较老的文献曹湛[曹雪芹;高鹗]。石头的故事[红楼梦]。5卷中的小说。布卢明顿：印第安纳大学。公关//红楼梦。 北京：外语出版社，1978，1980。<br />
* The Columbia anthology of traditional Chinese literature. Mair, Victor H. (ed.). New York et al .: Columbia University Press, 1994.<br />
哥伦比亚中国传统文学选集。梅尔，维克多·H（编辑）。纽约等：哥伦比亚大学出版社，1994年。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 02:52, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
<br />
Debon, Günther (trans.). Ein weißes Kleid, ein grau Gebände.. Munich: Piper, 1957.<br />
Debon, Günther (ed.). Mein Haus liegt menschenfern doch nah den Dingen. 3000 Jahre chines. Poesie.. First edition, Munich: Diederichs, 1988.<br />
Klöpsch, Volker (trans.). Der seidene Faden: Gedichte der Tang. Aus dem Chines. übertr. und mit einem Nachw. vers. von Volker Klöpsch. First edition, Frankfurt a. M. (i.a.): Insel Publishing House, 1991.<br />
Köser, Heide (trans.). Das Liederbuch der Chinesen [Shijing]. Guofeng. In a new German edition by Heide Köser. Philologically edited by Armin Hetzer. 1. ed. Frankfurt a .M .: Insel Publishing House, 1990.<br />
京特·德博(Debon, Günther) (译.). 白色连衣裙, 灰色卷.. 慕尼黑: 派珀(Piper), 1957年.<br />
京特·德博(Debon, Günther) (编辑.). 我的房子离人很远, 但是很近. 中国3000年. 诗歌.. 第一版, 慕尼黑: Diederichs, 1988年.<br />
克洛普施·沃尔克(Volker Klöpsch) (译.). 丝线: 唐诗. 来自中国. 转自之后. 克洛普施·沃尔克(Volker Klöpsch). 第一版, 法兰克福(i.a.): Insel出版社, 1991年.<br />
海德·科瑟(Heide Köser) (译.). 中国歌集《诗经》. 国风. 在海德·科瑟(Heide Köser)撰写的新德语版中. 由阿明·赫泽(Armin Hetzer)编辑. 法兰克福出版公司第一版: Insel出版社, 1990年.--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 14:52, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
<br />
From the Chinese assigned by Franz Kuhn. Wiesbaden: Insel Publishing House, 1970. // The golden lotus. Transl. by Clement Egerton. London: Routledge & Paul, 1972. // The plum in the golden vase, or, Chin-p'ing-mei. Transl. By David Tod Roy. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1993, 2001.<br />
<br />
Luo, Guanzhong. Die drei Reiche [Sanguozhi-yanyi]. Roman aus dem alten China. From the Chinese. By Franz Kuhn. 1. ed. Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Publishing House, 1981. // Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Transl. by C.H. Brewitt-Taylor. Rutland i.a. .: Tuttle, 1980.<br />
<br />
Schwarz, Ernst (Transl. And ed.). Der Ruf der Phönixflöte. Klassische chinesische Prosa. 2 volumes of Berlin: Rütten & Loening.<br />
<br />
弗朗兹·库恩翻译。威斯巴登：岛屿出版社，1970年。//金瓶梅。 克莱门特·埃格顿翻译。伦敦：劳特利奇&宝罗出版社，1972年。//金瓶中的梅子，中文“金瓶梅”。戴维·托德·罗伊翻译。普林斯顿：普林斯顿大学出版社，1993年，2001年。<br />
<br />
罗贯中，三国演义 [三国志演义]。旧中国的故事，弗朗兹·库恩翻译自中文。1.编辑，法兰克福 M.：岛屿出版社，1981年。//三国演义。由查尔斯·亨利·布鲁威特·泰勒翻译。拉特兰岛：塔特尔出版社，1980年。<br />
<br />
施瓦茨，恩斯特（翻译和编辑）。凤凰笛的召唤。中国古典文化。柏林2卷：吕滕＆洛宁。 --[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 10:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
<br />
Shi, Naian; Luo Guanzhong. Die Räuber vom Liang-Schan-Moor [Shuihu-zhuan]. From the Chinese assigned by Franz Kuhn. Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Publishing House, 1964. // Water margin. Transl. by J.H. Jackson. Hong Kong: Commercial Pr., 1979. // Outlaws of the marsh. Transl. By Sidney Shapiro. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Pr., 1981.<br />
<br />
Wu, Cheng'en. Journey to the West [Xiyou-ji]. 3 vols. Transl. by W.J.F. Jenner. Beijing: Foreign Languages Pr. // Monkeys Pilgrimage. According to eng. Transl. by Arthur Waley assigned by Georgette Boner and Maria Nils. Munich: Hugendubel, 1980. // Monkey. - Reprint. Transl. By Arthur Waley. London, Unwin, 1979.<br />
<br />
Wu, Jingzi. The scholars [Rulin-waishi]. Transl. by Yang Hsien-yi. 3. ed. Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1973. // The road to the white clouds. Stories from the scholar's forest. 2 vols. Munich: Beck, 1990.<br />
<br />
施耐庵;罗贯中.梁山泊的强盗[水浒传].译自弗朗兹·库恩和法兰克福 a.M. 指定的中文：英瑟尔出版社,1964.// 水泊. J.H. 杰克逊译,香港:商业出版社.,1979.//荡寇.西德尼·夏皮罗译.布卢明顿:印第安纳大学出版社.,1981.<br />
吴承恩.西行之旅[西游记].三卷本.W.J.F.詹纳译.北京:外语出版社,1973.//猴的朝圣.据乔治·博纳和玛丽亚·尼拉指定的亚瑟·韦利英译本.慕尼黑:于根杜贝尔,1980.//猴.—重印本.亚瑟·韦利.伦敦,昂温,1979.<br />
吴敬梓.学者们[儒林外史].杨宪益译.第三版.北京：外语出版社,1973//青云之路.学林故事.两卷本.慕尼黑:贝克,1990.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
施耐庵;罗贯中.梁山泊的强盗[水浒传].译自弗朗兹·库恩和法兰克福 a.M. 指定的中文原本：英瑟尔出版社,1964.// 水泊. J.H. 杰克逊译,香港:商业出版社.,1979.//荡寇.西德尼·夏皮罗译.布卢明顿:印第安纳大学出版社.,1981.<br />
吴承恩.西行之旅[西游记].三卷本.W.J.F.詹纳译.北京:外语出版社,1973.//猴的朝圣.据乔治·博纳和玛丽亚·尼拉指定的亚瑟·韦利英译本.慕尼黑:于根杜贝尔,1980.//猴.—重印本.亚瑟·韦利.伦敦,昂温,1979. <br />
吴敬梓.学者们[儒林外史].杨宪益译.第三版.北京：外语出版社,1973//青云之路.学林故事.两卷本.慕尼黑:贝克,1990.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
<br />
4.2.1.3 Modern Literature<br />
Ba, Jin. Kalte Nächte [Hanye]. Novel. From the Chinese by Sabine Peschel. First ed., Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1981.<br />
<br />
Ba, Jin. Die Familie [Jia]. From the Chinese. By Florian Reissinger. Berlin: Oberbaum Publishin House., 1980.<br />
<br />
* The Columbia anthology of modern Chinese literature. Lau, Joseph S.M .; Goldblatt, Howard (eds.). New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.<br />
<br />
Donath, Andreas (eds.). Die Drachenschnur. Geschichten aus dem chinesischen Alltag. Darmstadt i.a. .: Luchterhand, 1981.<br />
<br />
Fessen-Henjes, Irmtraud (eds.). 16 chinesische Erzähler. First ed.. Berlin: Publishing House Volk u. Welt, 1984.<br />
<br />
Gao, Xiaosheng. Geschichten von Chen Huansheng. Göttingen: Lamuv Publishing House, 1988.<br />
Hoffnung auf Frühling, 1919-1949. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1980. (Modern Chinese Stories; 1)<br />
<br />
4.2.1.3 现代文学 巴金小说《寒夜》译自萨宾·佩舍尔，第一版：法兰克福 苏坎普出版社，1981年。<br />
巴金小说《家》译自弗洛里安·赖辛格。柏林：奥伯鲍姆出版社，1980年。<br />
《哥伦比亚中国现代文学选集》。刘绍铭著， 戈德布拉特·霍华德（编辑）。纽约：哥伦比亚大学出版社，1995年。<br />
多纳特，安德烈亚斯（编辑）。《风筝线》，中国人的日常生活故事。达姆施塔特行政区 ：坎德拉布拉，1981年。<br />
尹虹(编辑)。《16名中国解说员》第一版。柏林：沃尔克大学出版社，1984年。<br />
《高晓升 陈焕生的故事》。 哥廷根：拉穆夫出版社，1988年出版。《春天的希望，1919-1949》， 法兰克福 苏尔坎普出版社，1980年出版（中国现代故事; 1）<br />
--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
<br />
Hundert Blumen, 1949-1979. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1980. (Modern Chinese Stories; 2)<br />
Jiang, Zilong. 1st ed. Beijing: Publishing House for Foreign Language Literature, 1989 (Phönix-Buchreihe)<br />
Kuo, Heng-yü (eds.). Munich: Minerva publication Saur, 1986.<br />
Lao She. Frankfurt a. M .: Suhrkamp, 1985.<br />
Lao, She. Rikscha-Kuli [Luotuo Xiangzi]. A novel. From the Chinese assigned by Florian Reissinger. First ed., Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Publishing House, 1987.<br />
Lu, Wenfu. Translation and afterword by Stefan Hase-Bergen. Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1992.<br />
Lu Xun. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. Literature, 1976.<br />
Mao, Dun. Frankfurt, 1985.<br />
Martin, Helmut (eds.). First ed., Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1982.<br />
Mo, Yan. The republic of wine. Transl. from the Chinese by Howard Goldblatt. London: Hamish Hamilton, 2000.<br />
Mo, Yan. Novel. Ger. by Andreas Donath. Reinbek by Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1997.<br />
Mo, Yan. Novel. Ger. by Peter Weber-Schäfer. Reinbeck: Rowohlt, 1993.<br />
Qian, Zhongshu. From the Chinese assigned by Monika Motsch. First ed., Frankfurt a. M.: Insel, 1988.<br />
Wang, Meng. Edited by Helmut Martin. Cologne: Diederichs, 1985.<br />
Wang, Shuo. Zurich: Diogenes, 1997.<br />
Wang, Shuo. Zurich: Diogenes, 2001.<br />
Yu, Hua. Novel. From the Chinese by Ulrich Kautz. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1998. [od25109]<br />
Zhang, Jie. From the Chinese by Michael Kahn-Ackermann. Munich i.a..: Hanser, 1987.<br />
Zhang, Xinxin; Sang, Edited by Helmut Martin. First edition, Cologne: Diederichs, 1986.<br />
<br />
4.2.1.4 Dramas<br />
Eberstein, Bernd (eds.). Frankfurt a. M .: Suhrkamp, 1980.<br />
Gao, Xingjian. Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1988.<br />
Lao, She. Edited by Uwe Kräuter. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1980.<br />
<br />
4.2.1.5 Poetry<br />
Hsu, Kai-Yu (eds., transl.). Twentieth century Chinese poetry. An anthology. 1. print. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Pr., 1970.<br />
Kubin, Wolfgang (eds. and trans.). First edition, Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1985.<br />
<br />
<br />
5. Chinese bestsellers in China<br />
<br />
Authors: http://hi.baidu.com/%D1%A7%CF%B0%D3%C0%D4%B6%B2%BB%CD%ED/blog/item/661e76fad5b669ddb48f3190.html<br />
<br />
Translator workshops<br />
These workshops are mainly offered by foundations with literary support (Litprom, Robert Bosch Foundation). In the summer of 2008, a literary translator's workshop took place in <br />
<br />
洪德特 ·布卢门（1949-1979）.《现代中国故事》(2).富兰克福： 苏坎普出版社，1980<br />
蒋子龙. 《赤橙黄绿青蓝紫》（第一版）. 凤凰系列丛书. 北京：外国语言文学出版社，1989<br />
郭恒一. 《永恒之河》. 中国台湾短篇小说. Munich：Minerva 出版社，1986<br />
老舍. 富兰克福：苏坎普出版社，1985<br />
老舍. 骆驼祥子. 弗洛里安·雷辛格编译中国小说（第一版）. 富兰克福：insel出版社，1987<br />
陆文夫. 斯特凡·哈塞-卑尔根著《翻译与后言》. 波鸿：布罗克迈尔出版社，1992<br />
鲁迅. 北京：外国语言文学出版社，1976<br />
茅盾. 富兰克福，1985. <br />
马丁， 赫尔穆特（编辑）. 第一版. 富兰克福：苏坎普出版社，1982<br />
莫言. 《酒国》. 霍华德·戈德布拉特译. 伦敦：哈米什汉密尔顿出版社，2000<br />
莫言. 小说德语版安德里 亚斯译. 汉堡：罗洛尔特出版社，1997<br />
莫言. 小说德语版皮特 韦伯-施海费尔译. 莱茵贝克：罗洛尔特出版社，1993<br />
钱钟书. 莫妮卡·莫奇编译. 第一版. 富兰克福：英赛尔出版社，1988<br />
王蒙. 赫尔穆特·马丁遍译. 科隆：迪德里希斯出版社，1985<br />
王朔. 苏黎世：提奥奇尼斯出版社，1997<br />
王朔 . 苏黎世：提奥奇尼斯出版社，2001<br />
余华. 乌尔里希·考茨译. 斯图加特：维尔他科多出版社，1998<br />
张杰. 迈克尔·卡恩-阿克曼译. 慕尼黑：汉瑟出版社，1987<br />
张鑫鑫，桑. 赫尔穆特·马丁编译（第一版）. 科隆：迪德里希斯出版社，1986<br />
4.2.1.4 戏剧 艾伯斯坦，贝恩德（编辑）. 富兰克福：苏特坎普出版社，1980<br />
高行健. 波鸿：布洛克麦尔出版社，1980<br />
4.2.1.5 诗歌 许，于凯（编辑，转写）《二十世纪中国诗歌选集》1.打印. 伊萨卡. 纽约州：康奈尔大学出版社，1970<br />
库宾，奥尔夫冈（编辑，转写）第一版. 富兰克福：苏尔坎普出版社，1985年<br />
5.中国本土畅销书<br />
作者：http://hi.baidu.com/%D1%A7%CF%B0%D3%C0%D4%B6%B2%BB%CD%ED/blog/item/661e76fad5b669ddb48f3190.html<br />
翻译研讨会 这些研讨会主要由基金会在文学支持下提供（利特姆、罗伯特 博世基金会）。2008 年夏天，在帕莱廷·埃登科本举办了文学翻译研讨会。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 09:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
<br />
Chinese books in German translation: authors who are promoted from China<br />
<br />
Selection list of some Chinese literature events 2007-2009 (before the book fair):<br />
- 29 April 2008: Translator's pitch "Rotes Kornfeld", German Publishers and Booksellers Association, Frankfurt<br />
- May 2008: "Recommendation List of Chinese Contemporary Literature" of the BIZ Peking<br />
- 7.-14.7.2008 "German-Chinese workshop for Literature translators ", Künstlerhaus Edenkoben<br />
- 22.4.2009 Lecture Ulrich Kautz Hamburg at the Confucius Institute: Chinese Contemporary Literature on the German Book Market - Opportunities and Problems<br />
- 22.4.2009 Lecture Prof. Dr. Wang Hongtu王宏图, Vice Director of the Confucius Institute Hamburg, "Contemporary Chinese Literature: From Westernization to Chineseness"<br />
- 27.6.2009 Symposium "Chinese Literature in German Translation - China Honorary Guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009", cf.: Symposium Volume ", Bochum: European Universities Press 2010, ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1.<br />
- 12.-13.9.2009: Symposium in Frankfurt: First meeting of dissident writers and officials, leads to scandal and is a message in the television news, which also arouses interest in the book fair.<br />
<br />
Xu Zechen - Running Through Zhongguancun<br />
"Diwidi? Everything there: Hollywood, Japanese, Korean, Oscar-crowned classics ",<br />
The German reader as a tourist in Peking may have been approached like this by the flying merchants.<br />
"Suddenly, two policemen emerge and they run, passing the southern gate of the Beijing University [...]. Breathlessly asked the friend ‚Shall we not throw the bag away? If one gets us together with the stolen property, there is really anger!’- But the policemen are just too fat, they should have held their bellies to run fast."<br />
This scene comes from the story "Running Through Zhongguancun" (C 2008, G 2009). Here the German reader can slip into the role of the seller for the first time, who is embodied by the 25-year-old Huang. Xu Zechen, 31, lives in Beijing, has created the milieu authentically, the characters with dry humor and yet refreshingly lively. He describes a life between hot pavement and basement hole, between the dream of making big money and bitter setbacks, the daily cat and mouse game with the police. He experiences the world of the crooks as shark pond and as a conspiratorial community, in which everyone gives the shirt off one’s back, lose their existence, but get up again, he experiences the arbitrariness and corruption of policemen. Here, worlds collide: the army of unemployed agricultural workers, who become small-scale criminals, and the urban population. The world of youth, who loves the freedom of the street, and the elderly, who appreciate the security of the wealth. This literature is one of the most recent and most promising stories from China, which shows us a completely different China than the perfectly staged one that the Olympia organizer presents.<br />
中国书籍的德国译本：来自中国著名的作家<br />
节选中国2007年至2009年间的一些文学活动（在书展之前）：<br />
-2008年4月29日：译者的论点“罗斯特·科恩菲尔德（Rotes Kornfeld）”，德国出版商和书商协会，法兰克福（Frankfurt）<br />
-2008年5月：北京商业的“中国当代文学推荐书籍”<br />
-2009年7月1日到-14日：“文学翻译者进行德译中研讨会”，Kunstlerhaus Edenkoben<br />
-2009年4月22日：乌尔里奇·考茨（Ulrich Kautz）在德国汉堡孔子学院举行讲座，主题是：论德国书籍市场上的中国文学——机遇还是挑战<br />
-2009年4月22日：汉堡孔子学院副主任王宏图博士讲座主题：从西方化到中国化<br />
-2009年6月27日：专题讨论会“中国文学的德国翻译之路，2009年法兰克福书展的中国名誉贵宾”，专题讨论会，波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2010年，ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1<br />
-2009年9月12日-13日：在法兰克福的专题研讨会：持不同意见的作家和官员的第一次会面，导致了丑闻，也是电视新闻的一则消息，也在书展上引起了轰动<br />
徐则臣——《穿越中关村》<br />
“一切都在这儿：好莱坞，日本人，韩国人，奥斯卡认证的经典作品”<br />
多亏了一些商人，来北京旅游的德国读者也许可以接触到这些。<br />
“突然，两位警察出现了，他们奔跑穿过了北京大学的南门，有气无力地对那个人说，我们能不把包丢开吗？如果我们拿到了脏物，你就死定了！”不过这两个警察太胖了，他们要勒紧裤腰带才能跑起来。”<br />
这个场景来自“穿越中关村”（C 2008，G 2009）。<br />
在这里，德语读者可以首次进入由25岁的黄先生展现的卖家角色。<br />
徐则辰，31岁，生活在北京。他创造了一种千篇一律的，充满幽默感的人物，而且还活灵活现。他描述了一种在炎热路面和地下室之间，在赚大钱和遭受苦难的梦想之间，在日常生活中与警察的猫鼠游戏的生活。他经历了一个像鲨鱼池般骗子遍地和一个阴谋社区的世界，在那里所有人都脱去了衬衫，失去了存在，但又重新站起来，他也见识了警察的任性和腐败。在这里，各种世界相互碰撞：成为小规模罪犯的失业农民工与城市人口之间；热爱街道自由的年轻人和赞许财富安全的长辈之间；这是来自中国的最新，最有前途的故事之一，为我们展现了一个与完全由奥林匹亚组织者呈现的故事完全不同的中国。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:41, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
<br />
Full Text Xu Zechen: "Running Through Zhongguancun"<br />
<br />
Quote:<br />
"Diwidi? Everything there: Hollywood, Japanese, Korean, Oscar-crowned classics "<br />
<br />
Quote<br />
"[...] Suddenly, two policemen emerge and they run, passing the southern gate of the Beijing University [...]. Breathlessly asked the friend ‚Shall we not throw the bag away? If one gets us together with the stolen property, there is really anger!’- But the policemen are just too fat, they should have held their bellies to run fast."<br />
<br />
Alai: Distant Springs<br />
"When I was little, the old nomad Gongbosijia told me about a hot spring in a distant place. This spring became the quintessence of my childhood's longing", so the story "Distant Springs" (C 2005, Unionsverlag G 2009) begins by the Tibetan Author Alai, 50. The novel is written from the perspective of a Tibetan boy who prefers to take care on horses on the Tibetan mountain pasture rather than talking to the villagers in the valley. After hearing of the hot and healing springs, he longs to find them, because he does not feel at home in the village. He discovers his passion for photography and, as a young man, now a district photographer, actually penetrates the sources. Instead of the described springs by the nomad, he finds there an abandoned concrete landscape - a sign of a failed touristic planning.<br />
<br />
Yes, even Tibetan authors are among the winners of this year's book fair: They are particularly in demand by Swiss publishers. At the confederate Chinabooks, several young Tibetans are represented: Jamyang, Taering Öser, Tenzin Tsundue and Alai, who comes from northern Sichuan, and who had after his poems and stories a great success with his latest novel "Red Poppies".<br />
<br />
Full text of Alai: Distant Springs<br />
http://book.kanunu.cn/html/2005/0828/979.html<br />
"When I was little, the old nomad Gongbosijia told me about a hot spring in a distant place. This spring became the quintessence of my childhood's longing."<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
Yu Dan: Confucius from the Heart<br />
Yu Dan embodies a new type of female professor: Young (44), boyish, witty and funny - and her specialty is the 2,500-year-old classic "Conversations" of Confucius who was as basic to China as Plato for the West. She fetched the old text from the dust of her study room at the Beijing Normal University and moved into the spotlight of the television headlights. For seven days she was to be seen in state television with her lectures. Her illustrative elucidation of the moral principles on the basis of everyday examples from the present was the subject of discussion in 2006, which was discussed at work. She uses anecdotes and colloquial language. The teachings of Confucius are timeless, like "Do not force anyone to do anything you would not want to do either." Her daughter would also learn a lot more while playing with bottle and lid than with expensive toys. "Not everything from Confucius has yet to tell us something today, I grew up with Confucius and was brought up in a classical way and that makes me believe in myself." The book "Confucius from the Heart" emerged the second place on the bestseller list in 2007 with 503.000 sold copies. Meanwhile, she has reached the million, other statistics, which the author has not been able to confirm, speak of more than ten million of pirated material. <br />
<br />
And since the trend in China goes towards the second book, thia means, that a successful book is followed by a second similar one, she produced another commentary to the philosopher Zhuangzi in 2007. Yu Dan is so successful because she is both a Confucius researcher and an employee in the arts and media institute.<br />
<br />
于丹：《论语心得》<br />
于丹展现了新一代女性研究者的风貌：年轻（44），孩子气但又充满智慧，性格有趣。她学习孔子，也就是古代中国那位可以媲美西方柏拉图的智者，并专门研究2500年前记录下来的孔子经典语录。从北京师范大学中布满灰尘的书房里取得语录老本，她将之带到了电视荧幕中的聚光灯下，并连续七天开展讲座。2006年，她以日常事件为例，对孔子推崇的道德观念进行解说，这成为了年度话题，甚至工作时也被讨论。她口语化的语言写书，谈及轶事。孔子的教诲是永不过时的， 比如说那句“己所不欲，勿施于人”。她的女儿在玩瓶子和瓶盖时比玩昂贵玩具懂得更多。“并非所有孔子的思想有待在当下给予我们一些教诲，我从小就学习孔子，是在传统文化教育下长大的，这样的教育经历让我相信自己。”《论语心得》这本书在2007年的畅销书榜中排第二，销售量达五百三千万。同时，她成为了百万富翁，另有数据说她坐拥千万以上的财产，但后者并未得到本人证实。<br />
<br />
自这本书掀起时代潮流起，不断有人对此模仿，于丹在2007年写了一部对另一位古代中国哲学家庄子的评论。于丹如此成功，因为她既是孔子的研究者，又是艺术和多媒体领域的宠儿。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 11:26, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
于丹：《论语心得》<br />
于丹展现了新一代女性研究者的风貌：年轻（44岁），孩子气又充满智慧，诙谐风趣。她专研2500年前记录下来的孔子经典语录，这位智者在中国的地位可以等同于西方世界里柏拉图的地位。于丹从北京师范大学中布满灰尘的书房里取得语录老本，她将之带到了电视荧幕的聚光灯下，在国家电视台连续开展了七天的讲座。2006年，她以日常事件为例，在作品中对孔子推崇的道德观念进行阐述，这成为了年度话题。她以趣闻轶事和口语来写作。孔子的教诲是永不过时的， 比如说那句“己所不欲，勿施于人”。她的女儿在玩瓶子和瓶盖时比玩昂贵玩具懂得更多。“并非所有孔子的思想在当下仍具有教育意义，我从小就学习孔子，是在传统文化教育下长大的，这样的教育经历让我相信自己。”《论语心得》这本书在2007年的畅销书榜中排第二，销售量达五百三千万。同时，她成为了百万富翁，另有数据说她坐拥千万以上的财产，但后者并未得到本人证实。<br />
<br />
在中国，一本书的畅销往往会带来第二本书，这意味着，一本书籍成功后，往往会有一本类似的后续--于丹在2007年写了一部对另一位哲学家庄子的评论。于丹如此成功源于她既是孔子的研究者，又是电影学院的教职工。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 15:01, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
She likes to open theatrically an arbitrary passage in the "Analects of Confucius" and provides an improvised interpretation, like a modern preacher. This has also given her some criticism from Confucius researchers who see the historical context and political implications neglected in favor of a soft-washed, harmonious Confucianism.<br />
<br />
Why is Confucius so successful in China today? Yu Dan with the return to the common uber-father, certainly gives a new orientation in a disillusioned, materialistic time, as she herself says. In 1974, Confucius had been dismantled in a campaign and waved aside as "conservative" and "overhauled" in the last decades. Now, especially middle class and retirees discover Confucius new. Confucius is a cult, there is a whole advertising industry with devotional objects and sculptures, his place of birth Qufu is a place of pilgrimage and tourist magnet, cultural institutions all over the world bear his name since 2007. In fact, the Chinese also share Confucian values with other Asian countries: humanity, piety / loyality and social responsibility, and care of the fittest for the weaker.<br />
<br />
Does this popular scientific commentary literature also work in Germany, where one hardly knows the original texts? Droemer Publishing House took this risk, which put the translator Johannes Fiederling, whose first major literary translation it is, in special problems. As a solution, the publisher has announced that the original "Analects of Confucius" will be printed in the back of the book as soon as it enters the bookstores on the 21st of August, 2009.<br />
<br />
她喜欢戏剧性地随意打开《论语》中的一段，并像现代传教士那样，做出即兴解释。这也招致了一些儒学研究者的批评，他们关注历史背景和政治影响，而忽视了赞同温和与和谐的儒家思想。<br />
为何孔子在当代中国如此成功?正如于丹自己所说，她带着共识回归先祖，这在一个幻灭的、物质主义的时代，无疑指引了一个新方向。1974年，孔学在一场运动遭受打击，在过去的几十年里，人们置之不理，并视之为“保守派”和“改革派”。如今，人们发现孔学焕然一新，尤其是中产阶级和退休人员。孔子是一种信仰，他有一条完整的广告业，包含祷告对象和雕塑。他的出生地曲阜是一个朝拜和旅游胜地。自2007年以来，世界各地的文化机构都以他的名字命名。事实上，中国人也与其他亚洲国家分享儒家价值观:人性、孝道、社会责任、锄强扶弱。<br />
这种流行的科学评论文学在德国，这个人们几乎不懂原文的国家也适用吗?德勒默出版社冒了这个险，这让第一次翻译重要文学作品的译者约翰内斯·费德林(Johannes Fiederling)陷入了特殊的困境。为了解决这个问题，出版商宣布，《论语》将尽快于2009年8月21日在书店上架，并将在书的背面印刷。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 15:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Indeed Yu Dan stayed young, she likes listening to pop music by Jay Chow and "Mother Nanquan" and is the head of the "I want fun" club at the art and media institute of the Beijing Normal University.<br />
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Yu Dan had certainly predecessors, for instance when modern writers such as Liu Xinwu or Wang Meng criticized the classic "Dream of the Red Chamber". But she has found a series of imitators that deal with classical subjects - a nostalgic wave is currently swashing through China. In place of the reconditioned Communist ideology, the return to traditional values has taken place. Also on the bestseller lists this literature stands at the top.<br />
<br />
This nostalgia literature in China also includes comments on the classic novel "Three Kingdoms" (C 2006) by Yi Zhongtian (62), which ended up in 2007 with 340,000 copies on the third place of the bestseller list, the historical novel about the last imperial dynasty "The Qing Prime Minister" (C 2007) by Wang Yuewen (46) and "War Drums in Beijing" (C 2006) by Dou Liang (55) about old Beijing, all of them with at least 200,000 sold copies in 2007.<br />
<br />
事实上，于丹一直保持着年轻的状态，他喜欢听周杰伦和南拳妈妈的流行歌曲，并且也是北京师范大学艺术与传媒学院“我要嗨”俱乐部的会长。于丹之前就有人这么做了比如当代作家刘心武和王蒙批评经典作品《红楼梦》。但是她发现了很多对经典作品进行模仿的人--一种思想浪潮正在席卷中国。传统价值观回归了，正在取代修正共产主义思想。并且，《红楼梦》占据畅销榜榜首。<br />
中国思乡文学包括对易中天(62)的经典小说《三国演义》(C2006)的评论，《三国演义》在2007年时已经印制出340, 000本，占据热销榜第三。王跃文所写中国关于中国最后一个朝代《大清丞相》以及窦良所写的关于老北京的小说《北京战鼓》都于2007年印刷了至少200, 000次。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 07:25, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
事实上，于丹一直保持着年轻的状态，他喜欢听周杰伦和南拳妈妈的流行歌曲，并且也是北京师范大学艺术与传媒学院“我要嗨”俱乐部的会长。于丹有许多前辈，比如当代作家刘心武和王蒙，他们批评经典作品《红楼梦》。但是她发现了很多人在对经典主题进行模仿--一种怀旧浪潮正在席卷中国。传统价值观回归，取代了重新调整的共产主义思想。而且，怀旧文学占据畅销书籍榜榜首。<br />
中国怀旧文学包括易中天(62)对经典小说《三国演义》(C2006)的评论，评《三国演义》在2007年时已经销售出340, 000本，占据热销榜第三。包括王跃文所写关于中国最后一个朝代的历史小说《大清丞相》，以及窦良所写关于老北京的小说《北京战鼓》，这些小说都于2007年至少售出了200, 000本。--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 10:15, 5 October 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan 欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin: Dream of the Red Chamber<br />
The wedding is sealed, the veil is lifted - but not the beloved comes in sight, but a good friend. This is the key scene in China's most famous novel "Dream of the Red Chamber", which leads the eternal bestseller list and is for the first time completely in German available. He abducts the reader into a largely untouched, authentic China: the one of the last imperial dynasty 250 years ago. He describes the life at the imperial court like the one of the servants, it is at the same time a soap opera,a generation novel, a crime novel, a love story and a Buddhist parable.<br />
<br />
The author writes so poignantly, because he describes his own life. In a paradise-like garden, he and his twelve cousins grow up carefree, with two developing a triangular relationship. But the large family falls apart, the cousins marry and leave the garden. The tide is turning only when the protagonist passes the examination of officials. In the novel, the Emperor is impressed and returns titles and countries, in real life the author receives a modest pension, writes to the novel until shortly before his death and dies as a hermit.<br />
<br />
In China the novel has become immortal with numerous book editions, film adaptations and own research tradition. The upcoming re-filming was a casting event. Every Chinese knows the main characters of the novel and can name their favorites.<br />
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曹雪芹：《红楼梦》<br />
订了婚，掀起盖头---呈现在眼前的不是心爱的那个人，而是一位好朋友。这是中国颇具盛名的小说《红楼梦》的经典场景，这一幕使得这部畅销书经久不衰，也让这部小说第一次在德国全本出版。他使读者认识到一个地域辽阔、未经踏染、原汁原味的中国：250年前的最后一个封建王朝。他描写得宫廷生活，好像他就是其中的仆人。此外，这部小说还是一部肥皂剧、一本古代小说、一部犯罪小说、一个爱情故事和一个佛教寓言故事。<br />
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作者写得如此令人感伤，是因为他在描写自己的亲身经历。在天堂般的乐园里，他与十二个姐妹无忧无虑地长大，与其中两位发展了一段三角恋关系。然而随着姐妹们远嫁他乡，这个大家庭变得四分五裂。小说的高潮在主人公通过科举考试时展开。小说中，皇帝深受感动，赏赐了头衔和领地。而现实中作者隐居生活，领着微薄的抚恤金，一直到去世前不久还在写小说。<br />
<br />
在中国，这本小说流传至今，出了许多版本，改编成多部电影，形成了自己的研究传统。即将翻拍的电影一直在挑选演员。每个中国人都了解小说里的主要人物，能说出他们的喜好。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 16:25, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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曹雪芹：《红楼梦》<br />
拜完堂，掀开盖头，却发现眼前之人不是自己心爱之人，而是一位好朋友，此乃中国颇负盛名的小说《红楼梦》的名场面，情节之跌宕让该经典名著经久畅销，也让这部小说第一次在德国全本出版。曹雪芹让读者看到了一个地域辽阔、未经踏染、原汁原味的中国，那是250年前最后一个封建王朝之一。他描写的宫廷生活惟妙惟肖，仿佛自己以仆人的身份感受过一样。该作品既是一部言情肥皂剧、一部清代小说、一部犯罪小说，也是一个爱情故事和一个佛教寓言故事。<br />
<br />
作者笔下的文字是如此令人伤感，因为他描写了自己的亲生经历：在一个天堂般的乐园里，他与十二位表姐妹们一起长大，过着无忧无虑的生活，还与其中两位发展了一段三角恋的关系。但是后来随着这些姐妹们远嫁他乡，这个大家庭变得四分五裂。这一反转在主人公中举入仕后开始展开。小说中，皇帝为之动容，赐予了主人公头衔和领地。然而在现实生活中，作者远离尘世，领着微薄的抚恤金，直到去世前不久还在坚持写作。<br />
<br />
在中国，《红楼梦》历久弥新，经过无数版本的传承，电影的改编，还拥有了独特的研究领域。影视工作者们还一直为该作品即将再一次的搬上荧幕而挑选角色，因为每位中国人都对小说里的主要人物有所了解，并能说出自己在书中喜欢的角色。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 04:41, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
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Yu Hua - Brothers<br />
The Beijing Yu Hua was always smiling, always a joke on the lips, but also always a cigarette in the mouth. He has written the sketchy novel "Brothers", which will be available in German at the book fair.<br />
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Yu grew up in the country during the cultural revolution. Instead of school lessons, there were denunciation wall newspapers. In this he recognized the power of language and decided to write. He learned from idols like Kafka, Borges and García Márquez to incorporate the fictional into his short stories, but also sex and violence and so he quickly became famous. He wrote one decade at a historical novel, but abandoned it when he saw the extreme changes in China to capture these opposites with the novel "Brothers".<br />
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The father of the two brothers, who Yu describes, got killed by the masses in the cultural revolution. The two brothers could hardly develop more differently: The younger brother, Li Guangtou, had been successful with beauty contests for virgins and the sale of used Japanese suits. The older one, Song Gang, works in a public corporation and believes he has a crisis-proof job until he gets discharged. Now he is also trying to be an 'entrepreneur', he lets his breast enlarge surgically to sell peasant gel, which should supposedly enlarge the breast However, he fails and commits suicide.<br />
余华-《兄弟》<br />
余华先生是纯正的北京人，他总是以微笑示人，谈吐也十分幽默，嘴里常常叼着一只香烟。他已经完成了小说《兄弟》的手稿，其德语版即将在书展上出售。<br />
余华于文革时期在农村长大。当时学校里不上课，整天贴大字报搞批斗。从中他认识到了语言的力量，并决定写作。他从偶像卡夫卡，博尔赫斯和加西亚马尔克斯身上学到了将虚构，性和暴力融入自己的短篇小说中，因此他很快就成名了。他用十年写了一部历史小说，但当他亲眼目睹中国的极端变化后，他放弃了这部小说，转而创作小说《兄弟》来表现文革前后的巨大变革。<br />
据余华描述，这两兄弟的父亲在文革时被群众杀害，他俩的发展也完全不同：弟弟李光头在处女选美比赛和二手日本西装的销售上获得了成功。哥哥宋刚原来在一家上市公司工作，他认为自己的工作是“铁饭碗”，可后来还是被解雇了。现在他正努力成为一名“企业家”，为了卖丰胸膏，他还做过隆胸手术。然而他的创业最终还是失败了，之后他便自杀了。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:39, 2 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:39, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
余华-《兄弟》<br />
生活在北京的余华脸上常挂着笑容，嘴里总讲着段子，也常含着一支烟。他已经完成小说《兄弟》大概内容，德语版将在书展上出售。<br />
余华在农村长大，当时正处于文革时期。学校不开课，整天贴大字报搞批斗。他从中认识到了语言的力量，并决定写作。从偶像卡夫卡、博尔赫斯和加西亚马尔克斯身上，他学会如何把虚构、性和暴力融入自己的短篇小说中，很快，他就因此成名了。他用十年写了一部历史小说，但当他亲眼目睹中国的剧烈变化后，他放弃了这部小说，转而创作小说《兄弟》来表现文革前后的巨大变革。<br />
据余华描述，这俩兄弟的父亲在文革期间被人们杀害。兄弟俩的发展完全不同。弟弟李光头举办了处美人大赛，买卖二手日本人西装，都获得了成功。哥哥宋刚原来在一家上市公司工作，他认为自己的工作是“铁饭碗”，可后来还是被解雇了。现在他正努力成为一名“企业家”，为了卖给农民丰胸膏，他还做了隆胸手术。然而他的创业还是以失败告终，之后他便自杀了。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 01:46, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
Mo Yan: Sandalwood Death<br />
Mo Yan takes us with his Sandalwood Death (C 2001), which will be published at the book fair, to the German colonial history in China, with railway construction and the Boxer Rebellion,. Mo Yan describes a fictitious story in which Guomindang General Yuan Shikai, with the last imperial headman, wants to achieve a cruel execution by torture against a man who rebelled after his family had previously been desecrated and killed by Germans. Contrasted with this, Mo Yan portrays the last opera singer of the Maoqiang local opera from Gaomi. The language is pathetic, symbolic and emotionally charged. The description of the inner conflict of the physician, who has to keep the victim alive until the German colonizers see him, is shattered. His only advice "Remove the Sandalwood!" is not followed, since this is precisely the torture. Mo Yan is also represented at the book fair with the further masterpiece "Der Überdruss". In his afterword which is not reprinted he writes: "A great novel can not sacrifice its own dignity due to the fact that it wants to appeal to a sensuous, pseudoemotional age. It can not, in order to meet the wishes of some readers, save length, reduce the density of action, or lower the degree of difficulty. I want it clearly long, thick and heavy. Whoever wants to read it, read it, whoever does not, leave it alone! [...] Even if only a single reader remains to me! So what? I am not writing a different character. "<br />
莫言：《檀香刑》 <br />
莫言之作《檀香刑》即将在书展出版，小说讲述德国在中国的殖民历史，（德国人在山东）铁路建设以及义和团起义。莫言描述了一个虚构的故事，在这个故事中，国民党将军袁世凯和最后一个帝国首领，想要对一个在其家人被德国人侮辱和杀害后叛变的人实行酷刑。与此形成鲜明对比的是，莫言塑造了最后一位高密茂腔戏曲演唱者的形象。语言是可悲的、象征性的、以及充满感情的。医生内心冲突的描述—他必须挽救受害者的生命，直到德国殖民者看到他的那一刻—被粉碎了。他唯一的建议“去掉檀香木！”没有被采纳，因为这正是一种折磨。莫言还带着他的另一部代表作《生死疲劳》出席了书展。在未被转载的后记中，他写道：“长篇小说不能为了迎合这个煽情的时代而牺牲自己应有的尊严。长篇小说不能为了适应某些读者而缩短自己的长度、减小自己的密度、降低自己的难度。我就是要这么长，就是要这么密，就是要这么难，愿意看就看，不愿意看就不看。哪怕只剩下一个读者，我也要这样写。 ”--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 02:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
Interview with Mo Yan<br />
On the occasion of a symposium in the run-up to the Frankfurt Book Fair, Martin Woesler interviewed Mo Yan on Saturday, September 12th, 2009, 9.30-9.50 am Mo Yan, who is in addition to Yu Hua one of the candidates for a Nobel Prize in Literature.<br />
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Question: You are a participant of the official Chinese authors delegation who visits Germany during the Frankfurt Book Fair and know Germany from previous visits. How do you perceive as a Chinese the German culture compared to other cultures you have met, like the American?<br />
Answer: Due to the rare and short visits I can not judge. But if you ask me about my impression, I have a different feeling in America than in Germany: In the United States, I have the impression that culture is less the essence of life than in Europe. I am lacking the thoughtfulness. On the other hand French culture appears closer to the Chinese, so I am much translated in French.<br />
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Question: You come from Gaomi, where the Germans had an inglorious past as colonial lords. This is the topic of your novel "Sandalwood Death". Have you forgiven the Germans?<br />
Answer: In the novel, I overdraw the Germans with their goose step as the epitome of the colonial lords, which is of course grotesque and purely symbolic. To the Germans I have no resentment. I really like to be in Germany, now I am here for the fourth time. I was particularly impressed by the harbor of Hamburg. You should not be surprised if the harbor of a Chinese city, which I describe in my next novels, is somehow familiar to you.<br />
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Question: What are your concrete plans for the book fair?<br />
Answer: After the symposium, I will be flying back and return from 11th to 31st October 2009 in order to participate at the book fair and to do a reading tour. I will also read in Munich, your colleague Martina Hasse knows the dates.<br />
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Question: What can we expect from Mo Yan in the future?<br />
Answer: I am writing a new novel, which will appear in November.<br />
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Note: A manifesto of the author is the afterword to the novel "Der Überdruss". This statement is published in the following book, translated by Martina Hasse: Chinesische Literatur in deutscher Übersetzung - China Ehrengast der Frankfurter Buchmesse 2009 / Symposiumsband, Bochum: European University Press 2010, ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1.<br />
2009年9月12日（星期六）上午9:30-9:50，在法兰克福国际书展研讨会上，马丁·维斯特采访了与余华同为诺贝尔文学奖候选人的莫言。<br />
问题：您是法兰克福国际书展访问德国的中国官方作家代表团成员，并对德国有所了解。作为中国人，与其它您接触过的文化相比，比如美国文化，您如何看待德国文化？<br />
回答：由于我很少去美国，且每次去的时间很短，所以我没法判断。但是如果您问的是印象的话，我在美国和在德国有不同的印象：在美国，我认为文化不如在欧洲重要，不过我是缺乏思考的。另一方面，法国文化更接近中国文化，所以我的很多作品被译为法语。<br />
问题：您来自高密，过去德国人在那里有过殖民统治历史。这就是您的小说《檀香刑》的主题。您原谅德国人了吗？<br />
回答：在小说中，我过度刻画了德国人的正步，把他们作为殖民贵族的缩影。这当然是怪诞和很具有象征性的。我对德国人没有怨恨，我很喜欢去德国，这已经是我第四次来这里了。汉堡的港口给我留下了深刻的印象。您应该不会惊讶在我下一步小说中描述的中国港口对于您来说是熟悉的。<br />
问题：您对书展有具体的计划吗？<br />
回答：研讨会结束后，我将回国。在10月11日至31日参加书展和阅读之旅。我也会去慕尼黑，您的同事玛蒂娜·哈斯知道日期。<br />
问题：我们对您的未来可以有些什么期待呢？<br />
回答：我正在写一部新小说，它将于11月份出版。<br />
注：作者的声明是小说《Der Überdruss》的后记。此声明发表在玛蒂娜·哈斯翻译的《中国文学》一书中。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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采访莫言 <br />
2009年9月12日（星期六）上午9:30-9:50，吴漠汀于法兰克福书展前夕的一个研讨会上采访了莫言，莫言与余华同为诺贝尔文学奖候选人。 <br />
问：您是法兰克福书展期间访问德国的中国官方作家代表团的一员，并从以往来德访问中了解了德国。作为一个中国人，您如何看待德国文化与其他文化，如美国文化？<br />
答：由于访问次数少且时间短，我无法给出明确的判断。但如果您问我对这两种文化的印象，我有些不同的感受：关于美国，我的印象是，它的文化不像欧洲那样有生命本思，可能是我思虑不够。另一方面，法国文化似乎更贴近中国人，所以我的作品经常被翻译成法语。 <br />
问：您来自高密，而德国人在那里有着一段不光彩的殖民历史，这也就是您的小说《檀香刑》的创作背景。您原谅德国人了吗？答：在这部小说中，我过度刻画了德国人的正步，将其作为殖民地统治者的缩影，这当然是荒诞的，也纯粹是象征性的。我对德国人没有怨恨，我真的很喜欢德国，现在是我第四次来这里了。汉堡港给我留下了特别深刻的印象。如果我在下一部小说中描述的中国城市的港口，让您觉得很熟悉，您不必感到惊讶。 <br />
问：您对书展有什么具体计划？<br />
答：研讨会结束后，我将回国。接着于2009年10月11日至31日返回参加书展并进行一次阅读之旅。我也会去到慕尼黑，您的同事玛蒂娜·哈斯知道日期。 <br />
问：我们接下来可以有些什么期待？<br />
答：我正在写一部新小说，将于11月出版。 <br />
注：作者的声明是小说《生死疲劳》的后记。此声明发表在以下书中，由Martina Hasse翻译：中国文学家在德国法兰克福布赫梅斯2009/研讨会，波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2010，ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:46, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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From the "evil girl" to the "cult figure" of the Chinese contemporary literature - Mian Mian<br />
Mian Mian has influenced the young generation of the Shanghai women with her underground literature<br />
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See also my similar essay on Mian Mian in: "Chinese Literature in German Translation - China as the Honorary Guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair, Symposium Volume" 2010.<br />
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Photo: Yiqing Liu<br />
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Mian Mian stands on the terrace of the cult bistro "M on the Bund". She looks at the colorful lights of the "Bund": houses in colonial style line up to Shanghai's harbor line. A gentle gust of wind blows a strand of her face, she looks a little defiantly into the skyline: "Here we celebrated wild parties!" Of course, it did not cost anything at that time - she knows the owner of this cult bar and also from the other trendy bars here in the proximity - all foreigners.<br />
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The colorful skyline stands for a vibrant metropolis that is Mian Mian's life. Her books are a tribute to a city that has always been more modern than the other Chinese cities. And Mian Mian has breathed a soul into this city, the soul of youth, open-mindedness and culture of fun. In the socialist China she was a scandal, her literature was forbidden. And yet she was printed in Hong Kong, her texts appeared on the Internet and were sold under the shop counter. She was the insider tip of the underground literature.<br />
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A whole generation of young girls wanted to be like Mian Mian - celebrating wildly, trying out all the forbidden things: free love, alcohol, drugs. Where Mian Mian was, the underground culture was at home, a party was only hippy when she appeared. Sometimes she organized events and performed as a DJ. She has become much more than an avant-garde writer, she has become a cult, a lifestyle. Now the censorship has been lifted and her four novels appeared in February, the first edition of 200,000 copies already sold out in March.<br />
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Her latest novel, Panda Sex, is not really a novel, but a simple chronicle of her life. For this purpose the tireless partygoer took a few years ago a mini-recorder with her and recorded the sometimes irrelevant partly profound conversations of her friends. Time and again the talks deal about relationships and true love. To write down these recordings and compose a novel from it, fascinated her for more than five years, made her "addicted", as she says. The book did not let go of her. At that time, she could not write nothing else, she was "dependent on writing" "like a drug addict on the junk". In fact, she is once again experiencing her wild youth with this novel.<br />
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绵绵——从中国当代文学的“恶女形象”到“狂热形象”，绵绵以其地下文学影响了上海年轻一代女性。<br />
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另请参阅我于2010年在“德语翻译中的中国文学——中国作为法兰克福书展的名誉来宾，研讨会论文集”中发表的关于绵绵的类似文章。<br />
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摄影：刘益清<br />
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棉棉站在“米氏西餐厅”小酒馆的露台上。她看着“外滩”的灯红酒绿：殖民风格的房屋与上海的海港线齐齐相对。一阵轻风吹拂着她的脸庞，她稍带蔑然地望着天际线说：“就在这里，我们举办了狂野的派对！”当然，当时那场派对并没有花任何钱。因为她认识这家酒吧的主人，也熟悉临近一块其他新潮酒吧的主人，他们都是外国人。<br />
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多彩的天际线映照着这座充满生机的城市，就像绵绵的生活一样。她的著作向这座比其他中国城市都要现代化的城市致敬。绵绵为这座城市注入了灵魂——青春，豁达和娱乐文化的灵魂。在社会主义中国，她饱受诟病，她的文学被禁止。然而她的作品还是在香港印刷出版，她的文字出现在互联网上，也在商店柜台出售。她是地下文学的一瞥。<br />
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年轻一代女孩都想像棉棉一样，狂野庆祝，尝试所有的禁忌之物：自由之爱，酒精，毒品。棉棉在哪里，地下文化就在哪里，只有她出现，派对才称得上嬉皮。有时她组织活动并作为DJ表演。她已不仅仅是一名前卫作家，还是一个狂热分子，代表着一种生活方式。现在，审查制度已经解除，她的四本小说在二月出版，第一版200,000册已经在三月售罄。<br />
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她的最新小说《熊猫》（Panda Sex）并不是一本真正的小说，而是她一生的简单记录。为了写这本书，这位派对常客不辞疲惫，几年前就随身携带一台迷你录音机，记录了部分她与朋友之间的深刻对话，一次又一次的讨论人与人之间的关系和真爱。如她所说，从录音中提取文字并创作小说使她着迷了五年多，这让她“上瘾”。这本书没有放过她。那时，她别无选择，她“依赖写作”就像“吸毒者依赖毒品一样”。事实上，通过这部小说她再次经历了自己狂野的青春。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 22:09, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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Also the characters exist: the male bear features of Mian Mian's partner, herself slips into different female figures. And at the end of the novel she reveals another secret about déjà vus and change of roles about the novel itself.<br />
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It was not until the reworking of the novel that Mian Mian left her wild life behind. Since two years the authoress has abjured the nicotine, the alcohol and the soft and hard drugs of her youth, became a vegetarian and Buddhist, but she is not "clean" yet, her new drug is writing. "My life has run through a transformation from dependence to the danger of self-destruction to self-realization and the readers can experience this journey in my literature."<br />
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Her books are now available in China. "And I'm very happy about that," she says brightly. There is a bit of a malice about the censors who had never understood the novels anyway, and a bit of defiance, the feeling of finally getting a piece of the Chinese economic miracle, which was officially only two years kept back, but actually nine years, namely from April 2000 to February 2009, by revenue of the sold books. In fact, the 20,000 copies of Panda Sex, which arrived in China in February, were already out of print the same month. Also her other three books with 20,000 copies, summarized in Germany in the two books "La la la" and "Your Night, my Day" are sold out. Mian Mian is in her favorite underground bookstore Jifeng and calls with her mobile phone impatiently after the reprint. In the middle of this buzzing, hectic, commercial shopping life of this corner, the approximately 300 square meter bookstore near the "Maoming nanlu" in a subway station of line 2 is an oasis of calm. There are seating possibilities, the books are divided into groups, translations from English are selling by the pile.<br />
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本书还有一些特点：即书中的男性角色有绵绵伴侣的影子，其它女性角色也有她自己的影子。在小说的结尾，她揭示了关于“女权主义”的另一个秘密以及小说本身的角色转变。<br />
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直到小说的改写，绵绵才抛弃了自己的狂野生活。两年来，这名女作家戒了尼古丁，酒和她年轻时所沉迷的软硬毒品，成了一名素食主义者和佛教徒， 但她并不是完全“戒毒的”，写作是她的新毒药。“我的生活经历了从依赖到自我毁灭的危险再到自我实现的转变，读者可以从我的文学作品中感受到这一经历。”<br />
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她的书现在在中国有售。“我对此感到非常高兴，”她开心地说道。这本书的出售，对于那些无论如何都不懂小说的审查员们，有一点恶意，甚至还有一点蔑视，感觉像是终于能从中国经济奇迹中分到一杯羹，尽管官方只保留了两年，但实际上是九年，即从2000年四月到2009年而月，以实际售出图书的收入计算。实际上，今年二月在中国出售的两万本《熊猫》已于同月绝版。另外，她其它三本书的两万册翻印，在德国收录为两本书的《啦啦啦》和《你的夜晚，我的一天》都卖完了。在她最喜欢的地下书店吉峰，绵绵在翻印后不耐烦地用手机打电话。在这个热闹、繁忙、商业购物的角落里，2号线地铁站“茂名南路”附近约300平方米大的书店是一片宁静的绿洲。书店提供座位，其中书分成了几类，以及英译版的书籍成堆出售。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 09:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
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The contrast between the never full partygoer of the 1990s and the writer today could hardly be bigger. In January 2009 she was in Paris and presented the French edition of Panda Sex. There it was celebrated by the young journalists. She flirted with them, especially with the one from "Le Monde," who wrote a fantastic critique of Panda Sex. With Panda Sex, she had created a living literary monument, a modern work of art.<br />
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"Panda Sex" as a contemporary novel is highly controversial in-country and abroad, possibly the most controversial novel at all. Mian Mian is absolutely convinced of her novel: "Of course China was not ready for my novel when I wrote it, hence the censorship. The old books of mine are in the style of the 1990s. I've tried to write Panda Sex as one will write in the future. "<br />
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Now Mian Mian wants a part from the Chinese economic miracle. What does she do when she comes into money? "A movie! That would be the greatest! "This is the only thing that can be made meaningful with a lot of money. In fact, the novel Panda Sex reads like a French black and white film. Dialogues, only interrupted by short stage instructions. The French film studio Anna Sanders wants to make the novel into a film, Mian Mian has agreed to direct it.<br />
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Mian Mian leads me to the original settings of her novel. And not only the places exist, but also the stories happened as described. Today's Shanghai presents itself as a large construction site in preparation for the Expo 2010. And this Shanghai she has loved, lived, lived to the excess. But the places she leads me are no cheap nightclubs, no wicked bars, but trendy restaurants, elegant joints involving terraces with view in which the decadence of the century's turn is palpable. Even in the revolutionary nostalgic "YYs" for tourists, a bottle of champagne costs 965 yuan (over 100 euros).<br />
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20世纪90年代的派对常客和今天的作家之间的对比再大不过了。2009年1月，在巴黎，棉棉发表了法文版《熊猫》。年轻一代记者们为她举行了庆祝。她和他们调情，特别是和《世界报》(Le Monde)那位——他写了一篇关于《熊猫》的精彩评论。通过《熊猫》，棉棉创造了一座鲜活的文学丰碑，一座现代艺术作品。<br />
作为当代小说，《熊猫》在国内外引起了极大的争议，可以说是最具争议性的小说了。棉棉对自己的小说深信不疑：“在我写小说的时候，中国还没有为我的小说做好准备，所以才会有审查制度。我的旧书是90年代的风格，但我是用未来的方式来写《熊猫》。”<br />
现在棉棉想从中国的经济奇迹中分一杯羹。有钱了，她会做什么？“一个电影！那就太好了！”这是唯一一件用钱能变得有意义的事情。事实上，小说《熊猫》读起来就像一部法国黑白电影——充满对话，只被简短的阶段说明打断。法国电影制片厂安娜·桑德斯想把这部小说拍成电影，而棉棉已经同意执导。<br />
棉棉把我带到了她小说的原始背景。不仅场景真实存在，故事也如描述那样发生。今天的上海是一个为2010年世博会做准备的大型建筑工地。而这个上海，她深爱着，在这生活着并过着奢华的生活。但她带我去的地方不是廉价的夜总会，也不是邪恶的酒吧，而是时髦的餐馆，优雅的酒吧，带有露台的露台（在这些露台上可以明显感受到本世纪的颓靡）。甚至在革命性的怀旧风格的“ YYs”中，一瓶香槟也要花费965元（超过100欧元）。<br />
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--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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The "Jean George" at the center with its high ceilings, the dark wooden floors and walls, the mirrors, the somewhat musty velvet, stucco and reddish twilight seems to come from the Europe of the 1910s. Busy waiters in tails dart back and forth, the cocktails are priceless. But it is not Europe, it is Shanghai. And it is not the 1910s, but exactly a century later. In the 1990s, the trendy get-together was prosperous. The bar is still popular today, but it is ghostly empty. Here is a fin-de-siècle mood nearly tactile. The restaurant is owned by Jean George, a star cook who happened to be at his restaurant that evening but is mostly in New York. Here she has recorded the monologue about Bruce Lee by Andrew Bull, which appears in the novel in the first part, chapter five.<br />
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Mian Mian is also surprised at how much the global economic crisis hit Shanghai. Even when she drives by taxi through the nocturnal, almost deserted Shanghai, she feels strange in her city, in the city where she has spent her entire life: "The breath of the financial crisis pushes people from the nightlife into the bedrooms." This empty Shanghai frightens her. But Shanghai will recover from the financial crisis faster than other cities.<br />
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In the novel Pand Sex, she describes the 16 million metropolis by the Yellow Sea like this: "Do you know what is missing in Shanghai? The sea. [...] Shanghai is really a village." Incomparably, finally, the metaphorical description of the city: "Those souls penetrate the nightly Shanghai. The pallor and emptiness are invariable. Under the sound of water scooped with bamboo baskets and leaves that are kinked, mix the sounds of cheeky and honeyed steps. Those famous streets seem like concubines in the harem, who are always ready for the favor of their ruler. These streets are crossed by the foreign concession areas, the modern dance halls, which have given up the hope for better times, the theaters, the horse betting agencys and cafes. They pass tired heroes and a population in a nightmare. They wash up from the river. Shouts like from a lonely phoenix, light reflections like a jade teapot, a sight that goes into marrow. Women with delicate and fragile posture, a skin like frozen fat, faces like the full moon. The behavior of the men is similarly trained, their character is profound, they have received the baptism of literature and art, but do not want to play the hero. The streets cross the Waipo Bridge, come closer to each other at the Broadway Mansion, climb the stairs step by step, with smooth walk, the wobbling of the butt is charming but elegant and fulfills the expectations. Their misfortune is their destiny, they have never really believed in their destiny. Finally, with an expression that is utterly unbelievable, they appear in candlelight, they have always known to hide their feelings well. They never bring anything directly to light, they do not trust anyone. "<br />
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“尚恩·乔治”( “Jean George” )餐厅位于上海市中心，店内高高的天花板，黑色的木制地板，四面的墙壁、镜子、有些许霉味的天鹅绒，粉饰灰泥以及微红的黄昏似乎都来自1910年代的欧洲。身着燕尾服的侍者来回奔忙，陈列的鸡尾酒价格不菲。但这里不是欧洲，而是上海。这里也不是上世纪初，而是一个世纪后。上世纪90年代，新潮的聚会风行。在今天，酒吧依旧很受欢迎，但却空无一人，死寂沉沉, 有种近乎真实的末世情调。这家餐厅的老板是尚恩·乔治，一位星级厨师，当晚他正好在餐厅，不过大部分时间他都呆在纽约。绵绵录制了安德鲁·布尔(Andrew Bull)关于李小龙(Bruce Lee)的独白，就在这部小说第一部分——第五章。<br />
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棉棉同样也惊诧于全球经济危机对上海造成的巨大冲击。她乘坐租车，穿行在夜幕之下，几乎被遗弃的上海，这座生活了一辈子的城市竟让她感到陌生。“金融危机迫使人们放弃夜生活，窝居在家。”空寂无人的上海令她恐惧。但相较其它城市，上海将更快从危机中恢复过来。<br />
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在《熊猫》这部小说中，棉棉这样描述黄海沿岸的一千六百多座大都市：“你知道上海少了什么吗？就是这片海……上海就是个村庄。”<br />
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对这座城的一个终极且无可比拟的隐喻性描述为：“那些灵魂穿越晚夜上海。这座城依旧是一片苍白与空寂。竹篮舀水的声音，树叶绞缠的声音，夹杂着放肆和甜蜜的脚步声。”那些著名的街道像是后宫中的嫔妃，时刻准备着得到帝王的垂青。街道两边是外国特许区、现代舞厅（它们已经失去了对美好时代的向往）剧院、赌马场和咖啡馆。它们经过疲惫的英雄和梦魇中的人们，从河边一冲而上。喊声如孤凤，光影如玉壶——一番深入人心的景象。女人们姿态娇柔纤弱，肤如凝脂，面如圆月。男人们举止得体，性格深沉，他们接受过文学和艺术的洗礼，但拒绝逞威风。街道（“嫔妃们”）跨过外婆桥，在百老汇大厦交相靠近，沿梯而上，步履流畅，摇曳的翘臀既迷人又优雅，令人餍足。她们的不幸就是她们的命运，而她们从未真正相信过自己的命运。最后，以一种完全不可思议的方式：她们在烛光中现身，她们一直以来很擅长掩藏自己的情感，从不暴露自己的一点一滴，她们也不相信任何人。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:44, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
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The German Sinologist Wolfgang Kubin, who was awarded with the Chinese State Prize and the Pamir International Poetry Prize, described her works as "garbage" in 2006. Of course, Mian Mian is not the new Lu Xun or the new Zhang Ailing.<br />
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Mian Mian at the "M on the Bund" restaurant in March 2009 in front of the Shanghai night club: Panda Sex has been completed.<br />
Photo: Martin Woesler<br />
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She also does not represent the mainstream, but was known at the age of 17 through her breach of taboo to write about her own life of sex, drugs, alcohol and rock'n roll. As a "bad girl" with a "talent to burn anger". She has been translated into more than 10 languages and is perhaps the "most promising young writer", as the International Herald Tribune wrote on 2/8/2001, "she touches the core of the experiences of her generation with her themes of sex, drugs and China's opening policy" . "Der Spiegel" described her as "China's most talented writer". The novel "Candy" was a bestseller under the shop counter and became a classic of youth literature. Herself appears in the novel Pandasex and expresses herself thus: "Great art is like the bright moon in the night sky. He enlightens the world, but he does not light himself. His glow is only borrowed by the hidden self-luminous sun. Art has helped many people to catch a glimpse at the meaning of life. Art has invisible, sacred origins and sacred goals. It makes people recognize their true nature and their place in the cosmos. It helps people to always recognize the meaning and value of their lives again and like for the first time, and the unlimited possibilities that it offers. But many modern art has lost this insight and is therefore a prisoner of its self-imposed limitation." Whether Mian Mian's literature belongs to the rubbish heap or to the hall of fame of World Literature can only one decide: the reader himself.<br />
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Is the taboo-less party girl Mian Mian dead like Little Beetle in the novel or like her friend in real life, what brought her to writing? In the novel she shines at us out of her big beautiful eyes, a whole generation of Shanghai's beauties cites her night by night. However this fan base has also become a rivalry, as can be seen in the mask-like description of the 50 girls at the gamble in the first chapter of the first part. And what does the 38-year-old think about it, who has become a little bit chubby since she quit smoking? She bought herself a swim card and says, "The number of small Mian Mians has exploded! In Shanghai you can only survive if you are slim. I just have to do a little diet, then I can go back into the jet set life - because there is only one real Mian Mian! "<br />
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2006年，获得中国国家诗歌奖和帕米尔国际诗歌奖的德国汉学家沃尔夫冈·库宾，称她的作品是“垃圾”。当然了，《棉棉》不是新式的鲁迅或者张爱玲的作品。<br />
棉棉在上海外滩“M”餐厅前的2009年3月上海夜总会:《熊猫性》已经完成。<br />
照片:吴漠汀<br />
她也不代表主流，但在17岁时，她打破了禁忌，写了自己的性、毒品、酒精和摇滚乐的生活，因此为人所知。作为一个“有燃烧愤怒天赋”的“坏女孩”。她的作品已经被翻译成十多种语言，也许是“最有前途的年轻作家”。正如《国际先驱论坛报》在2001年2月8日所写的那样，“她以性、毒品和中国的开放政策为主题，触及了她这一代人经历的核心”。《明镜周刊》将她描述为“中国最有才华的作家”。这部小说“糖果”是一个畅销书在商店柜台,成为青春文学的经典。她在小<br />
说《潘达西斯》中，这样表达自己:“伟大的艺术犹如夜空中的明月。”他照亮了世界，却没有照亮自己。他的光辉只有被隐藏着的自发发光的太阳借用。艺术帮助许多人瞥见了生活的意义。艺术有着无形的、神圣的起源和神圣的目标。它让人们认识到自己的真实本性和自己在宇宙中的位置。它帮助人们再次认识到他们生命的意义和价值，第一次认识到它所提供的无限可能。但许多现代艺术已经失去了这种洞察力，因此成为自我强加的局限性的囚徒。”棉棉的文学是属于垃圾堆还是属于世界文学名人堂，只有一个能决定:读者自己。<br />
素不相识的派对女郎棉棉像小说里的小甲虫一样死了，还是像她现实生活中的朋友一样死了，是什么促使她开始写作的?在小说中，她用她那双大而美丽的眼睛向我们闪耀着光芒，整整一代的上海美女夜以继日地引用她。然而，这个粉丝群也变成了一场竞争，正如在第一部分第一章中对50个女孩在赌博时的面具式描述中所看到的那样。自从她戒烟后，她变得有点胖了，38岁的她对此有什么看法?她给自己买了一张游泳卡，说:“绵绵的体重暴增了!在上海，你只有苗条才能生存。我只要稍微节食一下，然后我就可以回到飞机上的生活——因为真正的棉棉只有一个!”<br />
--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 06:51, 5 October 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
Mian Mian: Panda Sex – Alternative beginning of the novel<br />
<br />
棉棉《熊猫》——小说的另类开端<br />
<br />
1. Mián Mián棉棉 »Panda Sex« 熊猫. Prohibited in the People's Republic of China. Published in revised version 2/2009, 1st edition immediately out of print.<br />
<br />
German translation by Martin Woesler in cooperation with Lihua Ji, Kiepenheuer & Witsch 2009.<br />
<br />
Published in Chinese: 12/04, 181 pp., Massenverlag Publishing House<br />
Rating: 1.3<br />
<br />
1.棉棉的著作《熊猫》于2009年2月修订出版，第1版即绝版，为中华人民共和国所禁止使用。<br />
2009年，吴漠汀与李华基、基彭霍伊尔合译其德语版本。<br />
<br />
中文出版：12/04，181页，Massenverlag出版社<br />
<br />
评分：1.3<br />
<br />
Scandal book about a Shanghai love affair in free love. (cf .: La la la, Candy, Your Night my Day, cf.: Wei Hui Shanghai Baby)<br />
<br />
这是一本关于上海恋爱的丑闻书。（参照：《啦啦啦》《糖果》《你的夜晚我的白天》，卫慧的《上海宝贝》）<br />
<br />
The title is based on the rare pairing behavior of the panda bears, which is compared with the figure "older sister" by her younger sister. The novel is written as a drama, with brief stage directions, which draw a painting of the mood, and then the lively, colloquial/juvenile dialogues. The dialogues get very curious, but they remain entertaining.<br />
<br />
这个书名是从熊猫罕见的配对行为延伸而来的，妹妹用该行为来与“姐姐”相比较。这部小说以戏剧形式编写，舞台指示简洁，塑造了一幅人物情绪图，还有生动的、口语的/少年对话。对话变得很古怪，但仍然十分有趣娱乐。<br />
<br />
The extract of translation is based on an older Chinese edition of the novel, as it was on the Internet in 2008. Meanwhile the novel by Mian Mian has been significantly modified for the German reader and will be published in August 2009 by the Publishing House Kiepenheuer & Witsch.<br />
<br />
翻译的摘要是根据小说的一个旧中文版改编的，像是2008年在互联网上一样。与此同时，为适应德国读者，棉棉的小说进行了大幅修改，并将于2009年8月由基彭霍伊尔出版社出版。<br />
<br />
Critical links to the book fair<br />
[http://www.de-cn.net/mag/bli/lit/deindex.htm]: Many background articles on the Chinese literature and the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009.<br />
On this very informative website you will find independent information about the book fair. Even voices that criticize the book "Wolf Totem" find a place, which was hyped with a considerable amount of marketing effort by the publisher.<br />
<br />
书展的官方链接<br />
<br />
[http://www.de-cn.net/mag/bli/lit/deindex.htm]：2009年法兰克福书展和中国文学的许多背景性文章。<br />
<br />
在这个信息资源丰富的网站上，即使是批评《狼图腾》一书的观点也能在这有一席之地，这本书是出版商用大规模营销手段进行炒作了的。<br />
<br />
German-Chinese culture network: http://www.de-cn.net/A wonderful institution, supported by the Goethe Institute (here the driving force Michael Kahn-Ackermann) and the Robert Bosch Foundation. Numerous recent Chinese contributions appear in excellent German translation (Julia Buddeberg, Andrea Schwedler), e.g. the interview with Liu Zhenyun in as a liberal known South Chinese weekly newspaper about the loneliness of the Chinese and its statement "One sentence weighs more than 1000 words"<br />
<br />
德中文化网：http://www.de-cn.net/由歌德研究所（主力为迈克尔·卡恩·阿克曼）和罗伯特·博世基金会支持的优质机构。近来，德语译著中（茱莉亚·布德贝格，安德拉·斯彻韦德）接连出现中国的卓越贡献事迹，比如，开放包容的著名南方周报对刘震云的采访中，谈论了关于中国人的孤独感以及以及关于其“一字千金”的说法。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 06:36, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Chinese books in German translation: Authors who are read in China<br />
中国书籍的德译版本：中国的博学作家<br />
<br />
http://litprom.de contains a database for Chinese literature in Germany<br />
http://litprom.de为德国的中国文学提供了数据库。<br />
<br />
On the website of the Buch-Informations-Zentrum (BIZ) (book-information center) Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/ is a database "deyu zhongwen ku" with 700 German titles in China<br />
在Buch-Informations-Zentrum（书籍信息中心）的网页上，Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/是一个叫做“德语中文库”的数据库，里面有700个用中文写成的德语称谓。<br />
<br />
<br />
On the website of Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html: the following books can be found (Effective: 4/30/2009, p.r.n. the information is updated and expanded in the meantime).<br />
在法兰克福书籍集市的网页上，http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html:包括以下书籍（有效：4/30/2009, p.r.n. 相关信息都已更新且拓展）<br />
<br />
Listed authors are:<br />
例举的作者有：<br />
Annie Baobei 北京<br />
Jia Pingwa / ao 西安 西安 (born 2/21/1952, lives in Xi'an)<br />
Jiang Rong姜戎 北京 (born 4/1946)<br />
Liu Zhenyun北京 (born 5/1958)<br />
A Lai Alai阿来 成都 (born 1959, lives in Chengdu)<br />
Mo Yan莫言 (born 2/17/1955)<br />
Bi Feiyu毕飞宇 "平原" 江苏 (born 1/1964)<br />
Yu Hua余华 杭州 (born 4/3/1960)<br />
Yang Jiang杨绛 听说在北京 (born 17.7.1911)<br />
Yu Dan北京 (born 6/28/1965, lives in Beijing)<br />
<br />
Belletristic titles (end of April)<br />
Alai [阿来, Tibetan writer]<br />
Distant Springs<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00405-4<br />
<br />
Bei Dao<br />
The Book of Defeat <br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23283-9<br />
<br />
► Survey and Review: Bei Dao's poems - formed as exile literature in the USA - <br />
mainly use paradox as stylistic device. This, he says, is the only way for him<br />
to discover the world in its inconsistency. By analyzing his life poetically the story has one´s say: the dispersed illusions of a poet, who has dreamed of another better world.<br />
调查与评论：北岛的诗歌-----在美国视为流放文学----主要借用悖论作为修辞手法。其本人表示，这是自己揭露世界的矛盾的唯一方式。我们分析北岛的诗意生活，发现他的故事有一个特点：一位满脑幻想的诗人，梦想着一个更好的世界。<br />
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 01:27, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Chinese books in German translation: Authors who are read in China<br />
中国书籍的德译版本：中国的博学作家<br />
<br />
http://litprom.de contains a database for Chinese literature in Germany<br />
http://litprom.de为德国的中国文学提供了数据库。<br />
<br />
On the website of the Buch-Informations-Zentrum (BIZ) (book-information center) Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/ is a database "deyu zhongwen ku" with 700 German titles in China<br />
在Buch-Informations-Zentrum（书籍信息中心）的网页上，Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/是一个叫做“德语中文库”的数据库，里面有700个用中文写成的德语称谓。<br />
<br />
<br />
On the website of Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html: the following books can be found (Effective: 4/30/2009, p.r.n. the information is updated and expanded in the meantime).<br />
在法兰克福书籍集市的网页上，http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html:包括以下书籍（有效：4/30/2009, p.r.n. 相关信息都已更新且拓展）<br />
<br />
Listed authors are:<br />
例举的作者有：<br />
Annie Baobei 北京<br />
Jia Pingwa / ao 西安 西安 (born 2/21/1952, lives in Xi'an)<br />
Jiang Rong姜戎 北京 (born 4/1946)<br />
Liu Zhenyun北京 (born 5/1958)<br />
A Lai Alai阿来 成都 (born 1959, lives in Chengdu)<br />
Mo Yan莫言 (born 2/17/1955)<br />
Bi Feiyu毕飞宇 "平原" 江苏 (born 1/1964)<br />
Yu Hua余华 杭州 (born 4/3/1960)<br />
Yang Jiang杨绛 听说在北京 (born 17.7.1911)<br />
Yu Dan北京 (born 6/28/1965, lives in Beijing)<br />
<br />
Belletristic titles (end of April)<br />
Alai [阿来, Tibetan writer]<br />
Distant Springs<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00405-4<br />
<br />
Bei Dao<br />
The Book of Defeat <br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23283-9<br />
<br />
► Survey and Review: Bei Dao's poems - formed as exile literature in the USA - <br />
mainly use paradox as stylistic device. This, he says, is the only way for him<br />
to discover the world in its inconsistency. By analyzing his life poetically the story has one´s say: the dispersed illusions of a poet, who has dreamed of another better world.<br />
调查与评论：北岛的诗歌-----在美国视为流放文学----主要借用悖论作为修辞手法。其本人表示，这是自己揭露世界的矛盾的唯一方式。我们分析北岛的诗意生活，发现他的故事有一个特点：一位满脑幻想的诗人，梦想着一个更好的世界。Chinese books in German translation: Authors who are read in China<br />
<br />
中国书籍的德译版本：中国的博学作家<br />
<br />
http://litprom.de contains a database for Chinese literature in Germany<br />
http://litprom.de为德国的中国文学提供了数据库。<br />
<br />
On the website of the Buch-Informations-Zentrum (BIZ) (book-information center) Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/ is a database "deyu zhongwen ku" with 700 German titles in China<br />
在Buch-Informations-Zentrum（书籍信息中心）的网页上，Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/是一个叫做“德语中文库”的数据库，里面有700个用中文写成的德语名称。<br />
<br />
<br />
On the website of Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html: the following books can be found (Effective: 4/30/2009, p.r.n. the information is updated and expanded in the meantime).<br />
在法兰克福书籍集市的网页上，http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html:包括以下书籍（有效：4/30/2009, p.r.n. 相关信息都已更新且拓展）<br />
<br />
Listed authors are:<br />
例举的作者有：<br />
Annie Baobei 安妮宝贝 北京<br />
Jia Pingwa / ao 贾平凹 西安 (born 2/21/1952, lives in Xi'an)<br />
Jiang Rong 姜戎 北京 (born 4/1946)<br />
Liu Zhenyun刘震云 北京 (born 5/1958)<br />
A Lai Alai 阿来 成都 (born 1959, lives in Chengdu)<br />
Mo Yan 莫言 (born 2/17/1955)<br />
Bi Feiyu 毕飞宇 "平原" 江苏 (born 1/1964)<br />
Yu Hua 余华 杭州 (born 4/3/1960)<br />
Yang Jiang 杨绛 听说在北京 (born 17.7.1911)<br />
Yu Dan 于丹北京 (born 6/28/1965, lives in Beijing)<br />
<br />
Belletristic titles (end of April) 标题<br />
Alai [阿来, Tibetan writer藏族作家]<br />
Distant Springs 遥远的温泉<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann 马海默译（中译德）<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00405-4 联合出版社 国际图书标准号 978-3-293-00405-4<br />
<br />
Bei Dao 北岛<br />
The Book of Defeat 《失败之书》<br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin 沃尔夫冈·顾彬译（中译德）<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23283-9 翰泽尔出版社<br />
<br />
► Survey and Review: Bei Dao's poems - formed as exile literature in the USA - <br />
mainly use paradox as stylistic device. This, he says, is the only way for him<br />
to discover the world in its inconsistency. By analyzing his life poetically the story has one´s say: the dispersed illusions of a poet, who has dreamed of another better world.<br />
调查与评论：北岛的诗歌-----在美国视为流放文学----主要借用悖论作为修辞手法。其本人表示，这是自己揭露世界的矛盾的唯一方式。从诗意化的角度去分析北岛的生活，你会发现他的故事传递着这样一个讯息：一位满脑幻想的诗人，梦想着另一个更好的世界。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
Feng Li冯丽<br />
Translated by: Ulrich Kautz 高立希 译<br />
East Asia Publishing House 东亚出版社- ISBN 978-3-940527-14-1<br />
► The novel is ironically telling the story of a middle-aged man, unhappy<br />
married, impotenet, with sparse hair growth, who decides in the mid-nineties of the 20th century,<br />
as the head of a "Research Institute for Culture" in a Chinese provincial city,<br />
to achieve something at least once in a lifetime, which matches to his principles and desires at heart,<br />
but however enmeshes himslef in a farce, of which end he<br />
no,<br />
is not quite empty-handed,<br />
but, at least! found the woman of his life, an equally prim and unconventional also<br />
intelligent and lovable personality.<br />
这部小说讽刺地讲述了一个中年男人的故事，他婚姻不幸，患有不孕症，还秃了顶，在20世纪90年代中期，作为中国一个省会城市的“文化研究所”的所长，他打算在他人生中能有所作为，哪怕就那么一次，能够无愧于心，但他却陷入一场闹剧，结果也并非是一无所获，至少他找到了他生命中的女人，一位同样既端庄又不俗套的聪慧的可爱女人。<br />
Guo Xiaolu 郭小橹<br />
From the English by Anne Rademacher 安妮·拉德玛彻 译<br />
Knaus - ISBN 978-3-8135-0353-1<br />
► On a hot summer afternoon in the year 2012 the young countrywoman Kwok Yun sees a strange flying disk at the sky. Shortly thereafter she finds an injured stranger in the rice field to whom she administers first<br />
aid. On the same day, the stranger disappears again, instead two secrect-service agents appear:<br />
They want to get to the bottom of the strange UFO phenomenon. A<br />
inspection machinery overflows the inhabitants of the village. Everything and everyone is checked. On the peak of the hysteria arrives a check over $ 2,000, which was sent by the rescued foreigner from America. The money of the class enemy is finally disbalancing the life in the poor village. Three years after the sighting of the UFO the once idyllic peasant areas has become a booming economic region in where only money matters. A political parable about past, change and loss.<br />
在2012年夏天的一个炎热午后，年轻的农村妇女郭云看到天空中有一个神秘飞碟，之后不久她在稻田里发现了一个受伤的陌生人并第一时间对他进行了救治。同一天里，陌生人又不见了，却出现了两个特务：他们想弄清楚关于这个UFO奇怪现象是怎么一回事儿。一台用于检查的机器扫遍了整个村庄，将村里的所有人和物都检查了一遍。在歇斯底里情绪达到顶峰时，那个获救的外国人从美国寄来一张超过2000美元的支票。最终，这来自于阶级敌人的支票打破了这个贫穷山村的生活的平衡。在目击飞碟事件三年后，这个曾经如世外桃源般的乡村地区已经变成了一个只以钱为重的经济繁荣地区。这是一个关于过去，变化和迷失的政治寓言。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:16, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
Ha Jin 哈金<br />
From the American English by Susanne Hornfeck, Sonja Hauser 选自《美国英语》杂志，洪素珊、索尼娅 · 豪瑟<br />
Ullstein - ISBN 978-3-550-08723-3<br />
► The Chinese student Nan Wu and his wife Pingping decided in the summer of 1989, briefly<br />
after the events on the Tiananmen Square, to stay in the USA and to begin a new<br />
Life. It should only be a study stay, but with each year in the US rises<br />
the anger on the political conditions in the distant home. Finally they are allowed to take their<br />
six-year-old son Taotao to them, who quickly gets used to the new environment. However Nan <br />
dreams of being a great poet, and has a rough ride: he is plagued by guilt feelings towards<br />
his wife, whom he feels more solidary related to her than in love because can not forget his <br />
love of his youth Beina; also the responsibility to allow his family a <br />
secure livelihood. For over twelve years we accompany as the readers the everyday life of the family Wu, their<br />
daily struggle for homeland, love and happiness. Side by side they grow dear to our hearts because our<br />
own dreams are reflected in their dreams.<br />
<br />
1989年的夏天，大约在天安门事件之后，中国学生武男和妻子萍萍决定留在美国，开始一段新生活。<br />
这本只是一次留学，但他们在美国的每一年都对遥远故土的政局感到愤怒。最后他们被允许带着他们六岁的儿子涛涛，他也非常迅速地适应了新环境。<br />
然而武男梦想着成为一名出色的诗人，并且处于艰难的境遇。他被对妻子歉疚的情绪折磨，因为他对年轻时的旧爱贝娜念念不忘。而对于妻子，有的不是爱而是相濡以沫以及对家庭美满的责任。十二年来我们作为读者陪伴着武家每一天的生活，日常为家乡的斗争以及爱与幸福。一天天的陪伴使他们在我们的心里变得可贵，因为我们的梦想映射在他们的梦想里。<br />
<br />
Hong Ying 虹影<br />
From the Chinese by Claudia Kaiser<br />
Aufbau - ISBN 978-3-351-03269-2<br />
► In the year 1907 - the Qing dynasty still reigns in China - Cassia, a poor orphan girl<br />
from the country, is sold from her uncle to a famous brothel. Although she can not fulfill the ideal of beauty of the era, <br />
she becomes the mistress of Master Chang, the leader of the dreaded triad of Shanghai.<br />
After his assassination remain two ways for her: a life in humility and self-denial, or one<br />
full of pomp, power and passion. Hong Ying describes the rise and fall of a confident woman,<br />
who went down in history as a famous concubine and godmother of Shanghai.<br />
<br />
1907年，清朝仍旧统治着中国。卡西亚是一个贫苦的孤女，他被叔叔卖到了一家著名妓院。尽管她无法成为那个时代理想的美人之流，她成为了上海黑社会头目常大师的情妇。常大师在被暗杀之后，摆在她面前的只有两条路：要么生活在卑微与自我否定之中，要么与虚荣、势力和激情为伍。虹影描写了一位历经沉浮的自信女人，她将会作为上海著名情妇和教母被载入史册。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 15:34, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
Li Dawei<br />
From the American English by Anne Rademacher.<br />
With comic drawings by Sheng Tao<br />
Knaus - ISBN 978-3-8135-0336-4<br />
► 4th June 1989: The student riots culminate in the form of the massacre on the Tiananmen Square. The art student and comic artist Dawei, actually a non-political<br />
loner, who is opposed to every form of collectivism, loves the student leader Little Kim. As he is looking for her <br />
in the turmoil on the Tiananmen Square, he finds himself in the riot , and experiences the bloody downfall.<br />
He does not find Kim, but instead a rather distracted cat, which he takes <br />
Home. One evening the cat begins to speak. He has great plans and wants to be a comic star in<br />
the USA. And in fact he succeeds to do a trip to Hollywood. Dawei stays home, beats his way through life with different jobs and escapes again and again into his comic dream worlds. Finally he follows his cat, hoping to find again his great love Little Kim in America. But the<br />
"Golden West" holds a nasty surprise for him: Haohao is abducted, and suddenly <br />
Dawei finds himself as a protagonist of a superhero comic.<br />
<br />
Li Er<br />
From the Chinese by Thekla Chabbi<br />
Klett-Cotta - ISBN 978-3-608-93794-7<br />
<br />
Li Tai-bo<br />
Poems<br />
Translated by: Günther Debon<br />
Reclam - ISBN 978-3-15-018675-6<br />
<br />
Li Yiyun<br />
From the American English by Anette Gruber<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23421-5<br />
► The inhabitants of a small provincial city near Beijing set off for an important <br />
event - a young woman should be executed. Her crime: she, who was during the cultural revolution<br />
one of the most fanatical Red Guardists, has recant Communism. Her mother performs <br />
defiantly the traditional rituals for the dead, while Shan's father, a subtle intellectual, has long ago given up on <br />
his daughter, who brought so much misfortune to others. Both do not sense which<br />
far-reaching consequences this death will have. For example for Kai, the radio announcer, who <br />
is the voice of the party in public, but by now doubts about what she is doing. For the<br />
crippled Nini, who is held like a slave in a household of nothing but girls. For the<br />
little Tong, who is neglected by the parents and is only loved by his dog.<br />
The novel draws a microcosm, which offers a plastic image of China in the late 1970s.<br />
“李大为”翻译自安妮拉德马赫（英译中）。插画由圣陶克瑙斯完成。- ISBN 978-3-8135-0336-4 ►1989年7月4日.<br />
学生暴动在天安门广场的武力镇压中达到高潮。大为，一个艺术系的学生和漫画家，由于不问政事、反对任何形式的游行而不太合群，但却爱上了学生运动的领导者小金。那一次，他在天安门广场的骚动中试图寻找小金的影子，却发现自己身陷漫天血舞的暴乱之中。最后，他没能找到小金，取而代之地，把一只彷徨的小猫带回了家。有天晚上这只猫开始会说话了，他突而有了很好的计划并且想成为美国的漫画明星。事实上他的确成功地开启了一次好莱坞之旅。大为呆在家中，用各种不同的方式对抗着生活，一次又一次地逃往他梦想的漫画世界当中。最后，他跟随着他的猫咪，企图在美国能找到他的爱人小金，但是，“西金区”却给了他一个不怎么美好的惊喜：好好被诱拐，他突然发现自己居然是超级英雄漫画里的主人公。<br />
<br />
“李尔”翻译自克拉・查比・克莱特・科塔（中译德）- ISBN 978-3-608-93794-7<br />
<br />
李大波诗集由冈瑟 · 德邦 · 莱克拉姆进行翻译- ISBN 978-3-15-018675-6<br />
<br />
“李翼云”翻译自安妮特.格鲁伯.汉斯（英译中）- ISBN 978-3-446-23421-5 ►<br />
<br />
北京附近的一个小镇上的居民正在举行一件大事----一个年轻的女人正被处以死刑。她的罪状是：曾经是文化大革命中最激进的红卫兵的她，公开宣布放弃共产主义。她的母亲对这场死者的祭奠表现得十分抗拒，反之，珊的父亲，一个心思难测的知识分子，早已放弃了自己这个曾经给很多人带来灾难的女儿。他们都没有意识到他们女儿的死会带来怎样深远的后果（影响）。比如广播员凯，在公共场合作为党的声音的她，此时此刻正在质疑自己的所作所为。比如跛脚的妮妮，像奴隶一样被关在一间除了女孩什么都没有的家里。比如小佟，被父母忽视，只有他的小狗爱他。这篇小说描述的微观世界，向我们展示了中国上世纪七十年代末的塑料形象。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 01:29, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
Liao Yiwu<br />
From the Chinese by Hans Peter Hoffmann, Karin Betz and Brigitte Höhenriede<br />
Fischer - ISBN: 978-3-10-044812-5<br />
► A prostitute, a Buddhist abbot and the manager of a social institution<br />
Falun Gong supporter, a former Red Guard and a Feng Shui Master - she and many others<br />
Liao Yiwu, one of the most famous authors of China and himself a former political prisoner, asked them all with respect,<br />
empathy and humor about their lives and their hopes.<br />
These unique conversations let us discover a China that we can not see anywhere else<br />
- a China of the outcasts, homeless, beggars and street musicians, whose<br />
Dignity, wit, and humanity could not be charged by anyone. <br />
<br />
廖义武<br />
来自中国的汉斯·彼得·霍夫曼、卡琳·贝茨和布里吉特·霍亨利德<br />
Fischer-ISBN：978-3-10-044812-5<br />
►一个妓女、一名佛教住持和一名社会机构法轮功支持者、一名前红卫兵和一名风水大师——她和许多其他人。廖亦武——中国最著名的作家之一，他自己曾是一名政治犯，作家对他们的生活和希望表达了尊重、同情和幽默。 这些独特的对话让我们发现了一个在其他任何地方都看不到的中国——一个有着被遗弃的、无家可归的乞丐和街头音乐家的中国，这些人的尊严、智慧和人性不能被任何人指控。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Liu Heng<br />
From the Chinese by Ingrid Müller and Zhang Rui<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-20534-5<br />
► The servant never forgot the moment when he first saw the bride of the young Mr. Cao:<br />
during pouring rain, she got out of her red litter, and though he had only seen her too big feet,<br />
he fell in love forever. The future spouse has different sexual inclinations, but the<br />
strange guest, whom he brought from abroad, is feeling the same as the servant. The<br />
French engineer should actually install a matchmaker factory in the Chinese province,<br />
but the young Mr. Cao experiments secretly with explosives instead of matches. The older<br />
people do not care about the welfare of the house - the father always tries the<br />
most odd remedies, the mother has retreated as a Buddhist hermit - and therefore<br />
the eldest son rules with an iron fist over the degenerate extended family. These hustle and bustle is observed by the young servant, who is also witnessing what is going on in the joints by the river,<br />
in the brothels and the tea houses.<br />
In the Middle Kingdom dominate famine and<br />
civil wars, the old order is breaking, and lords and servants are sucked into the whirlpool of these events.<br />
<br />
刘恒<br />
来自中国的英格丽·穆勒和张瑞<br />
Hanser-ISBN978-3-446-20534-5<br />
►仆人从来没有忘记他第一次见到年轻曹先生的新娘的那一刻：<br />
在倾盆大雨中，她从她的红色轿子中出来，尽管他只看到她过大的双脚，但他却永久地了坠入爱河。 曹先生未来的妻子有不同的性倾向，但他从国外带来的奇怪的客人，和仆人有着相同的感觉。这个<br />
法国工程师实际上应该在中国的省份里建立一个火柴工厂，但年轻的曹先生秘密地用炸药而不是火柴进行实验。 年长的人们不关心房子的安全——父亲总是尝试最奇怪的补救办法是，母亲作为一个佛教信徒已经隐退了——<br />
因此长子对衰落的大家族实施铁拳统治。 年轻的仆人看到了这些强制措施，他也目睹着河流交界处发生着什么，<br />
在妓院和茶馆里。<br />
在中间世界里，饥饿和内战占据了统治地位，旧的秩序正在瓦解，老爷和仆人被卷入这些事件的漩涡。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Liu Zhenyuns (51), who was ranked No. 1 in China's bestseller list in 2008 - a mix-up thriller about a confused bag, whose content can become dangerous for some important people.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhenyun<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Publishing House ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
► As Liu Yuejin’s , a good-natured and naive cook on a Beijing construction site, money bag is<br />
stolen, a world collapses for him. In it were cash and a promissory note for buying himself <br />
a small restaurant and making himself self-employed. The victim goes on a chase for<br />
his bag - a hunt that takes him deeper and deeper into the local underworld.<br />
Instead of his own, he gets to another stolen bag, which belongs to a formerly multi-million dollar now heavily <br />
indebted construction entrepreneur, and contains a memory stick with highly volatile material.<br />
In the following series of coincidences and implications, sneaky intrigues and chess moves,<br />
the allegedly simple cook Liu Yuejin proves to be an amazing sly dog and gets out of a tight spot.<br />
However he has caused a domino reaction of complexities<br />
from which – that will be clear in the end – he will not be able to free himself so quickly.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhenyun<br />
E-book<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-03-6<br />
<br />
Lu Xun<br />
From the Chinese by Raoul Findeisen, Wolfgang Kubin, Florian Reissinger<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00407-8<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
刘震云(51)，夺得了2008年中国畅销书排行榜的第一名的作者。此作是一部关于一个神奇的包的惊悚小说，其内容中含有对一些重要人物来说危险的东西。 -《来自中国的刘震云》作者: 马克•赫尔曼-迪克斯 ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
<br />
刘跃进，一个在北京建筑工地工作的善良而天真的厨师，他那被当作全部家产钱袋被偷了后，自己的整个世界似乎都塌了。被偷的钱包里有现金和他本来准备用来给自己买一家小餐馆，自己做老板而买的一张期票。之后，作为受害者的刘跃进，毅然踏上征程去找寻他丢失的包，然而没想到这场狩猎，却使他（误打误撞地）深入了当地更深的地下中去。他找到了不属于自己的另一个被偷的包，这个包属于一位曾经拥有数百万美元资产，现在却负债累累的建筑企业家，包中还有一个用高挥发性材料制成的记忆条。而接下来的一系列巧合和暗示，狡猾的阴谋和一个个局中，从来以单纯示人的厨师刘跃进却以像猎犬一样狡猾灵敏的智慧轻易摆脱了困境。然而，他已经引起了复杂的多米诺骨牌效应—这很清晰地显示出-他不可能这么快脱身。<br />
-《刘震云系列电子书》 作者：马克•赫尔曼-迪克斯 ISBN 978-3-941651-03-6<br />
-《鲁迅》作者:拉乌尔·芬代森、沃尔夫冈·库宾、弗洛里安·赖辛格Unionsverlag, ISBN 978-3-293-00407-8<br />
----<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:01, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
刘震云（51岁）是2008年在中国畅销书排行榜上排名第一的作者。其作品是一部惊悚小说，讲的是一个神奇的包的故事，包里的一些东西会对主角造成危险。-《来自中国的刘震云》作者: 马克•赫尔曼-迪克斯 ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
<br />
刘跃进是一位善良天真的厨师，在北京某建筑工地上工作。他的钱袋被偷以后，整个世界似乎都崩塌了。钱袋里有一些现金和一张期票，他本来准备用那张期票买一家小餐馆，自己做生意。之后，作为受害者的刘跃进，毅然踏上征程去寻他丢失的钱袋。然而，意想不到的是，他误打误撞深入了当地更深的地下中去。刘跃进找到了另一个不属于自己的包，这个包是一位建筑企业家的，曾经拥有数百万美元资产，现在却负债累累；包中还有一个用高挥发性材料制成的记忆条。而在接下来的一系列巧合和暗示，狡猾的阴谋和一个个局中，从来以单纯示人的厨师刘跃进却如猎犬一般狡猾灵敏地轻易摆脱了困境。然而，他已经引起了复杂的多米诺骨牌效应—这很清晰地显示出-他不可能这么快脱身。<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:06, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
刘震云（51岁），在2008年中国最受欢迎的作家排行榜上名列第一，他的作品讲述了关于一个神秘包裹的惊悚故事，包裹里的东西对于某些重要人物而言充满了危机感。<br />
刘震云 马克•赫尔曼（中译德）迪克斯出版社：ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
刘跃进是北京某建筑工地上的一名厨师，他心地善良又为人老实。当装着他所有家当的钱袋被偷后，他感到仿佛整个世界都崩塌了。钱袋里有一些现金和一张期票。他本来打算用那张期票自己当老板开一家小餐馆。之后，作为受害者的他，毅然踏上了寻找他丢失的包的征程。然而没想到这场追逐却使他误打误撞地深入了当地的犯罪集团。他找到了另一个被偷的包。这个包的原主是一位曾经拥有数百万美元资产，现在却负债累累的建筑企业家。这个包里有一个用高挥发性材料制成的记忆条。于是在接下来的一系列巧合和暗示、狡猾的阴谋和陷阱中，向来心思单纯的厨师刘跃进不得不如猎犬一般狡猾灵敏地摆脱险境。然而，这很明显，他已经引起了复杂的多米诺骨牌效应，他也不可能轻易地脱离险境。<br />
<br />
刘震云 电子书 马克•赫尔曼（中译德）迪克斯出版社：ISBN 978-3-941651-03-6--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 02:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Ma Jian <br />
From the English by Barbara Heller<br />
Schirmer Graf - ISBN 978-3-86555-063-7<br />
► When Ma Jian turned thirty, eight years after Mao's death, he decided to move on from the tight boundaries of Beijing.<br />
His country began to change and he wanted to get to know it. Nannan, his little<br />
daughter, was always with her mother; his girlfriend cheated on him; he felt supervised as an artist;<br />
his inspiration for writing or painting was at the end. He bought himself a train ticket to the furthest<br />
Western border of China and set out.<br />
Ma Jian's journey, by train and by hitchhiker, took three years and beaconed him to the lonely high valleys of<br />
Tibet, the iconic sites of Buddhism, the beautiful salt deserts and villages<br />
where the time stood still between the Middle Ages and communism.<br />
马健 芭芭拉·海勒（英译德）希尔默·格拉夫出版社：ISBN 978-3-86555-063-7<br />
在毛主席逝世后的第八年，马健已年满三十，他决定走出北京这紧绷的边界线继续前行。他开始改变国籍，想要了解国家的意义。他的小女儿楠楠一直跟着他的前妻，他的女朋友也背叛了他。他感受到了作为艺术家的压抑，随之而来，他对写作和绘画的热爱也消失殆尽。于是他坐火车出发去了中国最遥远的西部边界。在长达三年的旅途里，无论是乘火车还是搭便车，马健途经了西藏偏僻的高谷、佛教的标志性景点、美丽的盐湖和村庄，那些仿佛停留在中世纪和共产主义时代之间的地方。<br />
Mo Yan<br />
Translated by: Martina Hasse<br />
Horlemann - ISBN 978-3-89502-272-2<br />
► The novel begins on the 1 January 1950 in hell. Shortly before the traditional order of the rural China has been abolished by Mao Tsetung’s agrarian reform.<br />
For two years Prince Yama, the ruler of the underworld, has conquered the landowner Ximen Nao with every possible torment<br />
to force him to accept the charges, which lead to his<br />
execution by the small farmers. But Ximen Nao persistently asserts his innocence.<br />
Finally Yama gives in reluctantly and allows Ximen to return to the earth to his former possessions in the <br />
impoverished Shandong. But when he arrives there, he finds out to his disappointment<br />
that he was not reborn as a man, but as a donkey. With the eyes of the beast he traces the fate of his former family, his friends, rivals and enemies.<br />
Further reincarnations cause him to become a bull, a pig, a dog and a monkey and<br />
finally to a boy with a big head, who has an astounding memory and a talent for<br />
languages. From the rough and extraordinarily entertaining perspective of each character,<br />
this novel tells the last 50 years of the stormy history of China.<br />
莫言 玛蒂娜·哈斯（中译德）霍勒曼出版社：ISBN 978-3-89502-272-2<br />
这部小说讲述了中国农村从1950年1月1日开始的苦难经历，故事开始于毛泽东提出土地改革以废除传统中国农村土地制度前不久。两年来，阎王爷用尽一切可行的酷刑来迫使地主西门闹接受农民们希望他被处决的那些指控。但西门闹坚持认为自己是清白的。最终，阎王爷勉强地答应了，允许西门闹回到了那个并不富裕的山东，回到了他曾经的地盘。可是当他到达那儿时，他感到很失望，他这并不是重生，而是投胎成了一头驴。西门闹以动物之眼目睹了他的家族、朋友、对手和敌人们的命运。接着，西门闹又转世投胎成为了牛、猪、狗和猴子。最后，他终于转生为一个拥有惊人的记忆力和语言才能的大头男孩。这部小说透过粗略的和极富娱乐性的角色视角讲述了中国近五十年来的苦难历史。<br />
Mo Yan<br />
From the Chinese by Karin Betz<br />
Island ISBN 978-3-458-17446<br />
莫言 卡琳·贝兹（中译德）冰岛出版社：ISBN 978-3-458-17446<br />
Mo Yan<br />
From the Chinese by Andreas Donath<br />
Unionsverlag<br />
莫言 安德烈亚斯·多纳特（中译德）联合会出版社--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 02:06, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
Pu Yi<br />
From the Chinese by Richard Schirach and Mulan Lehner<br />
Paperback edition, dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21168-0<br />
► Pu Yis exciting autobiography, source material for Bertolucci’s excellent film that won nine Oscars <br />
"The Last Emperor" gives absurd and also fascinating insights into the world of the Forbidden City that has sunk with him<br />
and leads from the confusion of the Chinese Civil War to the prisons of the Peoples’s Republic <br />
where Pu Yineun was given a longstanding reeducation, which made the former ruler of millions to a convinced follower of Mao and the "New Person"<br />
<br />
Qiu Xiaolong<br />
From the English by Susanne Hornfeck<br />
Zsolnay - ISBN 978-3-551-05461-4<br />
► On a traffic island in the middle of Shanghai, the corpse of a woman is found at dawn. She<br />
is wearing a tight red silk dress, a "qipao", as it was frowned upon during the cultural revolution, and for <br />
now comes back into fashion Shortly afterwards one discovers a second and soon afterwards a third<br />
female corpse. Chief Inspector Chen, who is the only one who knows how to get the psychological profile of a serial killer,<br />
deals with a real estate scandal and finally wants to crown his literature studies with an academic degree. In the meantime, his young colleague strikes out as<br />
a decoy on a dangerous mission ...<br />
<br />
Qiu Xiaolong<br />
Translated by: Susanne Hornfeck<br />
Paperback edition, dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21128-4<br />
►Chief Inspector Chen has long dreamed of a trip to America. And now the<br />
romancing policeman is commissioned to accompany a writer delegation to the USA. But the onetime opportunity<br />
is more than unfavorable for Chen. For he has received an order which actually requires his full<br />
commitment in Shanghai: After the death of a policeman in a brothel, the supreme party administration obliges him to finally put atop to the activities of the "red rats" - corrupt officials and bribes selling<br />
neocapitalists. However, as early as the first investigations, Chen has to realise that he will have to deal with powerful<br />
party leaders who are not sticking at nothing...<br />
<br />
摘自理查德席拉赫和木兰莱纳中文平装版书籍中有关溥仪的记载。dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21168-0 ► 情节激动的溥仪的自传是贝托鲁奇拍摄的优秀电影《末代皇帝》的文献参考来源，这部电影获得了九项奥斯卡大奖，他对紫禁城的世界给予了荒谬而迷人的见解。溥仪在中国内乱、战争不断期间，经历了从在紫禁城里的生活一直到新中国成立被送入人民共和国的监狱里接受改造的生活，他被赋予了长期的再教育，使他这位曾经统治过许多人的统治者面目一新，成为了毛泽东思想的忠实追随者和人民共和国的新生公民。<br />
<br />
裘小龙摘自苏珊娜•霍恩菲克•兹索尔内英文版书籍的记载。 - ISBN 978-3-551-05461-4►黎明时分在上海市中心的一个交通要道上，发现了一具女尸。这具女尸穿着一件紧身的红色丝绸长裙，一件“旗袍”，这种样式在文化大革命期间曾遭到人们的冷遇，现在又流行起来了，不久之后，人们发现了第二具女尸，过了不久又发现了第三具女尸。陈警长是唯一一个擅长如何模拟连环杀手心理特征的人，他处理过一桩房地产丑闻案件，最后他希望自己的文学研究能够获得一个学位。而与此同时，他的年轻同事在一次危险的任务中充当了诱饵……<br />
<br />
裘小龙所翻译的苏珊娜•霍恩菲克平装版书籍的记载。 dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21128-4►陈警长一直梦想着去美国旅行。现在，这位充满浪漫风度的警察被派去美国参加一个作家代表团大会，但是时机对陈警长来说非常不好。因为他收到了一份命令，上级需要他在上海着手解决一件案子。继一名警察在妓院执行任务时牺牲后，党的最高行政当局责成他查获捣毁一个靠腐败官员和贿赂新兴资本家起家的“红老鼠”活动集团。然而，早在第一次调查时，陈警长就应该意识到，他将不得不对付那些拥有一切、权势滔天的利益集团首脑们……--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:39, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
Jiang Rong<br />
<br />
From the Chinese by Karin Hasselblatt<br />
Goldmann - ISBN 978-3-442-31108-8<br />
► During the cultural revolution in the 1960s the Chinese student Chen Zhen is sent to the interior <br />
Mongolia. There he shall learn about the life of nomadic cattle breeders. Immediately he is<br />
completely captivated by this completely unknown and archaic world. On the side of<br />
Bilgees, his old Mongolian teacher, he defies snowstorms and torriding heat, and gets<br />
insight into the ancient myths and traditions of the Mongolian people. Especially Chen Zhen becomes acquainted with the wolves, whose wisdom and courage the have always fascinated Mongols – and soon connects him a deep love to a wolf-boy, which he is breeding. But then disaster announces itself, because when the Chinese sense the economic potential of the Mongolian steppe, greed for profit<br />
and blind faith in progress are threatening to destroy the centuries-long balance between man and nature …<br />
<br />
姜戎<br />
《中国人》作者：卡琳·哈塞尔布拉特<br />
出版社：Goldmann -ISBN 978-3-442-31108-8<br />
20世纪60年代，文化大革命时期，中国学生陈真被送到了蒙古。他将在那儿了解游牧民族的生活。他一来就完全被这个完全未知、古老的世界迷住了。在跟随蒙古老师比尔盖斯学习时，他无惧风雪酷暑，深入了解了蒙古族远古的神话和传统。最特别的是，他认识了狼群。陈真的智慧和勇敢一直让蒙古人钦佩不已-不久后，他十分疼爱一个狼孩，这个狼孩由他养育。但是一场灾难不期而至，因为当中国人察觉到蒙古大草原人的经济潜力后，对于利益的贪婪和对于进步的盲目追求威胁着打破人与自然间几百年的平衡...--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tei Chiew-Siah<br />
From the English by Claudia Feldmann<br />
Droemer - ISBN 978-3-426-19823-0<br />
► China 1875: The small pavilion at the pond is the favorite place of the young Mingzhi. Finally he has a safehold, where he can prepare himself for the examination of Mandarin. By becoming an officicial he will fulfill the dream of his grandfather and give the family power and honor But strangers bring unrest into the country - and the eyes of a young woman confusion in Mingzhi's heart.<br />
<br />
德智秀<br />
《英语》作者：克劳迪娅·费尔德曼<br />
出版社：Droemer -ISBN 978-3-426-19823-0<br />
中国1875：小明志最喜欢的地方就是池塘边的小亭子。他终于有了一个安全的秘密基地，他可以在那儿准备普通话考试。要是成为了一名官员，他就能实现他祖父的梦想，给家庭带来权利和荣誉，但是陌生人却给这个国家带来了动荡-还给明志的心捎来了一双年轻女人困惑的眼眸。<br />
<br />
Emily Wu / Larry Engelmann<br />
<br />
Paperback Edition, Droemer - ISBN 978-3-426-78179-1<br />
► Emily Wu is still a child when Mao's cultural revolution throws her world into turmoil. As a daughter of a professor<br />
she must experience something unimaginable: Her family and she herself are again and again exposed to<br />
repressions and humiliations. Harassment, torture and rape are the order of the day. But with much courage and inventiveness, Emily succeeds in breasting her destiny<br />
and to win the daily struggle for survival. In the end she has matured in the years of terror – and finds a first love ...<br />
<br />
吴慧卿/拉里·恩格曼<br />
<br />
装帧：平装版，出版社：德勒默尔-ISBN 978-3-426-78179-1<br />
当毛泽东的文化革命把吴慧卿的世界推入深渊时，她还是一个小孩。作为一个教授的女儿，她一定经历一些难以想象的事情：她的家庭和她自己，一次又一次遭受打压、羞辱。骚扰、折磨和强奸是常事。但是凭借着极大的勇气和创造力，艾米丽为了生存成功地战胜了自己的命运和那些每日的艰难困苦。最终，她在恐怖的岁月里变得成熟-而且收获了自己的初恋. . .<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu<br />
From the Chinese by Anne Guder-Meng<br />
Ostasien Verlag - ISBN 978-3-940527-24-0<br />
► Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), a court official, who exceled as a historian, poet and essayist at the same time, belonged to the leading figures of the Song time (960-1279). In his Guitian lu,<br />
literally "notes after returning to the fields", he teases in a total of 116 anecdotes<br />
about current mischief at the imperial court and about the quirks of his colleagues at court. As a<br />
typical work of the genre "brushes" (biji) is here primarily an<br />
entertainment literature for the educated upper class given. But the attentive reader feels behind the subtle<br />
mockery the voice of the strict Confucian, who sets high standards on himself and on others and who sees the reason for the dysfunctions of his time especially in the misconduct of people in high<br />
positions. This book contains beside a first complete translation of the Guitian Lu into a Western language also the original, an introduction as well as numerous helpful comments for the text understanding..<br />
<br />
欧阳修<br />
安妮-古德曼的中文<br />
东亚出版社-ISBN 978-3-940527-24-0<br />
►欧阳修（1007-1072），法院官员，同时也是历史学件、诗人和散文家，是宋朝时期（960-1279）的先驱。在他的《归田录》里，字面意思就是“回到某处后再记录”，他记录了116件关于当时朝廷中的是非曲直以及其他同僚官员的怪癖轶事。<br />
作为笔记体的经典之作，《归田录》是给上层知识阶级的消闲读本。但是细心的读者却感到其微妙的背后来自严格的儒家嘲笑的声音，儒家为自身和其他学派、以及了解当朝衰败原因的人尤其是有较高地位却行为不正的人树立了高标准。<br />
这本书包含除了《归田录》第一版完整的西方语言译本之外，原本、简介以及大量帮助理解文本的有用评价...--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 16:27, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Lu<br />
From the Chinese by Anna Stecher and Zhang Weiyi<br />
Edition Raetia - ISBN 978-88-7283-305-6<br />
► "And I am dumb, can not tell the weather winds / How the time of stars ticks the sky."<br />
These lines of the poet Dylan Thomas are preceded in the novel by the Chinese author Xu Lu.<br />
It is precisely this poetic ticking of time – in Chinese Dida, similar to the onomatopoeicTicktack - that forms<br />
the background melody of this novel. Xu Lu tells the story of Weila, Di Xia, Yu Qian and Huo<br />
Yining, four young people, their experiences and dreams. The novel is characterized by<br />
overlapping Language Levels: Xu Lu tries to break through the tight cage of the Chinese language with a for<br />
the so-called "after-80s generation" (ba ling hou) typical mix of everyday language, literary language<br />
and youthful street slang. Thus language and content unite into a portrait of a generation that is loooking for identity - in a country in turmoil.<br />
<br />
徐路<br />
安娜·斯蒂彻和张维义的中文 <br />
雷掣出版社- ISBN 978-88-7283-305-6<br />
► “我无以名状天气和风/ 亦或天上星星滴答烁耀的时间。“<br />
中国作家徐路将诗人迪伦托马斯的这行诗句写进其小说的前序里。<br />
ticking of time在中文里准确地说是“时间的嘀嗒”，嘀嗒和ticktack一样，是拟声词——这奠定了整篇小说的背景基调。<br />
徐路将说了四位年轻人维拉、迪夏、于倩和霍伊宁的故事、经历和梦想。这部小说的特点是语言水平重叠：徐路想要挣脱所谓80后中文紧凑特点的束缚，融合当下时兴的文学语言和年轻的街头流行语。<br />
因此语言和内容的融合是在国家处于动荡时期时，想要证明自己的年轻一代的真实写照。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 16:27, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
Xu Zechen<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
Berlin Taschenbuch Verlag - ISBN 978-3-8333-0599-3<br />
► Dunhuang is in his mid-twenties. Driven by the dream of making big money in the capital<br />
he travels to Beijing. He joins a gang of document counterfeiters and works with his friend Baoding<br />
as a recruiter and deliverer on the street. The business is going well until they begin to be careless<br />
and the police arrests them. Three months later, Dunhuang comes free and goes once again to the bad. He gets to know the somewhat older Xiaorong, they sell DVD bootlegs, they<br />
have sex, then Xiaorong reconciles with her ex-boyfriend, and Dunhuang must battle his way alone.<br />
He sells porn and meets the pretty Qibao, they become a couple. But Qibao keeps an abundant eccentric life and is arrested ...<br />
<br />
Yan Lianke<br />
From the Chinese by Ulrich Kautz<br />
Taschenbuchausgabe, List, ISBN 978-35-4860-909-6<br />
► A brave soldier and the sex-hungry wife of a divisional commander reverve Maos China<br />
uncompromisingly their love and spark the most beautiful, crazy and wild counterrevolution<br />
of the People's Republic. Yan Lianke's novel became an easy prey for the censorship in China and got an international cult novel on the internet.<br />
<br />
Yang Jiang<br />
From the Chinese by Monika Motsch<br />
Schirmer Count<br />
► Yang Jian is the widow of the famous writer and scholar Qian Zhongshu (1910-<br />
1998). In her novel she portrays her life with Qian Zhongshu and the daughter of the two - up to<br />
her tragic death. But first, she describes the life of the three in a thrilling and humorous way:<br />
wedding, studying in Oxford and Paris, birth of the daughter, returning to China which ia occupied by Japan;<br />
then the founding of the PRC, Qian Zhongshu's work in the English translation committee of the works by<br />
Mao Zedongs, political campaigns and cultural revolution; Finally rehabilitation and seniority. Yang Jian<br />
not only illustrates impressively the development of the three main characters, but also the<br />
upheavals of the Chinese society into the 21st century.<br />
<br />
徐则臣，马克•赫尔曼译，柏林手抄报出版社-国际标准书号：978-3-8333-0599-3<br />
► 敦煌二十多岁。在赚大钱梦想的驱使下他来到了北京。他加入了一个伪造证件的团伙，和他的朋友保定负责街道招聘和配送工作。生意一直很好，直到他们粗心大意， 被警察逮捕。三个月后，敦煌被释放了，又一次堕落了。他认识了年纪有点大的小袖。他们售卖盗版DVD，并发生了关系。后来小袖和前男友复合，敦煌不得不一个人孤军奋战。他出售色情作品，遇见了善良的七宝，并成为了恋人。但是七宝生活十分怪异，也被捕了...<br />
<br />
阎连科，乌尔里希•考兹译，手册版-国际标准书号：978-35-4860-909-6<br />
► 一位勇敢的战士和一位性欲强的师长的妻子向往毛泽东时期的中国，对其产生了深沉的爱，激起了最美丽、疯狂的反革命情感。阎连科的小说很容易成为中国审查制度的牺牲品，变成国际邪教网络小说。<br />
<br />
杨绛，莫妮卡•莫奇译，希尔默伯爵<br />
► 杨绛是著名作家兼学者钱钟书（1910-1998）的妻子。她在小说中描绘了生前与钱钟书和女儿的生活。但首先，她用激动人心和幽默的方式描述了这三个人的生活：举行婚礼，在牛津和巴黎的学习，生女儿，回到被日本占领的中国，然后成立中华人民共和国，毛泽东在英文翻译委员会翻译钱钟书的作品，政治运动和文化大革命； 最后恢复名誉和衰老。 杨绛不仅描绘了三个令人印象深刻的主要人物的人生，而且见证了21世纪中国社会的剧变。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
徐则臣，马克•赫尔曼译，柏林手抄报出版社-国际标准书号：978-3-8333-0599-3<br />
► 敦煌二十多岁。为了赚大钱他来到了首都北京。他加入了一个伪造证件的团伙，和他的朋友保定一起在街上招人还有送货。生意一直很好，直到他们不小心被警察抓获。三个月后，敦煌被释放了，但他又一次堕落了。他认识了年纪有点大的小袖。他们售卖盗版DVD，并发生了关系。后来小袖和前男友复合，敦煌又变成了一个人。他继续出售色情作品，之后遇见了善良的七宝，并和她成为了恋人。但是七宝生活十分怪异，随后被捕。<br />
<br />
阎连科，乌尔里希•考兹译，手册版-国际标准书号：978-35-4860-909-6<br />
► 一位勇敢的战士和一位性欲很强的师长夫人向往毛泽东时期的中国，对其产生了深沉的爱，激起了最美丽、疯狂的反革命情感。阎连科的小说很容易成为中国审查制度的牺牲品，变成国际邪教网络小说。<br />
<br />
杨绛，莫妮卡•莫奇译，希尔默伯爵<br />
► 杨绛是著名作家兼学者钱钟书（1910-1998）的妻子。她在小说中描绘了生前与钱钟书和女儿的生活。但首先，她用激动人心和幽默的方式描述了这三个人的生活：举行婚礼，在牛津和巴黎的学习，生女儿，回到被日本占领的中国，然后成立中华人民共和国，毛泽东在英文翻译委员会翻译钱钟书的作品，政治运动和文化大革命； 最后恢复名誉和衰老。 杨绛不仅描绘了三个令人印象深刻的主要人物的人生，而且见证了21世纪中国社会的剧变。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 10:55, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Yang Lian<br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin and Karin Betz.<br />
Suhrkamp - ISBN 978-3-518-42121<br />
<br />
Yang Xianhui<br />
From the Chinese by Katrin Buchta.<br />
edition suhrkamp - ISBN 978-3-518-12591<br />
<br />
Yu Hua<br />
From the Chinese by Ulrich Kautz<br />
Fischer - ISBN 978-3-10-095803-7<br />
► Two brothers - two lives. Li is a clever businessman. He sells garbage and worn out<br />
suits from Japan. Li scoops up millions. Brother Song is prudent, an aesthete and eternal<br />
misadventurer. A bit too good for the modern China – the wild capitalism. But he also wants to share in the<br />
economic miracle. So he enlarges his breast surgically to sel a gel to the countrywomen which makes the breasts fuller. Brüder is the tragicomic story of Li and Song, who survive the horrors of the cultural revolution and try their luck in the new China.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jie<br />
From the Chinese by Eva Müller<br />
Unionsverlag<br />
<br />
杨莲，沃尔夫冈·库宾和卡琳·贝茨译（中译德），苏尔坎普出版社 -国际标准书号： 978-3-518-42121<br />
<br />
杨显惠，卡特林·布克塔译（中译德），苏尔坎普出版社 -国际标准书号： 978-3-518-12591<br />
<br />
余华，高力希译-国际标准书号：978-3-10-095803-7 ►《兄弟》-两种不同人生。李光头是一个聪明的商人，他倒卖日本来的废物和旧西服，并因此赚的腰缠万贯。而宋岗谨慎细微，是一个唯美主义者，也是一个永远的不幸者。这一角色对于现代中国-疯狂的资本主义来说，太过于美好。但是他也想在这一场经济奇迹中分一杯羹，于是他自己做了丰胸手术去卖丰乳霜。《兄弟》描述了李光头和宋岗两兄弟的悲惨故事，他们一边在文化大革命的恐怖之中谋求生存，一边在新中国碰碰运气。<br />
<br />
张杰，梅薏华译（中译德），联合出版社--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 03:54, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
杨莲，沃尔夫冈·库宾和卡琳·贝茨译（中译德）<br />
苏尔坎普出版社 -ISBN 978-3-518-42121<br />
<br />
杨显惠，卡特林·布克塔译（中译德）<br />
苏尔坎普出版社 -ISBN 978-3-518-12591<br />
<br />
余华，高力希译-ISBN 978-3-10-095803-7 <br />
►《兄弟》-两种人生。李光头是一个精明的商人，他废品和日本旧西服，并因此赚的腰缠万贯。而宋岗谨慎细微，是一个唯美主义者，也是一个永远的不幸者。他的理想对于现代中国-疯狂的资本主义来说，显得太过于美好，有些格格不入。但是他也想在这一场经济奇迹中分一杯羹，于是他自己做了丰胸手术去卖丰乳霜。《兄弟》描述了李光头和宋岗两兄弟的悲惨故事，他们在文化大革命的恐怖之中生存下来，在新中国做生意碰运气。<br />
<br />
<br />
张杰，梅薏华译（中译德）<br />
联合出版社<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Zhu Wen<br />
From the Chinese by Frank Meinshausen<br />
A1-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-940666-07-9<br />
► Six stories about the modern China: laconic, with wit and sarcasm, Zhu Wen draws<br />
the image of a Chinese society that is caught between communism and capitalism<br />
in which all values and securities begin to totter.<br />
A boat trip on the Yangzi, which is ill-starred from the beginning. Meanwhile the first-person narrator feels without his assistance imperiled in Kafkaesque manner to the arbitrariness of new people; a factory worker who accidentally gets caught in the clutches of a mafiaous family, which accuses him that he bumped with a bicycle into their grandfather; a young man, who is compelled by the family of a friend to keep night watch at the sickbed of the freshly operated father.<br />
Unexpectedly he is exposed to the whims of the father and to the apparatus of a ramshackled, profit-oriented hospital; or the first-person narrator in the title story, a luckless writer in a Chinese<br />
provincial town, who gets a visit from his father and wants to make him a few nice days, in fact<br />
with the things that are most important for him in his own life: money and sex.<br />
<br />
朱文<br />
富兰克 麦恩绍泽译（德译中） A1出版社 国际标准图书号978-3-940666-07-9<br />
关于当代中国的六个故事：朱文以简洁机智和讽刺的的手法描绘了一个中国社会形象,这个社会既存在资本主义又存在社会主义，所有的价值观和信任观都开始崩塌。扬子江上的航行,开头是悲惨的。与此同时，没有他的协助主人公在卡夫卡式的随意性上是做得不好的，一位工人无意间被黑手党家庭抓住，指责他骑自行车撞倒了他们的祖父。一位年轻人被朋友的家人逼着为刚刚做完手术的父亲守夜，他无意中发现父亲的任性、一个摇摇欲坠的家庭和唯利是图的医院。题名的主人公的故事:一个悲惨的中国省城作家，他的父亲来看望他，并希望同他度过一些愉快的日子，但事实上是与他生命中最重要的钱与性过日子。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:37, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
朱文 ,富兰克·梅恩绍森译，A1出版社-国际标准图书号：978-3-940666-07-9<br />
►当代中国的六个故事：朱文用简洁、讽刺的手法描述了一个中国社会形象。这里资本主义和社会主义并存，所有的价值观和信任观都开始崩塌。长江之游是悲剧的开始。与此同时，没有他的帮助第一人称叙述者很难描绘对新人的蛮横刁难；一位工人无意间被黑手党抓住，并被指控骑自行车撞倒了他们的祖父；一位年轻人被朋友的家人逼着为刚刚做完手术的父亲守夜。他无意中发现了父亲奇怪的想法和一家唯利是图的医院。标题所讲故事中的第一人称叙述者是来自一个中国省城的悲剧作家。他的父亲来看望他，想和他过几天好日子。但是对于作家来说生活中最重要的是钱和性欲。<br />
--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱文 富兰克 麦恩绍泽译（中译德）A1出版社 国际标准图书号978-3-940666-07-9 <br />
六个有关现代中国的故事：朱文以简洁机智和讽刺的的手法描绘了一个中国社会的形象，既有资本主义又有社会主义。在这个社会中所有的价值观和安全感都开始崩塌。长江之游是悲剧的开始。与此同时，没有他的帮助第一人称叙述者很难描绘对新人的蛮横刁难<br />
。一个工厂工人不小心被一个黑手党家庭抓住，他们指责他骑自行车撞到了他们的祖父;一个年轻人被一个朋友的家人给强迫，让他来给刚动完手术的生病的父亲守夜。他无意中得知了父亲的妄想和医院摇摇欲坠、唯利是图的本质;标题所讲故事中的第一人称叙述者是住在中国一个偏远小镇的不幸作家，他的父亲来拜访他，想和他过几天好日子。但是对于作家来说生活中最重要的是钱和性。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 04:24, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Zhu Xiao-Mei<br />
From the French of Anna Kamp<br />
Kunstmann - ISBN 978-3-88897-557-8<br />
► Beijing 1966: The musical genius kid Zhu Xiao-Mei is a great career as a Concert pianist predicted. But while Xiao-Mei is studying at the Conservatory,<br />
the Cultural revolution is starting. The cosmopolitan and culture loving Zhu family is suddenly considered as "bourgeois"<br />
which means in Mao's new China decadent, dangerous, counterrevolutionary. The young girl witnesses bewilderedly how notes get burned, her teachers get publicly humiliated, even executed. No student<br />
Can escape the force for denunciation and permanent self-criticism.<br />
Like all her classmates and relatives, Xiao-Mei is sent to a labor camp, spends five<br />
years of unimaginable hardship in a no-man’s-land on the edge of Mongolia. After years without music<br />
she discovers an old accordion in the camp, hesitantly hits a few keys. A melody is rising<br />
and with it the hope for another life.<br />
Now nothing can stop her: she puchases a piano, exercises like a possessed, flees from the camp<br />
to Beijing, finally arrives abroad after Isaac Stern's Chinatournee. Ten years takes her<br />
adventurous odyssey via Hong Kong, Los Angeles and Boston until she finally becomes in Paris an<br />
internationally acclaimed pianist and Bach interpreter.<br />
<br />
Anthologies<br />
Olga Barrio Jiménez / Eva Schestag (Eds.)<br />
A collection of Chinese classics. Volume I - IV<br />
Translated from the Chinese by Manfred Porkert<br />
Fischer<br />
► The Chinese literature is one of the oldest and richest literatures of the world. In four volumes and with numerous retranslations the collection of Chinese classics provides in its form a unprecedented panorama of the classical Chinese literature, poetry and novels in German.<br />
<br />
朱晓玫<br />
来自法国的坎普<br />
艺术家 国际标准书号978-3-8897-57-57-8<br />
► 北京 1966： 正如一位钢琴音乐家所预言，朱晓玫是一个音乐神童。但是当晓玫在音乐学院学习的时候，文化大革命开始了。胸怀世界，热爱文化的朱家突然被视为“资产阶级”，这在毛泽东当政的新中国被认为是腐朽的，危险的，反革命的。这个年轻的女孩困惑的目睹了自己的笔记本被烧毁，她的老师们被公开羞辱，甚至被处决。任何学生都逃不脱谴责和无尽的自我批评。和她所有同学和亲戚一样，晓玫被送到了劳教所，在蒙古边缘的无人地带度过了五年难以想象的艰苦生活。多年没有接触过音乐，后来她在劳教所里发现了一把旧手风琴。她犹豫地按了几个键，空气中升起了一段旋律，随之升起的是对往生的希望。现在，没有什么能够阻止她：她一逮到钢琴就像着了魔似的练习。她从劳教所逃到北京，最终又跟随艾萨克斯特恩的《唐人街》来到国外。她的冒险经历长达十年，途经香港，洛杉矶和波士顿，最终在巴黎成为国际知名钢琴家巴赫的翻译。<br />
<br />
选集<br />
奥尔加·巴里奥·希门内斯/伊娃·施塔格（编辑）<br />
《中国古典名著集》。第一卷至第四卷<br />
曼弗雷德·波克特·菲舍尔译自中文<br />
►中国文学是世界上最古老、最丰富的文学之一。《中国古典名著集》共分四卷，经多次重译，以前所未有的方式用德语展示了中国古典文学、诗歌和小说的全貌。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:11, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Benjamin et al.<br />
Tokyopop - ISBN 978-3-86719-738-0<br />
► 10 Chinese comic artists have got together to convey their<br />
sight of Beijing in word and image in a joint book. The approaches to the subject are very different, graphically extraordinarily diverse and always very personal.<br />
<br />
Alice Grünfelder (Eds.)<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00406-1<br />
► Texts by Tibetan writers of the younger generation: Alai, Jamyang, Taering Oser,<br />
Tenzin Tsundue et al.<br />
<br />
Volker Klöpsch (eds.)<br />
insel taschenbuch - ISBN 978-3-458-35117-7<br />
► A butterfly in the bamboo holt, a rain of fragrant peach blossoms, shimmering jade in the moonlight<br />
- in images full of grace and poetry, the great Chinese masters extol the beloved. The<br />
present selection gathers the most beautiful poems from three thousand years. They are partially<br />
presented in German translation for the first time.<br />
Classical Chinese tales and stories<br />
Insel<br />
<br />
Liu Hsiang<br />
4 volumes<br />
From the Chinese by Hans Stumpfeldt<br />
Ostasien Verlag ISBN 978-3-940527-20, 978-3-940527-20-2, 978-3-940527-21-9, 978-3-940527-22-6<br />
► The Shuo-yüan is an early work of the Chinese narrative literature, which is here for the first time in a<br />
Translation into a Western language. It contains more than six hundred stories that are assembled after ethical-moral<br />
criteria by the librarian and archivist Liu Hsiang (79-8 BC). The stories are taken from a large number of earlier works. Many of them dropped out early from the written tardition To each of the twenty chapters an introduction will be attached.<br />
<br />
本杰明等，Tokyopop（日本著名出版社）-国际标准书号 978-3-86719-738-0<br />
► 10个中国漫画家联合创作、汇聚成书，用文字和图画来描绘他们眼中的北京。这种形式是不同寻常、千姿百态而又极具个人色彩的。<br />
<br />
爱丽丝 戈伦斐德（编辑），联合出版社-国际标准书号 978-3-293-00406-1<br />
► 来自年轻一代西藏作家的文字：阿莱，嘉央诺布， 达林奥泽，丹增尊珠等等<br />
<br />
福尔克尔 克勒普夫科（编辑），因泽儿出版社-国际标准书号-978-3-458-35117-7<br />
►竹林中的一只蝴蝶，桃花落英缤纷，香气四泄，月光下闪闪发亮的翡翠<br />
-中国大师们用充满诗意和优雅气质的意象歌颂挚爱。现有诗歌选集收录了三千年来中国古代最优美的诗歌。其中部分首次出现德语译本。<br />
经典中国传说故事<br />
因泽尔<br />
<br />
刘向<br />
4卷<br />
司徒汉选自中文<br />
东亚出版社 国际标准书号-978-3-940527-20, 978-3-940527-20-2, 978-3-940527-21-9, 978-3-940527-22-6<br />
《说苑》是中国叙述文学的一部早期作品，在此首次译作西方语言。该书包含了600多个道德准则故事，由图书、档案管理家刘向收录编辑而成。许多故事早已经偏离了书面传统，其中每二十章都附有介绍。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:57, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
Li Jingze / Jing Bartz (eds.)<br />
From the Chinese by Hanne Chen, Johannes Fiederling, Karin Hasselblatt, Marc Hermann, Ulrich<br />
Kautz, Irmy Schweiger<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-00-5<br />
► China is on the road, in turmoil and departure. Common certainties are shaken, conventions<br />
dissolve themselves. The present stories capture this dynamism that can hardly be hold in place. The ten<br />
Authors live in China and are also the inhabitants of a globalized world. This dynamic makes<br />
the stories so thrilling and accessible to Western readers.<br />
Broadly being spared from the trauma of the Mao period, the young authors keep pace with the times:<br />
unagitated, entertaining, and ironic, without a wagging finger and without false nostalgia, but<br />
even without the transfiguration of the gold-rush mood, that we, in the West, so gladly associate with today's China. In their very individual way they hold up a mirror to China.<br />
<br />
Li Jingze / Jing Bartz (eds.)<br />
E-book.<br />
DIX Verlag - ISBN 978-3-941651-02-9<br />
<br />
Christian Lux / Hans-Joachim Simm (eds.)<br />
Inael ISBN 978-3-458-17418-9<br />
► The Insel-Almanach for the year 2009 gives with exemplarily texts an overview on the Chinese literature in the past and present. In addition to that there are images, that convey an impression on <br />
Chinese art and calligraphy.<br />
李静泽/静巴茨编<br />
《来自中国》作者:陈汉，约翰内斯·费德尔林，卡琳·哈塞尔伯拉特，马克·赫尔曼，乌尔里希·考茨克，伊尔米·施威格 <br />
出版社名, ISBN 978-3-941651-00-5<br />
►中国正在前进，处于动荡和背离之中。共同的确定性被动摇了，传统自我消解了。现在的故事捕捉到了这种几乎无法保持的活力。这十位作者生活在中国，也是全球化世界的居民。这种动态使得故事对西方读者来说如此扣人心弦和平易近人。<br />
这些年轻的作者基本上没有受到毛泽东时代的创伤，他们与时代同步:平静、有趣、讽刺，没有摇手指，也没有虚假的怀旧，但是即使没有“淘金热”情绪的改变，我们西方人也乐于将其与当今的中国联系在一起。他们以自己独特的方式为中国树立了一面镜子。<br />
李静泽/静巴茨编<br />
电子书。<br />
出版社名 - ISBN 978-3-941651-02-9<br />
克里斯蒂安·卢克斯 / 汉斯-约阿希姆·西姆（eds）<br />
国际标准书号978-3-458-17418-9<br />
《2009年中国年鉴》以典型的文本概述了过去和现在的中国文学。除此之外，还有一些图像，它们传达了对中国艺术和书法的印象。<br />
--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 03:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
Frank Meinshausen / Anne Rademacher (eds.)<br />
dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-13770-6<br />
► The everyday life in the metropolises and in the province, the life in the homeland and in the emigration,<br />
family ties, friendships and love relationships, deep–rooted traditions and dreams of<br />
a self-determined future - the stories of contemporary Chinese authors are so<br />
diverse and dynamic like the Middle Kingdom itself.<br />
The stories by Fan Wu, Qi Ge, Yiyun Li, Ma Jian, Wu Chenjun, Xiaolu Guo, Sheng Keyi, Ha Jin, Li Dawei, Luo Lingyuan, Li Er and Zhu Wen. Mo Yan, Alai, Ye Zhaoyan, Li Feng, Feng Jicai. Short stories from China. Bilingual German-Chinese<br />
From the Chinese by Karin Hasselblatt and Katrin Buchta<br />
Chinabooks - ISBN 978-3-905816-19-8<br />
<br />
Alexander Saechtig (eds.)<br />
Weimar Schiller-Presse - ISBN 978-3-8372-0337-0<br />
<br />
Helga Sönnichsen (eds.)<br />
Ostasien Verlag - ISBN 978-3-940527-16-5<br />
So writes the author of the in<br />
this volume gathered poetry translations in her introduction. The poem translations are joined by the particular Chinese originals, but they are also accompanied by carefully<br />
selected pictorial material from the time the texts come from.<br />
<br />
<br />
弗兰克·梅恩斯豪森/安妮·拉德玛彻 <br />
数字电视-国际标准书号 978-3-423-13770-6<br />
►在大都市和省内的日常生活，在家乡和移民后的生活，亲情，友谊和爱情，根深蒂固的传统和自主选择的未来的梦想-当代中国作家的故事就是这样多样而又充满活力，就像中国一样。范武、齐歌、李依云、马健、吴辰君、郭小璐、盛可颐、哈金、李大为、罗玲媛、李尔、朱文。莫言、阿来、叶兆言、李峰、冯骥才。中国短篇小说。汉德双语汉译：Karin Hasselblatt和Katrin Buchta<br />
Chinabooks-国际标准书号 978-3-905816-19-8<br />
<br />
Alexander Saechtig（编辑）<br />
魏玛席勒出版社-国际标准书号 978-3-8372-0337-0<br />
<br />
Helga Sönnichsen（编辑）<br />
Ostasien Verlag-国际标准书号978-3-940527-16-5<br />
所以这本书的作者在她的介绍中收集了诗歌翻译。诗歌翻译与特定的中文原著连接，创造文本的同时还精心挑选了辅助的图片资料。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:28, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao yining<br />
<br />
<br />
弗兰克·梅恩斯豪森/安妮·拉德玛彻 <br />
数字电视-国际标准书号 978-3-423-13770-6<br />
►在大都市和省内的日常生活，在家乡和移民后的生活，亲情，友谊和爱情，根深蒂固的传统和自主选择的未来的梦想-当代中国作家的故事就是这样多样而又充满活力，就像中国一样。范武、齐歌、李依云、马健、吴辰君、郭小璐、盛可颐、哈金、李大为、罗玲媛、李尔、朱文。莫言、阿来、叶兆言、李峰、冯骥才。中国短篇小说。汉德双语汉译：卡琳·哈塞尔布拉特和卡特林·布赫塔<br />
中华图书城-国际标准书号 978-3-905816-19-8<br />
<br />
亚历山大·赛奇蒂格（编辑）<br />
魏玛席勒出版社-国际标准书号 978-3-8372-0337-0<br />
<br />
赫尔加·塞尼希森（编辑）<br />
Ostasien Verlag-国际标准书号978-3-940527-16-5<br />
这样写道，这本书的作者在她的引言中收集了诗歌翻译。这些诗歌的翻译是由特定的中文原著组成的，但它们文本中也伴随着精心挑选的图片材料。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 03:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
Hans Stumpfeldt (eds.)<br />
Ostasien Verlag - ISBN 978-3-940527-18-9<br />
► The Han period (208 BC - 220 AD) was an epoch in which fundamental historical and philosophical traditions were originated.<br />
It is less known that it was also the May of the Chinese poetry. This volume brings together a selection of poems that were written by members of the most diverse classes, and which still appeal in their beauty and meaningfulness to the present reader. The poems are presented with the particular original text and embedded in its historical, cultural and literary context.<br />
<br />
Hans Stumpfeldt（编辑）<br />
Ostasien Verlag-国际标准书号978-3-940527-18-9<br />
► 汉朝(公元前208年至公元220年)是基本历史和哲学传统形成的时期。<br />
鲜为人知的是，汉朝是中国诗歌的五月。这个时期汇集的诗歌，由最多样化的阶级成员书写，其优美和内涵仍旧吸引着现在的读者。这些诗都以独特的文本呈现并根植于当时的历史、文化和文学之中。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:21, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Richard Wilhelm (eds.)<br />
Marix - ISBN 978-3-86539-201-5<br />
► One hundred fairy tales from the Middle Kingdom that reveal us more about Chinese thinking and feeling than the most academic treatises. This probably most famous collection of Chinese folktales was written down by Richard Wilhelm in Tsingtau in a long patient translating work. It is a whole cosmos of fairytale poetry: fairy tales and legends about gods, stories of saints and sorcerers, of natural and animal spirits, also ghost stories, historical legends and finally literary refined fairy tales like that of the monkey Sun Wu Kung, which plays through the mythological motifs and is filled with smiling humor. Soon we will be enchanted by Moon Fairy and Queen of Heaven, soon we will get to know Confucius, Laotse and the eight immortals. We experienced fantastic things about the spirits of the yellow river, the sect of the white lotus, the Monk at the Yangtsekiang.<br />
<br />
Richard Wilhelm（编辑）<br />
Marix-国际标准书号978-3-86539-201-5<br />
► 中国的一百个童话故事比大多数学术论文更能向我们展示中国人的思想和情感。这本可能是中国最著名的中国民间故事集，由理查德·威廉在青岛历史很久翻译而成。这是整个宇宙的童话诗，包括童话和神的传说、圣人和巫师、自然和动物、鬼故事、历史传说和古典童话，比如孙悟空这个形象既充满了神话色彩又幽默诙谐。通过这些故事，我们迅速迷上嫦娥和女娲,迅速了解孔子、老子和八仙。对于河伯、白莲宗、法海的奇遇，我们感同身受。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:21, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Children’s and young people’s books<br />
Cui Aner<br />
Ueberreuter - ISBN 978-3-8000-5503-6<br />
► Chi You, the spirit of evil, has invaded the Dragonland where the people live. Just<br />
one can save them: Shaodian, a chosen young sage. Together with a warrior, a<br />
historian and a magician, he begins to search for the Great Dragon, the keeper of the people.<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong<br />
From the French by Tobias Scheffel<br />
► The small Chen grows well-guarded with two sisters at his parents and grandparents in a<br />
city in the north of China. When Mao proclaims the Cultural Revolution in 1966, life changes:<br />
people are arrested and books burned. The family has little to eat. At school<br />
the teachers swear their students on the principles of Mao. Also Chen becomes a small red guard and<br />
proudly wears the red armband. One day the father receives a letter, which tells him that he has to go in a reeducation camp near the Russian border. The family hears just seldom of<br />
him. It is only after Mao's death in 1976 that the father can return.<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong<br />
Lian<br />
2. Edition, Moritz - ISBN 978-3-89565-184-7<br />
► Because there were just a few fish this year, Lo, the fisherman, is sad. One day he receives from<br />
an very old woman in gratitude for bringing her in a terrible thunderstorm to the other shore of the lake, some lotus seeds. They are very special seeds, because they come from a throat of a dragon. Lo puts them in the earth and overnight a whole lotus field blooms. From one flower comes one<br />
little girl out - Lian. She is also very special, because she has a wonderful talent: Everything she touches with her magic lotus is transformed into treasures. But this evokes promptly<br />
the greed of the daughter of the Prefect...<br />
<br />
儿童书籍和青少年读本Cui Aner Ueberreuter-ISBN 978-3-8000-5503-6►邪恶的精神智友入侵了人们居住的龙之地。只有一个人可以拯救他们：少店，一位年轻的圣人。他与一个战士，一个历史学家和一个魔术师一起开始寻找人民的守护者大龙。<br />
<br />
陈江洪来自法国的作家Tobias Scheffel►在中国北方一个城市，小陈有两个姐姐在父母和祖父母的保护下长得很好。毛泽东在1966年宣布文化大革命时，生活发生了变化：人们被捕，书籍被焚毁。这个家庭几乎没饭吃。在学校，老师们以毛泽东的原则向学生发誓。陈也成为一个小的红卫兵，并自豪地戴着红色袖标。父亲有一天收到一封信，告诉他必须去俄罗斯边境附近的一个教育营。家人很少听到他的声音。只有在毛于1976年去世后，父亲才能返回。<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong Lian 2.版，莫里茨-ISBN 978-3-89565-184-7►因为今年只有几条鱼，所以渔夫罗（Lo）感到很难过。有一天，他收到一位老妇人的谢意，感谢她将一场可怕的雷暴把一些莲子带到湖的另一岸。它们是非常特殊的种子，因为它们来自龙的喉咙。罗把它们放在地上，一夜之间，整个莲花田都盛开了。一朵小花从一个花朵里出来-莲。她也很特别，因为她拥有出色的才华：她与魔莲花接触的一切都变成了宝藏。但这立刻引起了州长女儿的贪婪...--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 13:49, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong<br />
Translated by: Erika and Karl A. Klewer<br />
Beltz & Gelberg - ISBN 978-3-407-76075-3<br />
► The history of the painter Han Gan from the 8th century has Chen Jianghong inspired to this picture book. He lived in China and only painted horses. Like Han Gan also Chen painted his pictures on silk.<br />
Spoken by Barbara Nüsse<br />
Jumbo Neue Medien - ISBN 978-3-8337-2420-6<br />
<br />
陈江洪创作这本画册起初是因为受到了公元8世纪的画家韩干的启发。韩干住在中国，只画马。像韩干一样，陈江洪也在丝绸上作画。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:09, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
历史上，于八世纪，有个画家叫韩干，受其启发，陈江洪创作了这本画册。韩干居住在中国，而且他只画马。而陈江洪也像他一样，在丝绸上作画。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:21, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Daiealu<br />
edition nove - ISBN 978-3-85251-619-6<br />
<br />
Kate Dargaw / Igor Oleynikov<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-40-1<br />
► Regularly at the beginning of the year, the Nian monster awakens in the sea, rises ashore and strikes everything<br />
it catches with itself: man and beast. Therefore, the villagers bundle their belongings together and<br />
flee into the mountains as soon as they hear its rumbling. Grandmother and grandson do not accomplish to escape<br />
and hide in the back of the house, they hold doors and windows ight locked. A beggar comes in search of something edible and wonders about<br />
the abandoned village. Of course, grandmother and her grandson share with him. And then he even has an idea,<br />
how to banish the monster: forever!<br />
For the returning villagers this is a miracle. That is why today the Chinese still celebrate their<br />
New Year's festival as the beggar showed it.<br />
<br />
通常，在新年之初，年兽会在大海中觉醒，跃至岸上，攻击它能抓到的一切事物，包括人和兽。因此，一听到年兽的咆哮，村民们就收拾东西逃到山里。奶奶和孙子没有跟着逃跑，他们躲在屋子后面，把门窗关得紧紧的。一个乞丐过来村里讨吃食，对这里荒凉的景象感到纳闷儿。从奶奶和孙子那里得知原因之后，他想到了一个办法，可以让年兽永远消失。<br />
年兽不见了，对回村的居民来说，这简直是天大的好事。因此，时至今日，中国人仍会庆祝春节。 --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:09, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
通常，于年初，年兽会在海中觉醒，跃至岸上，逮着什么，攻击什么，人兽无一幸免。因此，村民们一听到年兽咆哮，就赶紧匆忙收拾，逃去山里。有位祖母和孙子没能成功逃走，只好躲在房屋后面，把门窗死死锁住。有位乞丐边讨食边流浪到了这个废弃的村庄。祖孙俩便给了食物给他。后来，他竟然想了个主意，能驱逐年兽，让它永远进不来！这对回村的居民来说，可真是奇迹出现。这就是为什么直到今天，中国人还是会像那位乞丐所展示的那样，来庆祝春节。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:43, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Kate Dargaw / Igor Oleynikov<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-41-8<br />
► The Chinese count the years after 12 animals. Just why mouse, ox, tiger, bunny, dragon,<br />
snake, horse, goat, monkey, rooster, dog and pig? Well, these are the big winners of the<br />
Imperial race. But it was not that easy to be one of the chosen ones! The race, that<br />
the Jade Emperor proclaims, will be a thrill for all participants. And because the mouse went flagrantly behind the cat’s back, today the two are enemies in all countries of the world!<br />
<br />
K.T. Hao / Giuliano Ferri<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-42-5<br />
► Dubai can absolutely not fall asleep. What a luck the little elephant got a<br />
Magic book as a gift. Since then he has been sleeping well and has the sweetest dreams - at least until he is scared that this treasure could get lost. No stash seems <br />
secure enough to him now. He climbs higher and higher. But that is not the solution. And then it happens: one day<br />
his book is gone. But because it's a magic book ...<br />
<br />
<br />
刘嘉路（文）/伊戈尔·欧尼可夫（图） 马海默（中译德）出版社：DIX Verlag 国际标准书号 978-3-941651-41-8►中国人用十二生肖来计算年份。为什么刚好是鼠，牛，虎，兔，龙，蛇，马，羊，猴，鸡，狗和猪呢？其实，他们都是玉皇大帝举行的渡河大赛赢家。但是要成为十二名中的一员并不简单！玉皇大帝称，渡河比赛将让所有参赛者兴奋。而且因为老鼠悄无声息地跟在了猫的背后，至今这两种动物在全世界的任何国家都还是彼此的敌人。<br />
郝广才（文）/朱里安诺•费里（图） 马海默（中译德）出版社：DIX Verlag 国际标准书号： 978-3-941651-42-5 ►大象嘟宝怎么也睡不好，幸运的是，他获得了一本魔法书。自那之后嘟宝睡得又香又甜，还做着美梦。嘟宝把这本书当作宝贝，心里害怕着它会丢失。他觉得现在似乎没有一个隐秘处能够藏好这本魔法书，于是越爬越高，但这终究也不是个办法。接着，嘟宝担心的事情发生了，魔法书不见了，正巧是因为这是一本魔法书。<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 10:25, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凯特·达格/伊戈尔·奥利尼科夫，马克·赫尔曼·迪克斯图书（中译德）-国际标准图书编号：978-3-941651-41-8 ► 中国人用12种动物算年份。为什么就是老鼠，牛，老虎，兔子，龙，蛇，马，山羊，猴子，公鸡，狗和猪呢？因为这些动物都是宫廷比赛的大赢家。然而要被选中为十二生肖的其中一员可不是那么容易的事！玉皇大帝宣布，这场比赛将会令所有参赛者兴奋不已。而且因为老鼠公然躲在猫的背后，至今这两个在世界各国都还是敌人！<br />
K.T. Hao /朱里亚诺•费里，马克·赫尔曼·迪克斯图书（中译德）-国际标准图书编号：978-3-941651-42-5 ► 小象迪拜整晚都失眠，幸运的他得到了一个礼物：一本魔法书。自那以后迪拜就一直睡得很好，还做着美梦。直到他开始害怕失去这个宝贝。他现在觉得无论魔法书藏在哪里都不够安全。为了藏好它，迪拜就越爬越高，但这终究也不是个办法。接着，迪拜害怕的事情发生了，一天他的魔法书不见了，而这正是因为这是一本魔法书。 --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-72-2<br />
► Lilli would never have thought that a visit to the Chinese restaurant could be so exciting! The mysterious restaurant owner Mr. Wang and his strange fat cat Dr. Fu dedicate divulge a secret to her. Through a charmed mirror she enters a magical world, where dragons and other fabulous beasts are living.<br />
She becomes friends with a little dragon, and when her mother travels with her through China, the Dragon is always secretly by her side And so the adventure begins, because a gang of robbers. who steal dragons aim for Lilli’s cocky, poodle-sized dragon friend ...<br />
<br />
作者：马克•赫尔曼；出版社：DIX Verlag ISBN 978-3-941651-72-2<br />
莉莉（Lilli）怎么也没想到这次中国饭店之行会如此有趣！神秘的饭店老板王先生和他奇怪的肥猫，名叫福博士，向她透露了一个秘密。她穿过一面诱人的镜子，来到一个魔法世界，这里生活着龙还有一些传说中的野兽。她和一条小龙成为了朋友，她和妈妈在中国旅行时，这条小龙一直悄悄地陪着她。莉莉的这个小龙朋友，犬般大小，平时无拘无束，引起了一伙盗龙劫匪的注意。冒险自此展开……--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 15:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Max Kruse and Marlies Rieper-Bastian<br />
Ueberreuter - ISBN 978-3-219-11372-3<br />
► When Kathi's father reveals to the family that they will live for a while in China, the girl is<br />
clueless. However in the night, she receives a visit from the friendly Dragon Lung Kuan, who takes her on a<br />
journey to the far country. This is how Kathi gets to know great secrets and small differences ...<br />
<br />
作者：马克斯•克鲁斯＆玛丽斯•莱德<br />
凯西（Kathi）的爸爸告诉家人，他们将在中国住一段时间，对此凯西毫不知情。然而就在晚上，她的龙朋友宽龙过来看她，并带她去到一个遥远的国度。凯西得以了解一些巨大的秘密和微小的差异。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 15:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
爸爸跟家人说，他们将在中国待一段时间，此时的凯西还全然不知。到了晚上，“宽龙”来看她，这是一只友好的龙。它带凯西去了另一个遥远的国度，凯西因此知道了一些大秘密并察觉到了一些小变化。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:32, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Maximilian Paulin<br />
Translated by: Susanne Wechdorn<br />
Tyrolia - ISBN 978-3-7022-2905-4<br />
► Telling strange people in strange countries something about God? Today thats still a great challenge. 150 years ago a boy from a small village between the mountains of South Tyrol <br />
felt this wish deep in his heart: Josef Freinademetz from Oies. After he became a priest, he joined the Steyler missionaries and went to China. Because the Europeans wanted<br />
to establish there their rule and become rich. For sure the Chinese had understandably no pleasure with that. Josef must discover a lot of disappointments. But he does not give up. And when he is loosing his last forces,<br />
he suddenly finds out that there is still someone on his side:<br />
Fuschu. A small and very real Chinese dragon! Whether that can help him to understand the Chinese?<br />
<br />
Marie Th. Schins<br />
Sauerländer - ISBN 978-3-7941-6150-8<br />
► When the 12-year-old Siong lands with a loud bang in the pitch-black cellar of a hotel somewhere in Hong Kong, he suspects that this journey through China will be quite exciting.<br />
In addition to his adventurous grandpa, his friends Lee and the (not always) lovely<br />
Litju accompany him . Together, they travel from the gigantic skyscraper city to Beijing,<br />
Shanghai, the Great Wall, Chengde and Hainan Island. Siong is stunned by this<br />
Versatile, difficult to access culture with its moving history.<br />
马克西米利安·波林，翻译者：苏珊娜·魏希顿·蒂罗里亚 - ISBN 978-3-7022-2905-4 和陌生国度的陌生人谈论上帝的事？在今天这仍然是一个很大的挑战。150年前，在南蒂罗尔群山之中的一个小村庄中，有一个小男孩，他心中深深地怀着这个愿望：约瑟夫·弗赖纳德梅茨，来自奥伊斯。在他成为牧师之后，加入了斯特尔传教士，之后前往中国。由于欧洲人想在中国建立自己的统治并且致富。中国人自然不会因此而感到开心。约瑟夫想必目睹了许多令人失望的事情，但他却仍未放弃。在他用尽自己最后的力量时，他突然发现还是有人站在他这一边的：福初，一只小巧真切的中国龙！到底福初能否帮助他理解中国人呢？<br />
玛丽·史金斯·萨兰德- ISBN 978-3-7941-6150-8 随着一声巨响，12岁的松来到了香港某处一家宾馆漆黑的地窖里。他猜想这趟中国行一定十分精彩。除了他充满冒险精神的爷爷，他的朋友李以及可爱的李菊也随他同行。他们一起，从大厦林立的香港前往北京，上海，登上长城，去到承德，海南岛。这些丰富的，难以接触到的文化，以及动人的历史故事让松感到深深的震撼。<br />
--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 14:50, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
马克西米利安·波林 <br />
翻译：苏珊·韦登·特罗里亚<br />
-ISBN 978-3-7022-2905-4<br />
►告诉陌生国家的陌生人一些关于上帝的事情？今天，这仍然是一个巨大的挑战。150年前，在南蒂罗尔山脉之间的一个小村庄里，有一个男孩深深地怀揣着这个愿望：来自奥伊斯的约瑟夫·弗赖纳德梅茨。成为牧师后，他加入了斯特尔传教士，并前往了中国。因为欧洲人想在那里建立自己的统治并致富，中国人显然对此并不高兴。约瑟夫无可奈何地经历了许多让他失望的事情。但是他并没有放弃。当他精疲力尽的时刻，突然发现还有人和他并肩作战：福初，一条小巧真诚的中国龙！福初是否真的可以帮助他理解中国人呢？<br />
玛丽·史金斯·萨兰德<br />
-ISBN 978-3-7941-6150-8<br />
►伴随一声轰鸣，12岁的松进入了香港某酒店的一个漆黑地窖之中，他预想这次中国之旅一定会非常刺激。除了他爱冒险的爷爷之外，还有他的朋友李和（并非总是）可爱的李菊陪他一起。他们一起从高楼林立的香港前往北京，上海，去了长城，承德和海南岛。 松被这种缤纷多彩，难以捉摸的文化及其动人的历史震撼到了。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:10, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
Yang Hongying [list place 7, children’s writer]<br />
Translated by: Ulrike Lotz.<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12660-4<br />
► It is winter and the Jade Lake Park is not busy. Until two strange dogs appear suddenly and<br />
they behave strangely. The laughing cat and his friend, the Pekinese lady, want absolutely<br />
find out what is wrong with the two, and encounter a series of mysteries secrets ...<br />
<br />
Yang Hongying [list place 7, children’s writer]<br />
Translated by: Ulrike Lotz<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12661-1<br />
► The cats in the park are angry. On the roof of the great white tower appeared suddenly a beautiful striped cat. It is strictly forbidden to climb there up for any other cat! An extraordinary meeting is convened immediately. As an old mouse gets wind of the crazy going-ons of the cats, she figures out a plan together with the other mice ..<br />
<br />
杨红樱【名单中第七位，儿童文学作家】<br />
译者：Ulrike Lotz<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12660-4<br />
►正值冬日，翠湖公园人迹寥落，两只陌生的狗突然出现打破了这种平静，这两只狗行动怪异,笑猫和他的朋友--那只京巴狗,下定决心要查明这两只狗是怎么回事，因而遇到了一系列神秘的谜团...<br />
<br />
正值冬日，翠湖公园人迹寥落，两只陌生又行为怪异的狗突然出现打破了这种平静。笑猫和他的朋友--那只京巴狗,下定决心要查明这两只狗是怎么回事，因而遇到了一系列神秘的谜团...--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:06, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨红樱【名单中第七位，儿童文学作家】<br />
译者：Ulrike Lotz<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12661-1<br />
► 大白塔的顶上突然来了一只漂亮的条纹猫，这让公园里的猫们很生气，其他猫爬塔顶是被坚决禁止的！这群猫立即召开了临时会议，而一只老老鼠在得知猫的疯狂行径后，便和其他老鼠一起想出了一个计划...--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:25, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
杨红樱【名单中第七位，儿童文学作家】<br />
译者：Ulrike Lotz<br />
公园里有一座美丽的白塔。一天，一只漂亮的虎皮猫突然出现在塔顶。这惹怒了一群公园里的猫，他们都上不去的地方，决不允许别的猫爬上去！他们开会咒骂，愤怒地游行……这些疯狂地行为，受到了老老鼠的嘲弄，她和公园里的老鼠们一起想出了一个计划……--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
Nydia Yang<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-43-2<br />
► Picture books not only show the world through a rose-colored glasses. Divorce and break-up of parents belong today to the<br />
everyday life of many children. How do we talk about it - as parents and grandparents, educators and teachers,<br />
relatives or friends?<br />
'The pale red balloon' loses the brightness of its color, depending on the mood of the<br />
child of divorce, because for the boy suddenly his ideal world is burst. And for a long time<br />
no one notices how he really feels, everything seems to be regulated and reorganized. Only when father and mother<br />
understand that they go separate ways like sun and moon, but will always stay together as parents for their child, his balloon begins to shine bright again.<br />
<br />
Katharina Bachmann<br />
Let's get out. About wanderlust and blowing in the distance<br />
Shaker - ISBN 978-3-86858-182-9<br />
<br />
妮迪亚·杨<br />
马海默；赫尔曼所译中文版本<br />
出版社： DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-43-2 <br />
图画书不仅通过一个玫瑰红的杯子来展现世界。父母的离异与分局成为了许多孩子生活的一部分。我们要怎么看待它呢？作为父母和祖父母，教育家和教师，亲戚或者朋友？<br />
褪色的红色气球失去了它本来的艳丽，这取决于经历过离婚的孩童的情绪，因为对于一些男孩来讲，他们的理想世界就坍塌了。而且在很长的一段时间里，没有任何人注意到他的感受，所有事情看上去似乎有条不紊。直到父母意识到他们的分开就像太阳和月亮，而他们将永远伴随着孩子时，他的气球才会再次明亮起来。<br />
凯瑟琳纳·波特曼<br />
出去走走吧。去远方漫游。<br />
出版社： Shaker - ISBN 978-3-86858-182-9--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:46, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
图画书不是只会用乐观的方式来展现世界。父母离异成为了许多孩子生活的一部分。我们该怎么看待这个问题呢？作为父母和祖父母，教育家和教师，亲戚或者朋友？<br />
淡红色气球失去了原来艳丽的颜色，这与孩子经历父母离异后的情绪紧密相连，因为对于一些男孩来讲，他们的理想世界坍塌了。在往后的很长一段时间里，没有人关心他的真实感受，一切都重新安排并受到约束。直到父母意识到尽管他们过上了各自的生活，但是作为父母，仍会一起陪伴着孩子，他的气球才会再次鲜艳起来。 --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
Bauer, Manuel<br />
Limmat - ISBN 978-3-85791-573-4<br />
► On April 1, 1995, a father and his six-year-old daughter leave Lhasa and write another<br />
chapter in the sad story of the flight of the Tibetan people. The photographer Manuel Bauer has, despite<br />
obstacles and controls, participated on this life-threatening journey into freedom and documented it.<br />
<br />
Barbara Beuys<br />
Insel Paperback - ISBN 978-3-458-35118-4<br />
鲍尔·曼努埃尔·利马特-ISBN 978-3-85791-573-4►1995年4月1日，一位父亲和他六岁的女儿离开拉萨，在藏人逃亡的悲惨故事中又续写了一章。 尽管障碍重重，限制众多，摄影师曼努埃尔·鲍尔（Manuel Bauer）仍参与了这一危及生命的自由之旅并记录了下来。<br />
<br />
Barbara Beuys Insel平装本-ISBN 978-3-458-35118-4--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:01, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲍尔·曼努埃尔·利马特-ISBN 978-3-85791-573-4►1995年4月1日，一位父亲和他六岁的女儿离开了拉萨，续写了一章西藏人民逃亡的悲惨故事。尽管障碍重重，满是荆棘，摄影师曼努埃尔·鲍尔仍参与了这一危及生命的自由之旅并将其记录了下来。<br />
<br />
Barbara Beuys Insel平装本-ISBN 978-3-458-35118-4--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 13:39, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Miriam Collée<br />
Aufbau - ISBN 978-3-378-01106-9<br />
► A small house by the Alster, a large garden with swing, the organic box in front of the door. A young family seems to be at the goal of their dreams. If there was not the job offer from China: Miriam, 35, Tobias,37, and Amélie, 3, move into a terrace house in Shanghai Downtown, as the only long nosea in an old-established Chinese neighborhood - in a city where you can buy everything, only no fresh air. Where 20 million people live, who like to go outside just in their pyjamas and walk backwards to relax. Where the nannies have names like Crispy, Toffie or Chanel and leave one in the lurch, because they have a western nose to operate. Simply funny and sometimes on the edge of a nervous breakdown, Miriam Collée reports from the family everyday life in the<br />
Middle Kingdom.<br />
<br />
阿尔斯特旁边的一幢小房子，一个带秋千的大花园，门前有个有木盒子。这似乎对于这个年轻家庭来说是一个理想的生活环境。如果没有来自中国的工作机会： 35 岁的 Miriam Tobias，37 岁的阿美莉和 3 岁的阿美莉搬进了上海市中心的一栋露台别墅，这是唯一一间位于古老的中国社区-在一个你可以买到所有城市里的东西，只有没有新鲜空气。那里住着 2000万 人，他们喜欢穿着睡衣出门向后走放松自我。名为像克里斯比，托菲或香奈儿的保姆，其中一个可就要陷入困境了，因为他们要忍受这里糟糕的气味，简单有趣但有时处在精神崩溃的边缘，这是来自Miriam collee 在中土王国对家庭日常生活的报道。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 02:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
阿尔斯特旁边的一幢小房子，有一个带秋千的大花园，门前有个有木盒子。对于这个年轻家庭来说，这似乎是一个理想的生活环境。如果没有来自中国的工作机会： 35 岁的 Miriam Tobias，37 岁的托拜厄斯和 3 岁的阿美莉搬进了上海市中心的一栋露台别墅，这是唯一一间古老的中国社区的房子。在这里一个你可以买到城市里的任何东西，唯独没有新鲜空气。那里住着 2000万 人，他们喜欢穿着睡衣出门向后走放松自我。名为克里斯比，托菲或香奈儿的保姆，其中一个可就要陷入困境了，因为他们要忍受这里糟糕的气味。生活简单有趣但有时处在精神崩溃的边缘，这是来自Miriam collee 在中土王国对家庭日常生活的报道。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:38, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
Anagarika Govinda<br />
Paperback edition, Fischer - ISBN 978-3-596-18351-7<br />
► Accompanied by one of the holy men of the country, Lama Anagarika Govinda traveled for many years through<br />
a widely unexplored world that is just accessible under dangers. Its path leads through the tropical<br />
jungle, over icy heights, past marvelous blue lakes to areas that no stranger had visited before him - into the monasteriea of the rocks and hermitage of walled hermits, into religious communities,<br />
whose ancient rituals and mysteries he may attend, before temple pictures of unimaginable<br />
beauty.<br />
在该国一位圣者的陪同下，喇嘛阿那加里卡戈文达多年来一直冒险游历于未被探索过的广泛世界。他穿过热带丛林，翻越寒冷的高地，经过壮丽的蓝色湖泊，去到除了他没有前人到过的地区。他去到岩洞中的寺院和围墙中的隐士居，他进到宗教区域，在绝美的寺庙画像前参加其古老的仪式和探寻其秘密。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 14:13, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Emily Hahn<br />
Translated by: Dagmar Yu-Dembski<br />
Edition Ebersbach - ISBN 978-3-938740-89-7<br />
► When Emily Hahn came to Shanghai in 1935, she had already established her reputation as book author and journalist with her reports for the "New Yorker." She knows she will stay here as long as they let her. It is the magic of Shanghai with its cookshops, the hustle and bustle on the streets, the rickshaws<br />
and the dancing salons that seduces her. Often ironically and with fine humor, Emily Hahn lets us participate in<br />
the feeling of life in a city that is constantly changing and in which "there are still things that will<br />
never change."<br />
1935年，当艾米丽·哈恩来到上海时，她已经凭借为《纽约客》撰写的报道建立了自己作为作家和记者的声誉。她知道她会尽可能地留在这里。这就是上海的魅力，这里有小餐馆，熙熙攘攘的街道，黄包车还有吸引着她的舞厅。艾米丽·哈恩经常幽默地调侃道让我们感受在一个不断变化的城市中生活的感觉，且这个城市中“总有一些东西会永远不会改变。”--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 14:13, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
阿纳加里卡·戈文达平装版，菲舍尔- ISBN 978-3-596-18351-7 在该国一位神职人员的陪同下，喇嘛阿纳加里卡·戈文达游历多年，历经危机穿过一片广袤的处女地。他穿过热带丛林，越过雪山高原，途经壮美的蓝色湖泊来到无人之境。—他去探寻岩石山上的寺庙和围墙中的隐士居所，他进入宗教区域，在绝美的寺庙画像前参加古老的宗教仪式，探寻其久远的秘密。<br />
埃米莉·哈恩 译者：达格玛·尤登布斯基·伊迪圣·埃伯斯巴赫- ISBN 978-3-938740-89-7 1935年，当埃米莉·哈恩来到上海的时候，她已经凭借着自己在《纽约客》上的报道，建立了自己作为作家和记者的声誉。她知道只要他们允许，自己会一直待在这里。上海的小餐馆，熙熙攘攘的街头，以及黄包车和舞厅都是充满魔力的，无一不引诱着她。埃米莉·哈恩常常幽默地调侃，让我们体会一下在一个不停变化的城市中生活的感觉，然而这里却“仍有一些永远不变的事物”。<br />
--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:31, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
Hermann Hesse<br />
Suhrkamp - ISBN 978-3-518-46106-8<br />
► This reader book brings together the most important and most beautiful tales, narratives and reflections<br />
with Chinese motifs by Hermann Hesse as well as his essayistic and literary-critical<br />
publications and shows him as a great connoisseur of Chinese culture, literature and philosophy.<br />
<br />
赫尔曼•海塞<br />
苏尔坎普出版社 - ISBN 978-3-518-46106-8<br />
这本读者读物汇集了赫尔曼•海塞最重要和最美丽的故事、叙事、关于中国主题的思考以及其散文和文学评论出版物，这彰显出他作为一名中国文化、文学和哲学鉴赏家的伟大。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Elmar Holenstein<br />
Ammann - ISBN 978-3-250-30024-3<br />
► How different is China really? With concrete examples Elmar Holenstein works on the overcoming<br />
of europe-centered thinking. A serious culture historical comparison begins with the realization of the complexity of the<br />
own as any other culture. A Clash of Civilizations is always a Clash of Complex<br />
Civilizations. A consistent front course can not be expected. In the depths of foreign culture it can be found that there are parallels to the things that appear to us in our own as "modern". Own accomplishments lose apperently their exclusivity. The West proudly points to its three centuries old »secular age«. In East Asia, the separation of religion and morality has been a peaceful aquired naturalness for two and a half thousand years. On the other hand we discover at careful comparison in our own cultural developments, which we were accustomed to view as "typically Chinese" or "typically East Asian". Whoever believes that modalities and mentalities are culturally shaped must proof them to different<br />
Contexts.<br />
<br />
埃尔玛•霍伦斯坦<br />
安曼- ISBN 978-3-250-30024-3<br />
中国到底有多不同？埃尔玛•霍伦斯坦用具体事例致力于克服以欧洲为中心的思想。一场重大的文化历史对比始于认识到自身和其他文化的复杂性。文明冲突总会成为复杂文明冲突。我们不能指望着有一个一致的前沿路线。在外国文化深处，我们可以发现它们与我们自己的“现代”有相似之处。自己的成就显然失去了排他性。西方以其三个世纪的世俗历史为傲。在东亚，2500多年来，宗教与道德分离一直处于一种和平自然的状态。另一方面，我们在仔细比较自己的文化发展时发现，我们习惯于将其视为“典型的中国文化”或“典型的东亚文化”。那些相信模式和心态是由文化塑造的人们必须在不同环境下证明这一点。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
Ursula Krechel<br />
3. Edition. Jung und Jung - ISBN 978-3-902497-44-4<br />
►Franziska Tausig is one of many, the Berlin book dealer Ludwig Lazarus is another, and<br />
at the end there were eighteen thousand Jews who had been using one of the last loopholes since 1938<br />
and thus survived in the far-off foreign Shanghai. They came without a visa and illusions, with one<br />
suitcase and ten Reichsmark in their pockets, lawyers, craftsmen, art historians, and when they wanted to get along in this overcrowded city and the moisty heavy climate, then were powers of invention and energy challenged. Not everyone was able to do this after everything what was behind and before them.<br />
Breathtakingly diverse and complex talks Ursula Krechel about it. From long-term research developed the material to an extensive narrative curve, which brings the reader into a world, which is closer to oneself than expected.<br />
<br />
弗朗西斯卡·陶西格（Franziska Tausig）是其中之一，而柏林的书商路德维希·拉扎鲁斯（Ludwig Lazarus）也在其中。最后，自1938年以来，18,000名犹太人一直使用有利于法网之外，在遥远的外国上海幸存下来。 他们没有签证也不带任何幻想，提着手提箱兜里揣着十个德国马克。这些律师，工匠，艺术史学家，当他们想在这个人满为患潮湿阴冷的城市中穿行，他们遭受到新的发明和能源力量的挑战。 面对眼前身后的一切，并非所有人都能做到这一点。 乌苏拉·克雷切尔就此展开了丰富多彩和精妙绝伦的阐述。 从长期来看，研究将材料延伸成广泛的叙事曲线，使读者进入了一个比预期更接近自己的世界。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 08:47, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Helmut Matt<br />
Hess - ISBN 978-3-87336-911-5<br />
<br />
Sonja Piontek<br />
Conbook Medien - ISBN 978-3-934918-41-2<br />
► Chen Luyao's grandmother still does not know that her turquoise couch does absolutely not fit to the rest of the furnishings<br />
and Sonja only learns after 17 months, that the hard-won driver’s license has been blocked<br />
and so she has been illegally driving through the People's Republic for a year and a half. Against to all<br />
experiences from the German Chinese restaurants, the guest is strictly not getting any rice served in Beijing …<br />
<br />
陈璐瑶的祖母仍然不知道她的绿松石沙发跟其他摆设格格不入。而颂雅在17个月后才得知，来之不易的驾照已失效。因此，她已经在中国非法驾车一年半了。和所有德国的中餐厅不同，北京的餐厅是绝对不会提供任何米饭给这位客人的。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 08:47, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Lisa See<br />
Der Seidenfächer<br />
Translated by: Elke Link<br />
Paperback edition, Blanvalet - ISBN 978-3-442-36757-3<br />
► China in the 19th century: Lily and Winter Rose grow up in a world in which girls are regarded as a burden<br />
and in which the tying of the feet should also tie their heart. At the age of seventeen both get married. Thanks to the secret writing Nushu, which is reserved for women only,<br />
the friends succeed to stay in touch. On special occasions, the two girls even write<br />
poems in Nushu on a silk fan, who is always moving between them. But no one can take their<br />
desire for love, happiness and freedom ...<br />
<br />
Vikram Seth<br />
From the English by Anette Grube<br />
Fischer - ISBN: 978-3-596-16473-8<br />
► In 1981 the Indian writer Vikram Seth traveled through the secluded marginal provinces of<br />
China: from the " heavenly lake" Tianchi in the north-west, he set off far from established routes to the<br />
South –as far afield as Tibet. He completed his survey of unexplored territories with his homeward journey to<br />
India via Kathmandu.<br />
<br />
十九世纪的中国：在莉莉和冬玫生活的时代，人们视女孩为负担，女孩们都裹着脚，同时也束缚她们的心。在十七世纪，她们俩都结婚了。多亏只有女性能读懂的秘密女书，她们能够保持联系。在特殊情况下，这两个女孩甚至把女书写在丝扇上，而丝扇经常在她们中间传来传去。但是没有人能够夺走她们对爱，快乐和自由的渴望。<br />
<br />
在1981年，印度作家维克拉姆·塞斯穿越了中国的十分偏僻的省份：他从西北的天池出发，不走去南方的固定路线-尽量远离西藏。他探索了了无人迹的地方，并最终经由加德满都回到家乡印度。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:25, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
十九世纪的中国：在莉莉和冬玫生活的时代，女孩被视为一种负担，那时女孩们都裹着脚，这同时也束缚着她们的心灵。这两个女孩十七岁的时候就结婚了。多亏了女性专用的密写女书，她们得以保持联系。在特殊情况下，这两个女孩甚至在丝扇上用女书写诗，丝扇在她们中间传来传去。但是没有人能够夺走她们对爱，快乐和自由的渴望。<br />
<br />
1981年，印度作家维克拉姆·塞斯穿越了中国的十分偏僻的省份：从出发地西北的“天池”开始，他从遥远的既定路线开始出发，前往中国南方—远至西藏。 他探索了了无人迹的地方，并最终经由加德满都回到家乡印度。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 00:38, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Jonathan D. Spence<br />
From the English by Susanne Hornfeck<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23415-4<br />
► When Zhang Dai was born into a well-esteemed family in 1597, the Ming Dynasty had ruled in China for over 200 years. For the contemporaries it was unthinkable that this era, that had guided the Chinese empire to a prior unattained political and cultural prosperity, could ever end. However in 1644<br />
the Manchu of the Ming Dynasty put an end to it. Zhang Dai’s family sank into insignificance. He spent the second half of his long life in rural seclusion as a private scholar and<br />
became famous as a master of the philosophical essay and chronicler of a lost era.<br />
Jonathan Spence tells the life of this scholarly eccentric - and draws at the same time the vivid panorama of a central era of the Chinese past.<br />
1597年，张岱于一家名门望族出生。当时，明朝已经统治了中国200多年。这个时代曾引导封建帝国达到了前所未有的政治和文化繁荣，对于当时的人来说，它最后还是走向了终结，这实在难以想象。可就在1644年，明朝的满族人结束了这个时代。张岱的家庭变得无足轻重了。在他漫长的后半生，他以隐居田园的私密文人身份度过，并以哲学散文大师和一个失落时代的编年史编者而闻名。乔纳森·斯宾塞讲述了这位学术怪人的生活，同时生动地描绘了中国过去的一个核心时代的全景。<br />
<br />
Hugh Trevor-Roper<br />
Translated by: Andrea Ott<br />
Eichborn - ISBN 978-3-8218-4590-6<br />
► Jing Shan was a Manchu scholar from a noble-minded family, who was related with the Chinese empress dowager<br />
and was closely connected to all the important personalities of the Imperial Court.<br />
When he was murdered in the course of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, it was Edmund Backhouse, who saved Shans<br />
scrolls from the flames of the looters - including a mysterious diary, that allegedly described the events at the imperial court during the Boxer Rebellion minutely. Nine years<br />
Backhouse kept his discovery a secret until he published large parts of it in China under the Empress Dowager. The book became a classic, it still determines our image of China - and<br />
is based on a grandiose counterfeiting of Backhouse.<br />
景山是一个出身于高贵家庭的满族书生，他与中国的慈禧太后相识，而且他还和朝廷的所有重要人物都关系密切。在1900年的义和团运动中，景山被杀，埃德蒙·巴恪思从劫掠者的火焰中拯救了他的卷轴——其中包括一本神秘的日记，据说日记里详细描述了义和团运动期间皇宫里发生的事情。巴恪思隐瞒了这件事隐瞒了九年，直到在慈禧太后掌权时，他才在中国发表了大部分的日记内容。这本书成为了经典，它仍然决定着我们对中国的印象——而且这种印象是基于巴恪思的伟大仿制品。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 02:28, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Nury Vittachi<br />
From the English by Ursula Ballin<br />
Zhang Jie - ISBN 978-3-293-00408-5<br />
<br />
Doris Wiedemann<br />
Delius Klasing - ISBN 978-3-7688-2606-8<br />
► For six months the authoress traveles more than 17,000 kilometers through the most populous country in the world<br />
and experiences China beyond tourist sights and state-controlled reality. She<br />
reads maps and road signs like a memory game, attends the English lessons at a<br />
middle school, climbs countless stairs and survives some adventures with the motorbike. As well she gets to know<br />
the variety of culture and cuisine, Chinese humor and Chinese hospitality at first hand.<br />
<br />
Simon Winchester<br />
From the English by Michael Müller<br />
Knaus Verlag - 987-3-8135-0287-9<br />
► Who was John Needham? In China he is still a famous person,who shaped our image of China<br />
decisively shaped and revolutionized it completely. Till the middle of the 20th century the West looked despisingly for China, the country was regarded as hopelessly underdeveloped and backward.<br />
It was only through Needham's work that it was proofed that China was one of the oldest high cultures in the world.<br />
<br />
Li Yiyun:Die Sterblichen李翊云？书中文名？<br />
Lu Xun: Sch?nste Geschichten鲁迅 书中文名？？<br />
Mo Yan: Die Knoblauchrevolte莫言《天堂蒜苔之歌》？2002<br />
<br />
Publishing Houses of the booth „Books on China“<br />
努雷·维塔奇，厄苏拉·巴林，张洁 （英译德）（英译中） 国际标准书号978-3-293-00408-5<br />
多丽丝•维德曼•德利厄斯•卡莱辛 国际标准书号 978-3-7688-2606-8<br />
六个月来，这个女作家跋涉17000多千米，横穿中国这个世界上人口最多的国家。她见识的不止是众多旅游景点以及政府主控的现状。她将看地图和路标当做记忆游戏，在中学上过英语课，爬过无数的阶梯，在几次摩托车冒险中险境脱困。她也了解了各种不同的文化与菜肴, 亲身体验了中国人的诙谐幽默和热情洋溢。<br />
西蒙•温彻斯特， 迈克尔•穆勒•克诺斯 （英译德）出版社 987-3-8135-0287-9<br />
谁是约翰•尼达姆？在中国，他至今都声名显著。他为我们建构了中国的形象。这是一种具有决定性并且彻底变革性的形象塑造。二十世纪中叶之前，西方一直对中国视若无睹，认为中国是一个进入穷途末路，不断衰退欠发达的国家。然而只有尼达姆的作品能证实，中国是世界上具有最源远流长的高雅文化的国家之一。<br />
李翊云：《终有一死者》<br />
鲁迅：《狂人日记》<br />
莫言：《天堂蒜苔之歌》2002<br />
中国书籍专辑出版社 --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 02:34, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
Series Sinica--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Vol. 26<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Chinese literature in German translation<br />
China as honoraray guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009 – Symposium edition<br />
Bochum: European University Press<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1<br />
200 pp., 19.90 €<br />
<br />
China is the honorary guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009. The public interest in this literature, which has so far been underrepresented in Germany, is great.<br />
However, there is not much known about the trends in the Chinese contemporary literature except for keywords like "youth literacy". This symposium edition shows which new publications will be realised for the book fair. Contributions are given by translators to portray the peculiarities of the translation of Chinese literature, as well as literary scholars who give an overview of the Chinese literature scene, by the Chinese author Gao Yi and by connoisseurs of literary business (book fair, publishers, agencies).<br />
One focus is the question, which Chinese literature also 'works' in German translation. The reader is sensitized to questions of the selection. The advantages and disadvantages of the Chinese governmental translation support are equally part of the contributions as commercial aspects, which influence the selection on the part of the German publishers. By the way, prejudices are to be dismantled, for example, that Chinese literature is incomprehensible because of its 'Confucianism', or that Chinese imitation literature is written in the style of the Harry Potter series.<br />
中国是2009年法兰克福书展的名誉嘉宾。迄今为止，在德国人们对中国文学的了解还很少，但是公众对此都很感兴趣。但是，除了诸如“青年素养”之类的关键词外还对中国当代文学的发展趋势知之甚少。 此专题讨论会版本显示了该书展将实现哪些新出版物。翻译人员为描绘中国文学翻译的特殊性做出了贡献，而中国作家高毅和文学界（包括书展，出版商，代理机构）的鉴赏家们则为概述中国文学界做出贡献）还有一个焦点是中国文学在德语翻译中也“起作用”。读者对选择的作品十分敏感。中国政府对翻译的支持的优缺点同样在商业方面有所影响，影响了德国出版商的选择。 另外大众应该消除偏见，例如，中国文学因其“儒教”而难以理解，或者中国模仿文学是以哈利·波特系列的风格写的，诸如此类。--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
26卷 吴漠汀：德译中国文学 中国作为2009年法兰克福书展名誉嘉宾—专题研讨会版本<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 国际标准书号 978-3-89966-293-1 200页 19.90欧元<br />
中国是2009年法兰克福书展的名誉嘉宾。迄今为止，中国文学在德国还亟待进一步研究，而公众对其兴致浓厚。但是，除了诸如“青年素养”之类的关键词外，他们对中国当代文学的发展趋势知之甚少。 此专题讨论会版本则表明哪些新的出版物将会为书展而发布。与文学学者们概述中国文学界一样，翻译人员为描绘中国文学翻译独特性做出了贡献，中国作家高毅和文学行业（包括书展，出版商，代理机构）的鉴赏家们也做出了贡献。而重点在于这个难题，即中国文学在德语翻译中也要“起作用”。读者对选择的作品十分敏感。中国政府对翻译的支持优缺掺杂，这同样就在商业方面有所影响，影响了德国出版商的选择。 另外大众应该消除偏见，例如，中国文学因其“儒教”而难以理解，或者中国模仿文学是以哈利·波特系列的风格写的，诸如此类。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:40, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
The volume provides in extracts an well-founded overview of the Chinese contemporary literature with the bestselling authors Guo Jingming, Han Han and others, and about currents: the trend to the second book, vagabond literature, the author as a pop star (cult literature), Literature of the mega cities, Critical Surreality, Women’s Literature, Scandal Literature, the Nostalgia wave (Reinterpretation of Classics), Teenager Phenomenon, Magical Realism, Master stories and the Literature of the emotional suffering.<br />
<br />
该书摘录了中国畅销作家郭敬明、韩寒等人对中国当代文学的有理有据的概述，并介绍了当代文学的发展趋势：第二本书走向，流浪文学，作者作为流行歌星(邪教文学)，大城市文学，批判超现实主义，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮(经典重释)，青少年现象，魔幻现实主义，大师故事和文学的情感苦难。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 02:49, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该书的摘录了中国最畅销的作家郭敬明，韩寒等人的中国当代文学以及时事的概论：第二本书的趋势，流浪文学，流行歌星（邪教文学），大城市文学，批判超现实主义，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮（对经典的重新诠释），青少年现象，魔幻现实主义，大师故事和情感苦难文学。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 04:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
该册在摘录中以一种全面的视角介绍了中国当代文学以及畅销书作家郭敬明，韩寒等人：第二本书的情况，流浪文学，作者为明星的邪教文学，大城市文学，批判超现实主义文学，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮（经典重释），青少年观象，魔幻现实主义，大家故事以及苦情文。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:54, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
该书在摘录中对中国当代文学以及畅销书作家郭敬明，韩寒等人进行了有理有据的论述，并介绍了当代文学的发展趋势：第二本书的走向，流浪文学，作者为明星的邪教文学，大城市文学，批判超现实主义文学，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮（经典重释），青少年现象，魔幻现实主义，大家故事以及苦难文学。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:51, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
Vol. 25<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Bochum: European University Press<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-292-4<br />
200 pp., 19.90 €<br />
This volume considers the latest Chinese bestseller lists from early 2009.<br />
<br />
Vol. 24<br />
Wolfgang Schulz:<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2009<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-340-2<br />
168 pp., 29.90 €<br />
<br />
The present work examines with phenomenological thought tools (Edmund Husserl) the five basic emotions (Wielant Machleidt) presented in the Chinese medicine classic Huang Di Nei Jing and their refraction in the fractal affective logic of Luc Ciompis. In both cultural objects - Huang Di Nei Jing and the affective logic of Luc Ciompis – yield striking coincidences and mutual clarifications between the chaostheoretical insights of the fractal relation of the "feelings" and the important thought concepts in the early Han period of "approaching by corresponding affiliation Gan Lei" and the "personified answering event Gan Ying (Obert) "or - according to J. Needham – the "sympathetic responses between similiar kinds of existence".<br />
<br />
Vol. 23<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2008<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4<br />
200 pp., 19.90 € / 20.50 € [A]<br />
<br />
第25册 马丁·韦斯勒：波鸿：欧洲大学出版社ISBN 978-3-89966-292-42000页，19.90欧元 这一册参考了从2009年起最新的中国畅销书排行榜。<br />
第24册 沃尔夫冈·舒尔茨：波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2009 ISBN 978-3-89966-340-2168页，29.90欧元<br />
本文运用现象学思维工具（Edmund hussell）考察了中医经典《黄帝内经》中的五种基本情绪（Wielant Machleidt）及其在Luc-Ciompis的分形情感逻辑中的折射。在《黄帝内经》和吕宗培的情感逻辑中，对“感情”的分形关系的超理论见解与汉初“同属Gan Lei”的重要思想观念，“拟人化的回答事件Gan Ying（Obert）”都有着惊人的契合，还有李约瑟的“相似存在之间的共情反应”。<br />
第23册马丁·沃斯勒：波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2008 ISBN 978-3-89966-289-42000页，19.90欧元/20.50欧元[A] --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 15:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
== Headline text ==<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
The Chinese literature of the present at the beginning of the 21st century appears hardly compatible with the German book market. Many stories of the mostly young, partly celebrated like pop stars authors from the Middle Kingdom, who drop their books partly in millions of editions, such as Jingming Guo, seem too bizarre. Nevertheless, trends can be discerned that reflect especially the extreme process of social upheaval in China: the female literature created by Ailing Zhang with the insiders view of the Shanghaie big city singles, for example, which has found a whole generation of successors. Or the scandal literature of Shuo Wang, who has long since become an establishment. The nostalgia with new interpretations of classics such as Confucius, Menzius, or the novel of the Three Kingdoms, for example by Dan Yu. Finally, the young, bizarre literature of an alienated city youth, who is in the end searching for the happiness of love between alcohol, drugs and party excesses. Surprising newcomer is the author Han Han, who is known for his critically acclaimed youth literature and who exerts a humorous social criticism in his new work, "Tage des Ruhms", about a dropout group in the style of Magical Realism. A colorful roundel, which tells from another world, no longer as exotic as before, but still strange and fascinating.<br />
21世纪初的中国文学似乎很难与德国图书市场兼容。许多报道，通常是一些年轻的、像明星一样出名的中国作家比如郭敬明发行数百万册书，这似乎太离奇了。然而，我们可以看到一些趋势，特别反映了中国社会动荡的极端过程：以张爱玲的女性文学为例，她的作品以上海这一大城市的单身者的视角作为局内人视角，见证了一代又一代的后继者。或是王朔的丑闻文学，他早已成为这一领域的权威人士。又如于丹对孔子、孟子的著作以及《三国》等经典名著的新诠释，复古而怀旧。最后，是一个被疏远的城市青年年轻而又离奇的文学作品，他最终在酒精、毒品和狂欢之间寻找爱情的幸福。这位出人意料的新人是作家韩寒，他以其广受好评的青春文学而闻名，他在其魔幻现实主义的新作《光辉岁月》Tage des Ruhms 中对辍学群体进行了幽默的社会批判。一个五彩缤纷的圆形，从另一个世界诉说，不再像以前那样奇特，但依然奇异迷人。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 12:13, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
21世纪初的中国文学，似乎很难与德国的图书市场相适应。绝大多数的年轻人，其中一部分年轻人还是中国流行的明星作家，他们的书有数百万种版本，比如郭敬明的书。这种现象似乎太离奇了。尽管如此，我们还是可以看到一些趋势，这些趋势反映了中国社会剧变的极端过程。例如，张爱玲创作的女性文学，从业内人士对上海大城市内单身人士的视角来看，人们能在这种视角下找到整整一代的继承者。或者我们可以看看王朔的丑闻文学。他早已成为这一领域的权威人士。还有于丹对孔子、孟子的著作以及《三国》等经典名著的新诠释，复古而怀旧。最后是由一个被疏远的城市青年创作的文学作品，他最终在酒精、毒品和狂欢之间寻找爱情的幸福。这位出人意料的新人是作家韩寒，他以其广受好评的青春文学而闻名，他在其魔幻现实主义的新作《光辉岁月》Tage des Ruhms 中对辍学群体进行了幽默的社会批判。他的作品如同一个五彩缤纷的圆形，从另一个世界诉说，虽不再像以前那样奇特，但依然奇异迷人。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 05:34, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Vol. 23<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2008<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4<br />
200 pp., 19.90 € / 20.50 € [A]<br />
<br />
The Chinese literature of the present at the beginning of the 21st century appears hardly compatible with the German book market. Many stories of the mostly young, partly celebrated like pop stars authors from the Middle Kingdom, who drop their books partly in millions of editions, such as Jingming Guo, seem too bizarre. Nevertheless, trends can be discerned that reflect especially the extreme process of social upheaval in China: the female literature created by Ailing Zhang with the insiders view of the Shanghaie big city singles, for example, which has found a whole generation of successors. Or the scandal literature of Shuo Wang, who has long since become an establishment. The nostalgia with new interpretations of classics such as Confucius, Menzius, or the novel of the Three Kingdoms, for example by Dan Yu. Finally, the young, bizarre literature of an alienated city youth, who is in the end searching for the happiness of love between alcohol, drugs and party excesses. Surprising newcomer is the author Han Han, who is known for his critically acclaimed youth literature and who exerts a humorous social criticism in his new work, "Tage des Ruhms", about a dropout group in the style of Magical Realism. A colorful roundel, which tells from another world, no longer as exotic as before, but still strange and fascinating.<br />
<br />
第二十三册 <br />
吴漠汀主编 <br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2008年<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4 <br />
200页 19.90 € / 20.50 € [A]<br />
21世纪初的中国文学几乎很难用德国图书市场思路来理解。现在的中国文学书中许多故事与多数年轻人有关，部分是由中国的知名作家所作，他们的作品往往要经过无数次修订编辑。其中的作者就有郭敬明。这些故事看上去有点怪异。然而，这种趋势还是依稀可见的，因为反映的是中国社会剧变的极端过程：比如，张爱玲用上海的大都市单身人内部视角创作的女性文学，就迎来了一代人的追随；还有大有建树的王朔丑闻文学；还有用思乡之情释读的经典著作，包括孔子的、孟子的，或者是于丹所著的三国小说。最终，年轻人——怪诞文学所描绘的城市孤立年轻族群，会在酗酒、吸毒和过度聚会中寻求爱情的快感。韩寒是新生作家，他的成就令人瞠目结舌，他以其广受好评的青年文学而闻名。他还在自己的作品《Tage des Ruhms》中以魔幻现实主义风格，幽默地对一个辍学群体进行了社会批判。他的写作还用了一种多彩的圆形图案、用了另一个世界的视角。这个另一个世界不如以前那样具有异域风情，但是仍旧奇异与迷人。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Vol. 22<br />
Martin Woesler (ed.)<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2010<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-280-1<br />
251 pp., bound, cover with special color gold, 39.00 €<br />
第二十二册 吴漠汀主编 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2010年， ISBN 978-3-89966-280-1，251页，金色精装封面，39.00 €<br />
<br />
This festschrift is approaching to the Chinese (law) culture from different angles. It also focuses on current topics such as human rights or relevant philosophers.<br />
该纪念文集从不同的角度走进中国（法律）文化，聚焦于当前的主题，如人权或相关的哲学家。<br />
<br />
The articles deal among other things with views of Confucius, Menzius and Li Zhi. Ommerborn introduces Li Zhi as an individualist, who pronounces against spiritual authorities and the universal validity of higher principles, contrary to the (neo-Confucian norms of his contemporaries.<br />
文章还涉及了孔子、孟子和李贽的观点，欧莫伯恩认为李贽是个人主义者，他反对精神权威和更高准则的普遍有效性，这与同时代的新儒家规范背道而驰。<br />
<br />
The contribution of Harald Holz deals with cross-cultural foundations, he ascribes the 'golden rule' ultimately to an underlying sense, in which he defines the concept of sense as a broad striving for the appropriation of the own possibilities in interaction with all the others that come in line. Hence results in a recognition of his self and of the other as well as an 'ought', whereby all the other aims of action result as personal reciprocal.<br />
哈拉尔·霍尔兹的书稿谈及跨文化的基本原理，他把“黄金规则”归因于一种潜意识，他将其定义为广泛利用与他人相处的可能性，因而达成对自我、他人和“义务”的认知，据此任何行动的目标都是实现个人互惠。<br />
<br />
While Weber-Schäfer draws up the thesis and explains why China does not have an equivalent counterpart to the European concept of justice, Woesler, takes the opposite view in his essay.<br />
虽然韦伯·费舍尔在论文中提出了这一论断，并解释了为什么中国没有与欧洲的正义概念对等的对应物，但吴漠汀在论文中阐述了相反的观点。<br />
<br />
Moccia argues that in the classical China tradition and customs were before the law, and the law of Confucius was little appreciated. He wanted to speak of legislation in China only since the nineteenth century and describes the condition of today's society as a transition to a law-based system.<br />
莫可西亚认为在中国古代，传统习俗先于法律，且孔子的法则很少受到重视，他只想谈谈十九世纪以来中国的立法，把当今的社会状况描述为向法治体系的过渡。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 14:12, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
莫可西亚认为，在中国古代，传统和习俗生于法律之前，且孔子的法则鲜为人知。 他只想谈论19世纪以来的中国立法，认为当今社会的状况为向法治体系的过渡。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 16:06, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
Paul deals with the political dimension of the Menzius reception, especially in terms of the human rights, which are more progressive in Menzius than in Plato and Aristotle. He demonstrates that Menzius was in Western history of reception mainly interpreted as universalistic.<br />
While many of the assembled contributions deal with the actual legislation in China, Sapio's contribution fills a gap in the area of the more difficult gray legal practice: On the basis of diplomatic sources and examples, it proves that the practice of "shuanggui" exists in China, in form of arrest without charge, used by the Communist Party against corrupt officials or members of the party.<br />
<br />
Weyrauch deals in his contribution with the decision-making practice for Chinese asylum applications for Germany. If you are a member of the religious movement "Falun Gong" or a minority, you have resisted against the one-party rule or censorship, or if you have become a victim of the one-child policy it will be decided depending on the degree of persecution.<br />
In China rituals compete with the right: the Chinese adopted Christianity, like before various other religious practices and mixed it with their own popular religious rites and customs. In the so-called "Chinese rites controversy", two mission camps battled each other, who supported this adaptation or rejected it. Von Collani evaluates in her contribution numerous documents, which are now accessible, of the approximately one hundred years of ritual strife.<br />
<br />
Another area which is not directly connected to the main theme of the law are political guidelines: In his contribution using the example of armaments policy, Aßmann examines an aspect of security policy, here the case of an American missile defense system for Japan and Taiwan. He discusses possible power shifts in the region and warns of a new arms race. Ostendorf draws attention to the shadows of the economic boom in China, the environmental pollution. He draws future scenarios on how this destruction can be managed.<br />
<br />
保罗（Paul）谈到孟子处世思想的政治意义，特别是在人权方面，孟子的思想比柏拉图和亚里斯多德的思想更为进步。他表示，孟子在西方处世历史中主要为普遍主义所解释。虽然许多研究的对象是是中国的实际立法，但萨皮奥(Sapio)的研究成果填补了法律实践灰色地带的空白，而这一研究是更为困难的领域。研究成果如下：基于外交资料和实例，表明“双归”存在于中国，它是中国共产党以未经起诉而逮捕的形式来查处腐败官员或腐败党员的手段。<br />
<br />
韦罗克（Weyrauch）致力于为中国人申请德国的政治庇护。根据迫害程度的大小，判断该人是否为宗教运动“法轮功”的成员或者少数民族，抵制过一党统治或一党审查制度；或者是否为计划生育的受害者。在中国，宗教仪式与权力相抗衡。中国人对待基督教的方式与对待过去各种宗教的方式类似，他们将基督教引进国内，并将其与本国的宗教仪式和习俗相结合。在所谓的“中国礼仪之争”当中，两方势力相互对抗，针对基督教华化表明了支持或反对的态度。冯·柯兰霓（Von Collani）在其众多的研究成果中探讨了该历经约一百年的宗教冲突，这些研究资料如今均可获取。<br />
<br />
除宗教外，另一个与法律主旋律并无直接联系的领域则是政治指导方针。在以军备政策为例的研究中，阿斯曼（Aßmann）研究安全政策的一个方面——美国针对日本和台湾的导弹防御系统，探讨地区可能发生的权力转移，并发出了新一轮军备竞赛出现的警告。奥斯坦多夫（Ostendorf）关注到中国经济繁荣所带来的环境污染问题，并提出解决该问题的未来方案。<br />
--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:26, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
Vol. 21<br />
Chen, Hui<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2010<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-277-1<br />
253 pp., Paperback, 29.90 €<br />
<br />
The terminology translation is a special case of the translation. Despite many parallels to the general translation, there are some differences which cause problems which not only translators in terminology transfer have to cope with, but also the respective expert groups, throughout the terminology work:<br />
<br />
a) The main difference between the two sides is: the text has to be translated as a whole, which offers the technical context in which the individual terms and expressions are embedded, and thus can fuction indicatory for the translation, but existst at the terminology transmission not in the way like it can be found at the general translation. The topic in a terminology transfer is a single subject terminus or a particular set of terms. Therefore the translator first needs to acquire the appropriate expertise, which is then used as a "text" when translating the terms.<br />
<br />
b) The non-presence of a concrete client, which has to be considered as a rule, means that the translator and other experts have to take more responsibility with regard to the quality control.<br />
<br />
c) The involvement of different translators at one and the same terminological "text", which is rare and, if so, coordinated to a limited extent, as well as a time-delayed transmission of this "text" has a "terminology diversity" as a result, which acts often more confusing than as an useful effect. This means for the terminology work that an additional task, terminology collation, is to be mastered.<br />
It should also be noted that the partial incompatibility of two parallel terminologies makes the terminology transmission more difficult.<br />
<br />
第二十一卷 陈辉 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社.2010 国际书号978-3-89966-277-1 253页，29.90欧元<br />
<br />
术语翻译是翻译的特例。尽管与通用翻译有很多相似之处，但还是存在一些差异，这些差异会造成一些问题，而这些问题不仅是术语迁移中的翻译人员需要应对的，也是各专家组在整个术语工作中需要面对的：<br />
<br />
a)两者的主要区别是：文本必须整体翻译，这为单个术语和表达提供了技术语境，从而起到指示翻译的作用，但存在于术语的传递上，而不像一般的翻译那样存在。术语转移中的主题是单个主题术语或一组特定术语。因此，翻译人员首先需要获得适当的专业知识，然后在翻译术语时将其作为“文本”使用。<br />
<br />
b)不存在一个具体的客户，这是一条规则，这意味着译者和其他专家必须在质量控制方面承担更多的责任。<br />
<br />
c)不同的翻译者参与同一个术语“文本”的情况非常罕见，如果这样的话，将在有限的范围内进行协调，而且该“文本”的延时传输具有“术语多样性”结果，这往往比有用的效果更令人困惑。这意味着对于术语工作，还需要掌握另一项任务，即术语整理。<br />
还应注意，两个并行术语的部分不兼容使术语传输更加困难。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:31, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
Vol. 20<br />
Winfried Woesler, Lü Yuan:<br />
Bochum: European University Press. 2006<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-228-3<br />
409 pp., 29.90 €<br />
<br />
Representative selection of 54 Chinese poets with a total of approx. 100 poems mostly from the 1970s and 1980s, selected by recognized Chinese poets of the older generation Lü Yuan. New edition of the 384-pages bi-lingual Reclam anthology, published in 1992, for the first time printed in Chinese writing and thus also readable for students of sinology. Presented is the earliest generation of poets, which are writing in modern language: Ai Qing, Feng Zhi, Xin Di, Su Jinsan and Fang Jing. The second generation, who made a name for themselves in the anti-Japanese resistance war, were Lu Li, Peng Yanjiao, from the poetry circle July Zou Difan and Lü Yuan, from the circle of Nine Leaves Zheng Min and Chen Jingrong. The third generation, that despite the functionalization of literature in the 1950s, persistently focused on poetry only for the sake of poetry, is represented by Shao Yanxiang, Li Ying, Gong Lu, Cai Qijiao and Liu Shahe. The fourth generation is the vanguard of the younger generation with Bei Dao, Shu Ting, Gu Cheng, Jiang He and Fu Tianlin, their initially singled voices have long become representative voices of the people. The fifth generation is represented by Yu Jian, Han Dong, Cao Jian, and Xu Demin. These student poets discover fabrics for their subject matter directly in the everyday life.<br />
<br />
第二十卷<br />
温•沃斯勒，绿原：<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社.2006<br />
国际书号 978-3-89966-228-3<br />
409页，29.90欧元<br />
<br />
由公认的老一辈中国诗人绿原选择，具有代表性的54名诗人及其所写的共计约100首诗，其中大部分于二十世纪七十至八十年代完成。新版384页的双语《Reclam选集》于1992年出版，是第一次中文出版，因此汉学学生也可阅读。以下是最早一代用现代语言写作的诗人：艾青、冯至、辛迪、苏金伞和方敬。在抗日战争中声名鹊起的第二代诗人有：鲁藜、彭燕郊，七月诗派的邹荻帆及绿原，九叶诗派郑敏和陈敬容。二十世纪五十年代，第三代诗人不管文学在诗歌中的作用，坚持把重心放在诗歌本身上，其代表作家有：邵燕祥、李瑛、公刘？、蔡其矫及流沙河。第四代诗人是年轻一代诗人的先锋：北岛、顾城、江河、傅天琳，他们起初微小的声音早已成为了代表人民的声音。第五代代表诗人有：于坚、韩东、曹健及徐德民。这些学生诗人直接从每日生活中发掘他们诗歌内容的素材。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Vol. 19<br />
CD<br />
Based on the paper edition of the Akademie-Verlag Berlin 1985. Bochum: European University Press 2006<br />
1446 pp. DIN A4, with different counting<br />
License for use: 29.90 € (natural persons),<br />
49 € (institutions, per workplace), delivery on CD only directly from publisher to final customer<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-207-8<br />
The dictionary is continually updated and extended (cost-effective updates are available every year).<br />
<br />
Approx. 100,000 entries, effective 2006. Restricted is also to look for German terms, so that the dictionary can be used bidirectionally in contrast to the paper edition.<br />
A syllabary has been added to the present digital form for a faster search for the desired syllable from which one can see where the syllable begins, as a page number, which can be entered directly into a search field any time. In addition, you can also open the page by scrolling.<br />
<br />
If the pronunciation of a Chinese character is not known, you must search in the character index as in the book form, and search the current character number next to the character you are looking for by scrolling the pages in the dictionary text to the top left or right. To speed up the search process, two syllabaries were added to, a tone syllabary (page I) and one for character numbers (page II). Edited by Gunnar Richter. Authors of the paper edition: Helga Beutel, Horst-Dieter Gasde, Anja Gleboff, Ilse Karl, Gunnar Richter, Christiane Schwarz, Gottfried Spies, Eberhard Treppt, Horst-Dieter Gasde (administration), edited by Horst-Dieter Gasde, Ilse Karl, Christiane Schwarz; Gunnar Richter, Gottfried Spies.<br />
<br />
<br />
卷 19<br />
光盘<br />
基于1985年柏林的Akademie-Verlag纸质版。波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2006年<br />
1446页DIN A4，具有不同的计数<br />
使用许可：29.90€（自然人），<br />
49€（根据机构，每个工作场所），仅以CD形式直接从发行商交付给最终客户<br />
书号978-3-89966-207-8<br />
该词典会不断更新和扩展（每年都会提供具有成本效益的更新）。<br />
<br />
大约 100,000个条目，从2006年开始生效。此外，还必须查找德语术语，以便该词典与纸质版相比可以双向使用。<br />
音节已添加到当前的数字形式中，以便更快地搜索所需的音节，从中可以看到该音节从何处开始，作为页码，可以随时将其直接输入到搜索字段中。 此外，您还可以通过滚动打开页面。<br />
<br />
大约100,000个条目，从2006年开始生效。德语术语查找也包含在内，因此比起纸质版，该词典可用于双向查找。<br />
音节文字表已添加到当前的数字形式中，以便更快搜索所需音节，从中可以看到该音节从何处开始，作为页码，可以随时将其直接输入到搜索字段中。此外，您还可以通过滚屏打开页面。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
<br />
如果不知道中文字符的发音，则必须像在书本上那样在字符索引中进行搜索，并通过滚动字典上的页面，在左上角或右上角的搜索框中搜索所需字符旁边的当前字符。 为了加快搜索过程，添加了两个音节，一个音调音节（第一页）和一个用于字符编号的音节（第二页）。 由Gunnar Richter编辑。 论文版本的作者：Helga Beutel，Horst-Dieter Gasde，Anja Gleboff，Ilse Karl，Gunnar Richter，Christiane Schwarz，Gottfried Spies，Eberhard Treppt，Horst-Dieter Gasde（管理），由Horst-Dieter Gasde, Ilse Karl, Christiane Schwarz; Gunnar Richter, Gottfried Spies编辑。 --[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:53, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
Vol. 18<br />
Thilo Diefenbach<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2005<br />
190 pp., <Ger., Chin.><br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-169-9 (3-89966-169-9), 19 €<br />
<br />
The Chinese authors Liu Jiming (born in 1963), Zhang Wei (born in 1956) and Liu Qingbang (born 1951), who have been valued in their homeland for years by the readership and literary criticism, are largely unknown to us; translations of their works into German have not yet been available.<br />
<br />
This book presents the three authors in detail, and then gives them the opportunity to speak for themselves in selected short stories and essays. Hence Thilo Diefenbach gives an insight into their narrative complete work and in a hitherto little-studied section of China's contemporary literature. Just in a time when the international perception of the country is limited to the observation of the events in the cities and the Chinese literature largely concentrates on the city life, Diefenbach would like to remind that the still strongly agrarian coined China has also a literature that focuses on the everyday life in the countryside.<br />
<br />
Thilo Diefenbach was promoted in 2003 at the University of Cologne with a dissertation on the subject contexts of violence in modern Chinese literature. From 2004 to 2005 he worked as a scholarship holder of the Fritz Thyssen Foundation on a research project whose results this book contains. Since February 2006, he has been conducting a study on the literature of the Northern Dynasties (386-581) as a scholarship holder of the DAAD at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in Beijing.<br />
<br />
卷18 蒂洛·迪芬巴赫·波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2005年190页，<德国，中国> ISBN 978-3-89966-169-9（3-89966-169-9），19€<br />
<br />
中国作家刘继明（1963年生），张炜（1956年生）和刘庆邦（1951年生）在他们的国家一直被读者和文学批评家珍视，而我们对此一无所知，尚未将其作品翻译成德语。<br />
<br />
本书详细介绍了这三位作者，并且为他们提供了机会，让他们能在精选的短篇小说和散文中为自己发声。因此，蒂洛·迪芬巴赫对他们的完整叙事作品以及迄今为止中国当代文学中研究较少的部分进行了深入的剖析。在这个国际视野仅限于对城市事件的观察，中国文学也主要关注城市生活的时代，迪芬巴赫想要提醒大家，中国这个仍以农业为主的国家，也有专注于农村日常生活的文学。<br />
<br />
蒂洛·迪芬巴赫于2003年在科隆大学发表了一篇关于中国现代文学中的暴力主题语境的论文。2004年至2005年，他作为弗里茨·蒂森基金会的奖学金获得者参加了一个研究项目。这本书里就包含了这个项目的成果。自2006年2月起，他作为中国社会科学院达德奖学金获得者，一直从事北朝(386-581)文学研究。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 09:13, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
Vol. 17<br />
Cordula Hunold<br />
2006, Paperback, 145 pp., 1 audio CD 15 min.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-031-8 (3-86515-031-4)<br />
13,90 €<br />
<br />
Study in the field of contrasting phonology / phonetics of German and Chinese, which deals with similarities and differences in the segmental and suprasegmental range. It deals with the specific articulation and intonation problems of German Chinese learners and gives hints and practice suggestions for Chinese teachers, who want to improve and make their ChaF instruction more versatile, and those who are interested in the phonetics / phonology of the modern Chinese or even wanr to improve their pronunciation.<br />
<br />
Bd 16<br />
Stefan Messmann<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2005<br />
Paperback, 167 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-038-7 (3-86515-038-1)<br />
19,90 €<br />
<br />
The foot binding probably began in the early tenth century, spreading from the north to the south over the next centuries, whereby it was less practiced in the south. It was forbidden several times over the history, recently in 1949, but still today in some places one can see old women with bandaged feet.<br />
<br />
There are different theories about their cause. Most of them try to explain foot binding with 1. status symbol, 2. the necessity to keep the women chaste, 3. ideal of beauty, 4. sexuality, 5. fetish, 6. fashion, 7. demarcation to other peoples and 8. combat of enemies. Of these explanations, the domination of the men seems most plausible.<br />
<br />
第一卷 17<br />
Cordula Hunold<br />
2006年，平装本，145页，1张音频CD15分钟。<br />
ISBN978-3-86515-031-8（3-86515-031-4）<br />
13,90 €<br />
<br />
德语和汉语对比音韵学/语音学领域的研究，该领域涉及音段和跨语段范围的异同。 它处理了德国汉语学习者的具体发音和语调问题，并为中国教师提供了提示和实践建议，他们希望改进并使他们的教学更加多才多艺。那些对现代汉语的语音/音韵学感兴趣的人甚至希望改善他们的发音。<br />
<br />
16<br />
斯特凡·梅斯曼<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2005<br />
平装本，167页。<br />
ISBN978-3-86515-038-7（3-86515-038-1）<br />
19,90 €<br />
<br />
绑脚可能始于10世纪初，在接下来的几个世纪里，从北方向南方蔓延，在南方绑脚的做法较少。 绑脚在历史上被禁止了几次，最近在1949年，但今天仍然在一些地方，人们可以看到老年妇女带着绷带的脚。<br />
<br />
关于他们的事业有不同的理论。 他们中的大多数人试图用以下原因来解释绑脚的做法。1.地位象征 2.保持女人贞洁的必要性 3.美丽的理想 4.性 5.恋物癖 6.时尚 7.与其他民族界限 8.敌人的战斗。 在这些解释中，男人的统治似乎是最合理的。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:51, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Vol. 15<br />
Hartmut Walravens<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2005<br />
Paperback, 271 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-027-1 (3-86515-027-6)<br />
29,90 €<br />
<br />
The volume offers a wealth of bibliographic evidence, through which important materials can initially be developed, which are not contained in the existing specialist bibliographies. The foreign countries, one of the important "Cottaschen Journals", and the magazine for the literature of foreign countries provide numerous solid contributions about East Asia for the 19th century: travel reports, political and military representations, translations from Chinese and Japanese literature Unknown. The same applies to the short-lived magazines Spirit of the East and Ho Ping Pao, the latter a news sheet of the Chinese delegation in Berlin after the Second World War. Chinese medicine is particularly popular today, but the medical texts were collected only very little. A register opens up the medical treasures of the Paris National Library. The complete translations of the poetic works of the two Tang poets Tu Fu and Han Yü, published by the excellent specialist Erwin von Zach, were made accessible by new editions by the Harvard University. Index and register allow quick access to masterpieces of Chinese poetry.<br />
<br />
卷15 哈特穆特·瓦拉尔文斯 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2005年 简装本 ISBN 978-3-86515-027-1 (3-86515-027-6) 29,90 €<br />
<br />
该卷提供了丰富的书目证据，通过这些证据，可以初步总结出专业书目中暂缺的重要资料。《外国》是重要的“科塔什期刊”之一，也是外国文学杂志，为19世纪东亚作出了大量重要的贡献：旅行报道、政治和军事报道、鲜为人知的中日文学翻译。两本只存在一时的杂志《东方精神》和《和平报》也是如此，后者是二战后中国驻柏林代表团的新闻稿。中医学在今天特别受欢迎，但是医学文献的收集却很少。一本登记册打开了巴黎国家图书馆的医学宝藏。哈佛大学新增订了由杰出专家埃尔文·冯·扎克出版的两位唐代诗人杜甫和韩愈诗作的全译本。通过索引和注册，可以快速访问中国诗歌的杰作。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:23, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
卷15 哈特穆特·瓦尔拉文斯 <br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2005年 简装本 271页 <br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-027-1 (3-86515-027-6) 29,90 €<br />
该卷提供了丰富的书目材料，这些材料可以初步显露出现有专业书目中缺少的重要资料。《外国》是重要的“科塔刊杂志”之一，也是外国文学杂志，它为19世纪的东亚提供了大量可靠的投稿：旅行报道、政治和军事报道、鲜为人知的中日文学翻译。两本只存在一时的杂志《东方精神》和《和平报》也包括在内，后者是二战后中国驻柏林代表团的新闻稿。尽管中医学在今天特别受欢迎，但是与之相关的医学文献却很少被收集。一本登记册打开了巴黎国家图书馆的医学宝藏。哈佛大学新增订了由著名专家埃尔文·冯·扎克出版的两位唐代诗人杜甫和韩愈诗作的全译本。通过索引和注册，便可快速通向中国诗歌杰作的入口。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 09:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
Vol. 14 (3 books)<br />
Tsau Hsuä-tjin, Gau Ë<br />
<br />
Edited and with an introduction by Martin Woesler, with an afterword by Hartmut Walravens<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2006-2007, 3 volumes, ISBN 978-3-86515-010-3 (3-86515-010-1), € 59 per part, Vol. I Tsau Hsüä-tjin, translated by Rainer Schwarz 2006 978-3-86515-011-0 (3-86515-011-X), Vol. II Tsau Hsüä-tjin, supra. Rainer Schwarz, 2006 978-3-86515-012-7 (3-86515-012-8 ), Vol. III Tsau Hsüä-tjin, Gau Ë, trans. Martin Woesler 2007 978-3-86515-013-4 (3-86515-013-6)<br />
<br />
To part 1<br />
The most famous Chinese novel for the first time in complete German translation.<br />
中国最著名的小说首次德语翻译<br />
The goddess Nüwa does not use the 36501. stone anymore for the repair of the sky roof. This feeds a flower with dew drops. Finally, the stone is reborn as the protagonist Djia Bau-yu to whom the dew must be repaid in form of tears. The novel tells about the growing-up of Bau-yüs with his cousins in the ‘Garden of the Great Perspective’ against the backdrop of the rise and fall of the administrator family Djia in the time of the last emperors of the Ming Dynasty. However the autobiographical background is the first emperor of the Manchurian Tjing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
Bau-yü spends carefree children's and youth days with his cousins.<br />
In the first part of the novel, a triangular relationship develops between the talented, androgynous Djia Bau-yu, the gritty and pragmatic Hsuä Bau-chai and thep desperate for love intelligent but sickly Lin Dai-yi.<br />
女娲不使用36501。石头也不再为了修补天空。露珠喂养了一朵花。最后，石头重生，主角贾宝玉登场，露珠以眼泪的形式偿还给贾宝玉。这部小说讲述了在明朝末代皇帝时期的管理者世家兴衰的大背景下，宝钰和他的表兄弟们在“大透视园”的成长故事。然而，自传的背景是满洲清王朝(1644-1911)的第一位皇帝。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
To part 2<br />
Bau-yü, talented son of the influential large family Djia, grows up together with his cousins almost carefree in the paradise-like 'Garden of the Great Perspective'. In the second part of the novel he experiences the degeneration and the moral decay of his family, the political and financial descent. The ideal world of childhood threatens to break at the transition to adolescent.<br />
Signs of imminent disaster cast a pall on the love of the androgynous Djia Bau-yü to his devoted but sickly, still-suffering and resigned cousin Lin Dai-yi.Has their love a future in a time of arranged marriages and against the backdrop of the family's decline?<br />
To part 3Gradually, the twelve girls of the Garden of the Great Perspective marry and move away. Also Djia Bau-yü believes to marry his cousin Lin Dai-yü. But when the veil is aroused, it is Hsii Bau-tschai. Lin Dai-yü dies of grief at the same time.<br />
The garden orphans. The jade stone is lost. The family falls into disgrace with the Emperor, the titles are withdrawn. The property is being robbed and plundered. Some family members are arrested and exiled. The Duchess-mother dies. The decline of the extended family Djia seems to be sealed.<br />
Only after Djia Bau-yü understands his predestined destiny and decides to live as a Buddhist monk, the tide is turning: Djia Bau-yü passes the state examinations together with his cousin Djia Lan. Titles, reputation, and goods are restored. The Djia family is looking forward to a happy future with Djia Lan and Bau-yüs son Djia Guee.<br />
But where is Bau-yü?<br />
书中的第二部分写到，赫赫有名的的大家族-贾府的才子宝玉与他的表兄弟姐妹一起在天堂般的“大观园”中几乎无忧无虑地长大。在小说的第二部分中，他经历了家庭的没落和道德精神的崩塌，以及政治和经济的衰退。童年时代的理想世界在走向青春时被打破。大难临头之际，宝玉对饱受病痛折磨的表妹林黛玉的爱意却愈加浓烈和坚定，他们的爱情会在包办婚姻的时代以及家庭衰落的背景下有未来吗？<br />
从文中第三部分开始，大观园中的十二个女孩都逐渐结婚并搬走。 贾宝玉也始终认定他要迎娶表妹林黛玉。但是，结婚当日面纱揭开，嫁给宝玉的女子是薛宝钗，此时的林黛玉，这位大观园里的孤儿。也同时因悲痛而死。玉石丢失，贾府一家全被皇帝定罪，他们的官名被撤销，财产被抢劫和掠夺。一些家庭成员被捕并流放。公爵夫人宝玉的母亲去世，贾府大家族的衰落似乎已尘埃落定。<br />
只有贾宝玉认清了自己的命运并决定以佛教僧侣的身份生活之后，贾府衰落的命运才开始转变，他与表弟贾兰一起通过考试，由此贾府的头衔，声誉和财产才得以恢复。贾府上下都在期待着在贾兰和宝玉的儿子贾桂努力下的美好的未来。但是宝玉这时又在哪里呢？--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:17, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Vol. 13<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2003, x, 242 pp., ISBN 978-3-89966-004-3 (3-89966-004-8)<br />
14,90 €<br />
<br />
Documentation of an exemplary discussion of politics and literature in the People's Republic of China. From September 1991 to January 1992, this debate caught the attention of the Chinese public and also made international headlines. Throughout the period, the author has been able to follow the local discussions in Beijing.<br />
The dispute proceeds like a bad crime: The resignation of the Minister of Culture Wang Meng on September 4, 1989, is linked to the story of " Zäher Brei " from the time of the democratic movement. The narrative, a political grotesque, is then awarded by a liberal literature magazine. There is a storm of indignation among the orthodox Marxists, which vents it’s spleen in two press articles. Apparently one would like to tackle the liberal literature of the 1980s at all. The former Minister of Culture fears a new political hate campaign and - a novelty in the history of the People's Republic of China –strains a lawsuit against authors and backers. This is followed by a paper- warfare, which course is followed eagerly by the Chinese intellectuals.<br />
<br />
This dispute illustrates the tug-of-war between the reformers and reformist opponents among Chinese politicians and intellectuals in the consolidation phase after 4 June 1989. In their pleading, the debates are not confessing themselves without a wink as a supporter or opponent of the mash.<br />
<br />
This volume contains the most important documents of the 'slugfest' in German translation. According to the narrative (p. 4 ff.), the chronology (pp. 55 ff.) Provides a first overview of the debate, which is documented in the following 17 texts. The background is provided by a biography of Wang Meng (p. 161 ff.), explanations of the tense relationship between politics and literature (p. 184 ff.), and a commentary essay (p 204 ff.) References, an overview of the reception, further bibliography and a sign glossary form the appendix.<br />
<br />
卷13 吴漠汀 波鸿: 欧洲大学出版社 欧洲大学出版社 2003年, x, 242页.,ISBN 978-3-89966-004-3（3-89966-004-8）14,90€<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国政治和文学的典型文献。 1991年9月至1992年1日的这场辩论不仅引起中国民众注意，也成为了国际头条。在此期间，笔者一直关注北京当地讨论。此辩论犹如一场严重罪行：1989年9月4日，文化部长王蒙的辞职与民主运动时期的“分粥”故事脱不了干系。此事虽是政治怪诞，之后却在一自由文学杂志中得奖。正统的马克思主义者由此激怒，在两篇新闻中爆发。显然，他们想解放1980年代的自由文学。前文化部长担心爆发新的政治仇恨运动（中华人民共和国的历史上的新鲜事），会加剧对作家和支持者的反抗。其次是中国知识分子们积极参与的笔战。<br />
<br />
这场辩论说明，在1989年6月4日之后，由中国政客和知识分子组成的改革派与保守派之间的拉锯战处于巩固阶段。在他们的论战中，如果没有眨眼默认为辩论的支持者或反对者，辩论就无罪。<br />
<br />
该卷包含德语“ slugfest”中的最重要的文献。据记载（第4页及以下），按时间顺序（第55页及以下）提供了辩论的第一篇概述，该摘要记录在以下17篇文章中。本书的背景是王蒙的自传（第161页及以下），论政治与文学之间的紧张关系（第184页及以下）和评论文章（第204页及以下）。附录中有反响概况，参考书目和专业术语表。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Bd 12<br />
Martin Woesler, Junhua Zhang eds.<br />
China's digital dream<br />
The impact of the Internet on Chinese society<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003, 332 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-190-2 (3-86515-190-6)<br />
(1st ed. 2002: ISBN 978-3-934453-90-6 (3-934453-90-2), 274 pp.)<br />
39.00 €<br />
<br />
A dream is a vision undoubtedly, part of the vision has already become reality.<br />
Through the endeavours made by China´s political elite in the past two decades. But what exactly does that vision look like, what is the reality of China´s Internet and to what extent has this modern medium influenced and how will it continue to influence the life of people in china? In Order to find out answers to these questions, we aked scholars from China, Hong Kong, the USA, and Europe engaged in the study of Chinese internet and politics to offer<br />
their thoughts and to present the results of their research. This book is intended to be an arena of discourse between scholars approaching the study of China from different perspectives and hopefully will help readers to gain an insight into China´s modernization strategy and ist praxis.<br />
<br />
中国的数字梦想互联网对中国社会的影响 吴漠汀，张军华著 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社, 2003年第二版, 332 页. ISBN 978-3-86515-190-2 (3-86515-190-6) (1st ed. 2002: ISBN 978-3-934453-90-6 (3-934453-90-2), 274 pp.) 39.00 €<br />
<br />
毫无疑问，梦想就是一种愿景，经过二十年来中国政治精英的不断努力，一部分愿景已经成为了现实。但这种愿景究竟是什么样的？中国互联网的现实是什么？互联网这种现代媒介在多大程度上影响了这种愿景？以及互联网将如何持续影响中国人的生活？为了寻找这一系列问题的答案，我们邀请了一些来自于中国、中国香港、美国和欧洲的从事中国互联网和政策研究的学者，以提出他们的想法并介绍他们的研究成果。本书旨在成为学者间从不同角度探索中国问题的交流平台，希望本书能帮助读者了解中国现代化战略和实践。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国的数字梦想互联网对中国社会的影响 吴漠汀，张军华著 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社, 2003年第二版, 332 页. ISBN 978-3-86515-190-2 (3-86515-190-6) (第一版. 2002: ISBN 978-3-934453-90-6 (3-934453-90-2), 274 页) 39.00 €<br />
梦想无疑是一个愿景，经过过去二十年来中国政治精英的努力，愿景的一部分已经成为现实。 但是这种愿景到底是什么样的？中国互联网的现实是什么？这种现代媒介在多大程度上影响了它？它将如何继续影响中国人民的生活？为了找出这些问题的答案，我们邀请了一些来自中国，香港，美国和欧洲的从事中国互联网和政治研究的学者们，以提出他们的想法并介绍他们的研究结果。本书旨在作为从不同角度探讨中国问题的学者之间进行交流的场所，希望能帮助读者深入了解中国的现代化战略和实践。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 13:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
CONTENTS<br />
Part I Proactive and Reactive Stances towards the Internet —Internet in China and Southeast Asia<br />
1. The Internet and Civil Society in China and Southeast Asia. Sh.Kalathil, pp. 31-46<br />
2. Telecom Taxonomy: How are the One Party States of East Asia Controlling the Political Impact of the Internet? Nina Hachigian, pp. 47-80<br />
<br />
Part II Social and Economical Impacts<br />
3. Digital Divide and E-Learning – Chances and Problems in China’s Approach. Junhua Zhang, pp. 81-108<br />
4. The Reality and Potential of Online Trading in China. Haifeng Huang / Ren Ma / Lin Jian / John Liang, pp. 109-120<br />
5. Internet Use in China–A Comparative Analysis. Guo Liang/Bu Wei, pp. 121-144<br />
<br />
Part III Globalization and the Clash of Civilizations<br />
6. Accession to the WTO and the Development of China’s Digital Media. Xupei Sun, pp. 145-164<br />
7. The Internet Transforms China into an "Open Society". M. Woesler, pp. 165-187<br />
<br />
Part IV Nation-Building and Information Warfare<br />
8. Assessing China´s Efforts in Constructing an e-government. Peter Lovelock / John Ure, pp. 187-211<br />
9. Is the "wolf" coming? - An empirical study on cultural in-formation spread on Chinese websites. Peng Lan, 212-230<br />
10. Technology, Markets and Nation-Building in Chinese Cyberspace. Christopher R. Hughes, pp. 231-246.<br />
11. Between Rhetoric and Reality – A Critical Examination of the Theories and Praxis of Information Warfare in China in the Light of Post-Iraq War 2003. Junhua Zhang, pp. 247-270.<br />
<br />
Part V Governance and Information Policy<br />
12. Development of E-government in China – Present Status, Problems, and Future. Xinjiao Tan, pp. 271-294.<br />
13. Internet Censorship Focus: 'Human Rights not found' in the Chinese Web. Martin Woesler, pp. 295-325<br />
Index etc.<br />
<br />
目录<br />
第一部分 对互联网的主动和被动姿态-中国和东南亚的互联网<br />
1.中国和东南亚的互联网与公民社会 卡拉特希尔，第31-46页<br />
2.电信分类法：东亚一党制国家如何控制互联网带来的政治影响？ 尼娜哈奇格恩， 第47-80页<br />
<br />
第二部分 社会和经济影响<br />
3.数字鸿沟和在线学习-中国方法的机会和问题 张俊华，第81-108页<br />
4.中国线上交易的现状和潜力 黄海峰/马仁/林健/梁约翰，第109-120页<br />
5.中美互联网使用情况对比分析 郭亮/卜玮 第121-144页<br />
<br />
第三部分 全球化和文明冲突<br />
6.加入世界贸易组织和中国数字媒体的发展 孙旭培 第145-164页<br />
7.互联网将中国转变为“开放社会” 马丁·沃斯勒 第165-187页<br />
<br />
第四部分 国家建设和信息战<br />
8.评估中国在建设电子政务方面的努力 彼得·洛夫洛克/约翰·尤尔， 第187-211页<br />
9.“狼”来了吗？-在中国网站上传播的文化信息的实证研究 彭兰， 第212-230页<br />
10.中国网络空间的技术，市场和国家建设 克里斯托弗·R·休斯，第231-246页<br />
11.修辞与现实之间：根据2003年伊拉克战争后对中国信息战的理论和实践的批判新考察 张俊华，第247-270页<br />
<br />
第五部分 治理和信息政策<br />
12.中国电子政务的发展-现状，问题和未来 谭新娇 第271-294页<br />
13.互联网审查重点：中国网页中“未找到人权” 马丁·沃斯勒， 第295-325页<br />
索引等--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 17:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
CONTRIBUTORS<br />
Wei Bu, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China<br />
Liang Guo, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China<br />
Nina Hachigian, Director, RAND Center for Asia Pacific Policy, USA<br />
Kai Haifeng Huang, Vice President, Association of Chinese Finance Professionals, San Francisco, USA<br />
Christopher R. Hughes, Director, Asia Research Centre, Senior Lecturer, International Relations, London School of Economics, United Kingdom<br />
Lin Jian, Vice President, Shenzhen Prosperity Systems Co. Ltd., Shenzhen, China<br />
Shanthi Kalathil, Project on the Information Revolution and World Politics, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Washington, D.C., USA<br />
Lan Peng, Associate Professor, School of Journalism of Renmin University, Beijing, China<br />
John Liang, President, Global Vision Consulting Company in Santa Clara, USA<br />
Peter Lovelock, Deputy Director, Telecommunications Research Project, University of Hong Kong, China<br />
Ren Ma, Senior Consultant, Beijing Yingce Investment Consulting Company, Beijing, China<br />
Xupei Sun, Professor, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China<br />
Xinjiao Tan, College of Foreign Languages, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China<br />
John Ure, Director, Telecommunications Research Project, University of Hong Kong, China<br />
Martin Woesler, Lecturer, EALC, Gutenberg University Mainz, Germersheim, Germany<br />
Junhua Zhang, Research Associate, Center for Chinese and East Asian Politics, Free University Berlin, Germany<br />
<br />
编著<br />
魏步 中国社会科学院<br />
梁果 中国社会科学院<br />
Nina Hachigian 美国兰德亚太政策中心主任<br />
Kai Haifeng Huang 美国旧金山中国金融专业协会副主席<br />
Christopher R. Hughes 亚洲研究中心主任、英国伦敦经济学院国际关系高级讲师<br />
林建 深圳兴胜合作有限公司副总裁<br />
Shanthi Kalathil 美国华盛顿卡内基国际和平基金会信息革命和世界政治项目<br />
蓝鹏 中国人民大学新闻学院副教授<br />
梁约翰 美国圣克拉拉环球视野咨询公司总裁<br />
Peter Lovelock 香港大学通信研究项目副主任<br />
马仁 北京英策投资咨询公司高级咨询师<br />
孙旭培 华中科技大学教授<br />
谭新娇 中国人民大学外国语学院<br />
John Ure 香港大学通信研究项目主任<br />
吴漠汀 德国美因茨古腾堡大学东亚研究方向讲师<br />
张军华 德国柏林自由大学中国和东亚政治中心研究员--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 08:08, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
Bd 10<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2003<br />
109 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-08-1 (3-932329-08-2)<br />
9,95 €<br />
The present collection includes contributions to the theoretical involvement with language learning software and test reports, which are intended as decision aids for pupils and teachers.<br />
Introduction to the extended new edition. P. 2, observations on the learning of languages with the computer p. 3-7, background of evaluation patterns for electronic media p. 7, thinking impulses and classification of selected literature p. 8-11, The test criteria catalog of the State Institute for School and Continuing Education S (Biaozhun Hanyu jiaocheng) p. 25-33, Biaozhun Hanyu jiaocheng - Critical Experience Report (Cornelia Menzel) p. 34, Examination of two Chinese Learning Tutors (Katharina Kehrer), pp. 35-55, Chinese Assistant 2.10 pp. 56-57, Chinese Character Tutor p. 58-59, Interactive Chinese, Professional Version p. 60-64, Interactive Chinese, Version ABC p , Language Learning Chinese p. 66, Mao's Alphabet p. 67, Wenlin 1.0 p. 69-70, Wenlin 3.1 p. 71, Dewenlin (German version of Wenlin) p. 72-74, Further Chinese Learning Programs p -Learning Chinese p. 77, Web info for Chinese -Lehrer p. 81, German as a Foreign Language: Language Course German 1-2-3 pp. 84-85, Lina and Leo p. 86-90, Japanese: Krea Kanji p. 91-95, Spanish: Interactive Language Teacher Spanish (Anja Rossig , Pp. 96-99, English: Encarta (Andreas Schnieber) pp. 100-102, Interaktive Sprachentrainer English (Sebastian Schröer) pp. 103-106, French: tmx French (Sylwia Wyszynski) p. 109-110, The author p. 111, Bibliography p. 112, List of electronic media p. 114-115, List of illustrations p. 116-117, selection index p. 118.<br />
<br />
Bd 10<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2003年<br />
109页，ISBN 978-3-932329-08-1（3-932329-08-2）<br />
9,95€<br />
本系列藏品对语言学习软件和测试报告的理论参与做出了贡献，旨在为学生和教师提供决策帮助。<br />
扩展的新版本简介。 P2，关于用计算机学习语言的意见。P3-7，电子媒体评估模式的背景。P7，思考的冲动和选定文献的分类。P8-11，国家学校和继续教育学院考试标准目录（标准汉语教程）P25-33，标准汉语教程-批判经验报告（Cornelia Menzel） P34，两位汉语学习导师考试（Katharina Kehrer） P35-55，中文助手2.10 P56-57，汉字导师。 P58-59，互动中文，专业版。P60-64，交互式中文，ABC版本，中文语言学习。 P66，毛泽东的字母表。P67温林1.0 P69-70，温林第3.1 P71，德文林（德文版温林）。P72-74，进一步的汉语学习计划 -学习中文。P77，中文-Lehrer的网页信息。 P81，德语作为外语：德语课程1-2-3页，P84-85，Lina和Leo。 P86-90，日语：Krea Kanji。 91-95，西班牙语：互动语言老师，西班牙语（Anja Rossig，P96-99，英语：Encarta（安德里亚斯·施尼伯），P100-102页，Interaktive Sprachentrainer英语（塞巴斯蒂安·施罗尔）P103-106页，法语：tmx法语（Sylwia Wyszynski） P109-110页，作者。P111，参考书目。P112，电子媒体列表。P114-115，插图列表。P116-117页，选择索引。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:06, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Vol. 9<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2003<br />
181 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-15-9 (3-932329-15-5)<br />
24,50 €<br />
<br />
This book is an understandable guide on how to use Chinese under Windows 95, 98, ME, 2000, XP without additional programs.<br />
A reference book on 100 errors, which have occurred in Chinese under Windows across Europe with understandable solutions.<br />
A documentation of the first beginnings of Chinese on the computer until the Unicode.<br />
A practical guide for Internet, e-mail and text processing with Chinese.<br />
<br />
Vol. 8<br />
[Chinese / German]<br />
Karl-Heinz Pohl (ed.)<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
215 pp., ISBN 978-3-934453-30-2 (3-934453-30-9)<br />
19.90 €<br />
<br />
To break his back for five bushels of rice a day, he was himself to pity and quit the public service. In the country he has moved, has cultivated fields and gardens and praised what he loved: chrysanthemums and pines, even children, country people, old people, drinking with friends, silence, seclusion. He understood how to praise as to lament, to think about the vicissitudes of life, and to play down his own hardships with a dash of self-irony: hardly anything tormented him, like the idea that the wine might go out.<br />
He lived 1500 years ago and his poems are as of today. The Chinese regard Tao Yuanming as the greatest poet between Han and Tang time; countless painters are inspired by him.<br />
<br />
<br />
Vol. 7<br />
Gregor Paul, Martin Woesler (eds.)<br />
Bochum: European University Press²2003<br />
Ii, 198 pp, ISBN 978-3-932329-13-5 (3-932329-13-9)<br />
15.34 €<br />
<br />
卷9<br />
吴漠汀<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2003<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-15-9 (3-932329-15-5)<br />
24.5欧<br />
本书是在没有附加程序的情况下，就如何在Windows 95、98，ME，2000，XP系统中如何使用中文而撰写的一份易于理解的指南。<br />
此参考书包含100个错误，这些错误均在欧洲范围内使用Windows中文系统时发生，此书还提供了易于理解的解决方案。<br />
此书记录了自计算机上出现的第一个中文到Unicode。<br />
此书为实用的中文互联网，电子邮件和文本处理指南。<br />
<br />
卷8<br />
【中国/德国】<br />
卡尔·海因茨·波尔（编辑）<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2003<br />
ISBN 978-3-934453-30-2 (3-934453-30-9)<br />
19.90欧<br />
他过得怡然自得，辞去了公职，舍弃了每天挣五斗米的日子。 在乡村里，他耕种田野，修理花园，称赞自己所爱的一切：菊和松树，甚至是孩子，乡下人，老人，和朋友一起喝酒的时光，安静和与世隔绝的日子。他知道如何像悼念一样赞美，如何思考人生的沧桑，如何自嘲地淡化自己的艰辛：几乎无事会让他折磨他，就像酒也会没有一样。<br />
他活在1500年前，他的诗却延续到今天。 中国人将陶渊明视为汉唐时期最伟大的诗人，他曾启发了数位画家。<br />
<br />
卷7<br />
格雷戈尔·保罗，吴漠汀（编辑）<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2003<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-13-5 (3-932329-13-9)<br />
15.34 欧--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:46, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
Bd 6<br />
Martin Woesler, ed.<br />
The Modern Chinese Literary Essay - Defining the Chinese Self in the 20th Century - Conference Volume, Bochum: European University Press ²2003, 327 pp., ISBN 978-3-934453-15-9 (3-934453-15-5)<br />
35.79 €<br />
<br />
Contents<br />
<br />
Introduction<br />
The Freedom of Intellectual Exchange pp. 13-14<br />
Preface: The Flourishing of the Chinese Essay pp. 15-16<br />
<br />
Keynote: “Let us Assign the Essay its Proper Place in Chinese Literature” pp. 17-28<br />
Martin Woesler, University of Mainz, Germany<br />
<br />
The Emergence of the Modern Chinese Essay: Precursors and Influences of a Major Literary Form - The Aesthetic of Marginalism and the Impact of the West on the Chinese Essay pp. 29-42<br />
Martin Woesler, University of Mainz, Germany<br />
<br />
The Modern Essay and Urban Culture in The Republican Period<br />
Formation of Modern Subjectivity and Essay: Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” pp. 43-68<br />
Jianhua Chen, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA<br />
Eileen Chang and the Modern Essay pp. 69-100<br />
Nicole Huang, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA<br />
<br />
Perspectives on Ideology in the Essay<br />
Zhu Ziqing, Frantz Fanon, and the Fierce White Children pp. 101-116<br />
Daniel A. Fried, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA<br />
Incongruous Lyricism: Liu Baiyu, Yang Shuo and sanwen in Chinese Socialist Culture pp. 117-134<br />
Charles A. Laughlin, Yale University, New Haven, USA<br />
<br />
<br />
蓝色光碟6 吴漠汀主编，当代中国文学散文-定义二十世纪中国自我主义-会议期刊,波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，327页，2003年ISBN 978-3-934453-15-9 (3-934453-15-5) 35.79 欧<br />
<br />
目录<br />
<br />
引言 <br />
知识交流的自由 13-14页<br />
<br />
前言 <br />
中国散文的兴盛 15-16页 <br />
<br />
主题：“让我们将散文在中国文学中置于恰当的位置”17-28页 吴漠汀,美因茨大学，德国<br />
<br />
当代中国散文的兴起：文学主要形式的前身及影响-边缘主义的美学和西方文化对中国散文的影响 29-42页 吴漠汀，美因茨大学，德国<br />
<br />
民国时期现代散文和城市文化 现代主体性和散文的形成：周瘦鹃 43-68页，哈佛大学，剑桥，美国 <br />
<br />
张爱玲与当代散文 69-100页 Nicole Huang, 威斯康星大学，麦迪逊市，美国<br />
<br />
散文中意识形态观点 朱自清，佛朗茨•法农，凶猛的白人孩子 101-116页 丹尼尔•A•佛莱德，哈佛大学，剑桥市，美国 <br />
<br />
不协调的抒情：刘白羽，杨硕 中国社会主义文化中的散文 117-134页 查尔斯• A•劳克林，耶鲁大学，纽黑文市，美国--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
The Author's Self in Essays of Place and in Qian Zhongshu's Criticism<br />
A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place pp. 135-148<br />
Alexandra R. Wagner, Yale University, New Haven, USA<br />
Qian Zhongshu's Essays pp. 149-176<br />
Hong Yu, University of Münster, Germany<br />
Cultural Polemics in Contemporary China<br />
From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature pp. 177-192<br />
Ban Wang, State University of New York at Stony Brook, New York, USA<br />
Mulish Essays: the Genre of Zawen in Contemporary China pp. 193-214<br />
Mary Scoggin, Humboldt State University, Arcata, USA<br />
Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei's Essays pp. 215-230<br />
Jie Lu, University of the Pacific, Stockton, USA<br />
Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's “Religious Sublime” pp. 231-240<br />
Xinmin Liu, Wesleyan University, Middletown, USA <br />
Discussion of this chapter: The xiaopin wen between xianshi sanwen and zawen pp. 241-246<br />
King-Fai Tam, Trinity College, Hart.ford, USA<br />
<br />
Regional Perspectives: Taiwan and Hong Kong<br />
The Changing Character of the Essay Subgenres pp. 247-290<br />
Ming-Lee Cheng, Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan<br />
The Short Miscellaneous Essay with Hong Kong Characteristics pp. 291-310<br />
Wai Leung Wong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China<br />
Overview of the Contemporary Essay<br />
Martin Woesler, University of Mainz, Germany<br />
The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends pp. 311-328<br />
A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing pp. 329-340<br />
Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective pp. 341-360<br />
Contributors pp. 361-372<br />
Index pp. 373-<br />
在地方散文以及钱钟书评论中的作者自我<br />
<br />
中国现代地方散文的传统阅读姿态 135-148 亚历山德拉·R·瓦格纳，耶鲁大学，纽黑文市，美国<br />
<br />
钱钟书的散文 149-176 于洪，明斯特大学，德国<br />
<br />
当代中国文化论证法<br />
<br />
从历史叙述到世界散文：当代中国文学中的散文模型 177-192 王斑，纽约石溪国立大学，纽约，美国<br />
<br />
杂文：当代中国杂文类别 193-214 玛丽·斯科金，洪堡州立大学，阿克塔，美国<br />
<br />
没有记忆的怀念：张伟散文阅读 215-230 卢杰，太平洋大学，斯托克顿市，美国<br />
<br />
破译令人讨厌的民粹主义者：关于张承志“宗教崇高性”的文化抨击 231-240 刘新民，卫斯理大学，米德尔顿，美国<br />
<br />
本章讨论：介于现实散文和杂文之间的小品文 241-246 谭景辉，圣三一学院，哈特福特，美国<br />
<br />
区域视角：台湾和香港<br />
<br />
论文子流派变化的角色 247-290，陈明礼，台湾师范大学，台北，台湾<br />
<br />
具有香港特色的短篇杂文 291-310，黄伟亮，香港中文大学，中国<br />
<br />
当代散文概述 马丁·沃斯勒，美因茨大学，德国<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文-特点，先驱者以及倾向 311-328<br />
<br />
从全新角度对散文家巴金，周作人，朱自清流派的调查 329-340<br />
<br />
现代中国文学和散文类别：一个全新视角 341-360<br />
<br />
贡献者 361-372<br />
<br />
索引 373-<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:47, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
vol. 5<br />
Martin Woesler, ed.<br />
The Chinese Essay in The 20th Century<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
496 (xlii, 205, 229) pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-934453-14-2 (3-934453-14-7)<br />
<br />
<br />
Essay-writing is an acknowledged hallmark of Chinese writers and intellectuals, past and present. The personal essay, in particular, has been widely popular ever since the Ming Dynasty and was a major genre of modern Chinese literature. The more public essay-form <br />
called zawen (miscellaneous essay), the invention of which is attributed to Lu Xun, has been used by at least two generations of modern Chinese intellectuals as a powerful weapon of social and political criticism, often from a dissident angle. All of these are well known in China but seldom studied in the West.<br />
It is time, therefore, that we welcome the publication of a volume of 20th century Chinese essays carefully selected and edited by Martin Woesler. Dr. Woesler has been a most conscientious young scholar from Germany who embarked upon such an endeavor with a singular devotion, especially in view of the fact that his mother tongue is not English. His exemplary zeal must have been contagious, for he was able to gather a like-minded group of translators who all contributed their time and energy to this magnificent volume. As his official sponsor for a year's research visit at Harvard, I am honored to be asked to write this perfunctory preface, a small task I do with pleasure for both scholarly and personal reasons. (Though no expert in this genre I am currently practicing essay-writing myself by contributing to a weekly column in Chinese for a Hong Kong newspaper.)<br />
Readers of this volume can readily discover that a most welcome feature is its comprehensiveness: samples from both the modern and contemporary periods are represented. Although ample coverage is given to writers from the Mainland, the celebrated poet and essayist from Taiwan, Yu Kwang-chung, is also included. Needless to add, this selection is chosen from a much larger collection of essays from Woesler's massive research data bank stored in his personal computer. I am sure he will welcome scholars who wish to gain access. I am delighted that after many years of hard work his labor is finally bearing fruit, and I invite all interested readers to sample its variegated taste.<br />
Leo Ou-fan Lee, July 14, 1999<br />
<br />
第五卷<br />
马丁·维斯勒 著<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2003年<br />
496（205，229）页<br />
ISBN 978-3-934453-14-2 (3-934453-14-7)<br />
€/US$ 25.00<br />
<br />
无论是过去还是现在，散文写作是中国作家和知识分子公认的标志。特别是个人散文，自明代以来就广泛流行，是中国现代文学的主要体裁之一。更公开的散文形式<br />
被称为扎文（杂文），是由鲁迅发明的，常被至少两代中国现代知识分子用作从不同政见的角度批判社会和政治的强大武器。这些中国都是众所周知的，但西方却很少有人研究。因此，我们应当欢迎马丁·维斯勒精心挑选和编辑的20世纪中国散文集的出版。维斯勒博士是一位勤勉认真的的德国青年学者，他以非常的献身精神从事这项工作，特别是考虑到他的母语不是英语。他的模范热情是一定具有感染力，因为他能够聚集一群志同道合的翻译家，他们都为这本伟大的著作贡献了时间和精力。作为他在哈佛大学进行为期一年研究访问的官方赞助商，我很荣幸地被要求写这个敷衍的序言，这是一项我出于学术和个人原因而愉快完成的小任务。（虽然我不是这方面的专家，但我目前正在练习写论文，为一家香港报纸的每周中文专栏撰稿。）这本书的读者很容易发现，它最受欢迎的特点是它的全面性：既有现代的例子，也有当代的例子。虽然大陆作家的作品得到了充分的报道，但台湾著名诗人和散文家余光中等人的作品也被包括在内。不用说，这篇文章是沃斯勒从存储在自己个人电脑中的大量研究数据库中挑选出来的。我相信他会欢迎那些希望进一步了解的学者。我很高兴，经过多年的努力，他的劳动终于结出了硕果，我邀请所有感兴趣的读者来品尝它丰富的味道。李欧范，1999年7月14日<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:00, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
Bd 4<br />
Manuel Fries<br />
China and Cyberspace. <br />
The Development of the Chinese National Information Infrastructure<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
220 pp., ISBN 978-3-934453-13-5 (3-934453-13-9)<br />
25.00 €<br />
<br />
"As a China consultant and academic whose interest in China goes as far back as 1952, I was delighted to be asked to write an introduction to "China and Cyberspace", a detailed and very up-to-date report on the development of the Chinese national information infrastructure, succinctly presented in this book by Manuel Fries.<br />
I had the pleasure of first meeting Manuel Fries in Beijing, where he undertook research for this book. Mr. Fries, who speaks fluent Chinese, mingled with ease with Chinese bureaucrats and private entre-preneurs in order to obtain the information for this publication. No doubt, this skill comes from both his training and his extensive research experience. This ideal combination allowed him to compile the vital background information on China's current communications industry, which is at the centre of this book.<br />
Much of the detailed information contained in this volume is not readily available in any form and therefore fills a vital gap as a reference tool for anybody who seeks vital information about China in Cyberspace. The appended bibliography is also of vital use for this purpose.<br />
I am delighted to be able to recommend this publication to all readers who have an interest in contem-porary China and its rapid progress in information technology."<br />
Dr. Wolfgang Frick<br />
曼纽尔弗里斯中国和网络空间。中国国家信息基础设施的发展，波鸿:欧洲大学出版社，2003年，220页，ISBN 978-3-934453-13-5(3-934453-13-9) 25.00欧元<br />
“作为一名中国顾问和学者，我对中国的兴趣可以回溯到1952年。我很高兴被邀请撰写《中国与网络空间》的引言，这是一份关于中国国家信息基础设施发展的最新的详细报告，由曼纽尔•弗莱斯(Manuel Fries)在这本书中简明扼要地阐述了这一问题。我有幸在北京第一次见到了曼纽尔•弗里斯，他在那儿为这本书进行了研究。弗莱斯先生能说一口流利的中文，能自在地与中国官员和私营企业企业家打交道，来获取本刊物所需的信息。毫无疑问，这种能力来自于他的练习和丰富的研究经验。这种理想的结合使他能够编纂有关中国目前通信行业的重要背景信息，这也是本书的核心内容。本书中所包含的许多详细信息都无法以任何形式轻易获取，所以对那些在找寻关于中国网络空间方面的重要信息的人来说，这是一个重要的参考。为这个目的，所附的书目也很重要。我很高兴能够向所有对当代中国以及对其信息技术的快速进步感兴趣的读者推荐这本刊物。”<br />
沃尔夫冈•弗里克（Wolfgang Frick）博士--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
曼纽尔弗里斯中国和网络空间。中国国家信息基础设施的发展，波鸿:欧洲大学出版社，2003年，220页，ISBN 978-3-934453-13-5(3-934453-13-9) 25.00欧元<br />
“作为一名中国顾问和学者，我对中国的兴趣可以回溯到1952年。被邀请撰写《中国与网络空间》的引言，我很荣幸。这是一份关于中国国家信息基础设施发展的最新的详细报告，由曼纽尔•弗莱斯(Manuel Fries)在这本书中简明扼要地阐述了这一问题。我有幸在北京第一次见到了曼纽尔•弗里斯，他在那儿为这本书进行了研究。弗莱斯先生能说一口流利的中文，能自在地与中国官员和私营企业企业家打交道，来获取本刊物所需的信息。毫无疑问，这种能力来自于他的练习和丰富的研究经验。这种理想的结合使他能够编纂有关中国目前通信行业的重要背景信息，这也是本书的核心内容。本书中所包含的许多详细信息都无法以任何形式轻易获取，所以对那些在找寻关于中国网络空间方面的重要信息的人来说，这是一个重要的参考。为这个目的，所附的书目也很重要。我很高兴能够向所有对当代中国以及对其信息技术的快速进步感兴趣的读者推荐这本刊物。”<br />
沃尔夫冈•弗里克（Wolfgang Frick）博士--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Vol. 3<br />
Martin Woesler (ed., transl.)<br />
<Chin., Ger.><br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
300 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-05-0 (3-932329-05-8)<br />
15,29 €<br />
<br />
Bilingual edition with the most famous Chinese essays of the 20th century.<br />
In 1917 the Chinese essay experienced under a strong Western influence its rebirth in baihua, the written common speech. The 1920s and 1930s saw a May of essay writing: in newspapers and magazines these short contributions were a modern medium of the enlightenment in China. Since 1927, the essay was increasingly politicized as a propaganda tool. The conflict between the free (Zhou Zuoren) and the politically committed essay (Lu Xun) was decided by the latter. In the 1990s, the essays of the republics, with the exception of the ideologically affirmative texts, are widely more received than those of the present.<br />
第三卷 马丁·吴勒森（中，徳） 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2003年 300页，出版号 978-3-932329-05-0（3-932329-05-8）€15，29<br />
20世纪最著名的中国散文，双语版。<br />
1917年，最西方的强烈影响下，中国散文经历了白话文—书面普通话的复兴。20世纪20、30年代，中国经历一场散文写作的五月运动：这些在报纸和杂志上面刊登的短文章成了中国启蒙运动的现代化媒介。自1927年以来，散文越发成为政治宣传的工具。自由（周作人）与政治散文（鲁迅）之间的矛盾受到后者的牵制。20世纪90年代，除思想积极的文章之外，共和文章较比现在的更加广受欢迎。<br />
<br />
Vol. 2 (3 subvolumes)<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003, xiii, 900 pp., 978-3-932329-04-3 (3-932329-04-X)<br />
€ 46.00<br />
<br />
The three volumes are divided into the period 1911-1949, 1949-2000 and bibliography. To subvolume 2:<br />
In the 1980s and 1990s, the Chinese essay experienced its second flowering phase after the Republic era. Anthologies, book series, periodicals and conferences are devoted to the essay. The fast-moving nature of society requires short, diverting texts. The individual consciousness is strengthened and the essay is the most immediate form of subjective expression. Also the interest in the discussion of socio-political issues increases. The young generation of the essayists, that are born after 1949, seems to write free from ideological influence for the first time. However, short-term political topics take up less space than in the 1920s and 1930s. The essay is consciously perceived as a genre again: In the 1980s the essay scholarship began in Taiwan, some years later in the People's Republic of China.<br />
卷二（附卷三） 马丁·吴勒森 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，第八版，900页，978-3-932329-04-3（3-932329-04-X）€46，00<br />
<br />
三卷分成1911-1949，1949-2000和自传三个。致附卷二：<br />
20世纪80和90年代，中国散文经历了共和时期之后的第二次繁荣。文选、系列书、期刊和会议都归于散文。社会快速发展的性质需要的是短小多元的文章。由于个人意识得到加强，散文成了表达主观情绪最直接的形式。同样的，人们对探讨政治社会的兴趣变得越发浓厚。1949年过后出生的新一代散文家们，似乎第一次能够在不受到意识形态的干扰下自由写作。然而，短期的政治话题较比20世纪20、30年代占据的篇幅更小。散文再次被认为是一种体裁：20世纪80年代，散文奖学金在台湾兴起，之后又在新中国开始。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 10:33, 3 October 2020 (UTC)周诗卿<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
Vol. 1<br />
Gunnar Richter<br />
<br />
Bochum: European University Press,<br />
104 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-02-9 (3-932329-02-3)<br />
13,90 €<br />
NEW: TRADITIONAL CHINESE VERSION ISBN 978-3-932329-45-6 (3-932329-45-7)<br />
<br />
This grammar of the Chinese is aimed at students of the Chinese language (beginner and advanced) and is designed as a summary for teaching purposes. It is based on the tried and widespread textbook 'Praktisches Chinesisch', but is enriched by examples from other sources. All examples are marked with Pinyin transcription. Different habits in the use of grammatical terms in German and Chinese are taken into account. This book is also intended as a reference book for grammatically interested sinologists.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yushu, Winfried Woesler, Horst Thomé (Hgg.)<br />
Bo¬chum: Multi¬Lin¬gua (from Vol. 4 Königshausen & Neumann), ISSN 1616-4016, yearly, Vol. 7 2006, Vol. 6 2005, Vol. 5 2004, Vol. 4 2003, Vol. 3 2002, Vol. 2 2001.8, Vol. 1 2000.8, 311 pages, ISBN 978-3-932329-12-8 (3-932329-12-0): 15,29 € (Vol. 1, 2) 49,50 € (from Vol. 3)<br />
<br />
GERMAN CHINA ASSOCIATION<br />
Bulletin of the German China Association<br />
since 1957, ISSN 1436-8048, 18 €<br />
<br />
卷1 贡纳·里希特 编著<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，104页， ISBN 978-3-932329-02-9 (3-932329-02-3) 13,90 € 传统中文的新译本： ISBN 978-3-932329-45-6 (3-932329-45-7)<br />
<br />
该汉语语法针对的是汉语学习者（初级和高级），目的是作为教学目的的总结。它基于久经考验以及广泛传播的教科书《实用汉语课本》，但其他来源的资料也丰富了<br />
该书。所有示例均标有拼音音标，并且考虑了德语和汉语中使用语法术语的不同习惯。该书也旨在成为对语法感兴趣的汉学家的参考书。<br />
<br />
<br />
张玉书，温·沃斯勒，霍尔斯特·托美（Hgg.）波鸿: MultiLingua核心期刊 (摘自 卷4 Königshausen & Neumann出版社), ISSN 1616-4016, 年刊, 卷7 2006, 卷 2005, <br />
卷5 2004, 卷4 2003, 卷 3 2002, 卷2 2001.8, 卷 1 2000.8, 311页, ISBN 978-3-932329-12-8 (3-932329-12-0): 15,29 € (卷 1, 2) 49,50 € (摘自卷3)<br />
德中协会，自1957年以来的德意志中国联合会公报， ISSN 1436-8048, 18 €--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 12:58, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Reversions:<br />
<br />
卷1 贡纳·里希特 编著<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，104页， ISBN 978-3-932329-02-9 (3-932329-02-3) 13,90 € 新：传统中文版本 ISBN 978-3-932329-45-6 (3-932329-45-7)<br />
<br />
该汉语语法针对的是汉语学习者（初级和高级），目的是作为教学目的的总结。这本书的基础是来自久经考验以及广泛传播的教科书《实用汉语课本》，但是其他渠道获取的列子也丰富了其内涵。该书所有示例均标有拼音音标，并涵盖了德语和汉语中使用语法术语的不同习惯。该书还旨在成为对语法感兴趣的汉学家的参考书。<br />
<br />
张玉书，温·沃斯勒，霍尔斯特·托美（Hgg.）波鸿: MultiLingua核心期刊 (摘自 卷4 Königshausen & Neumann出版社), ISSN 1616-4016, 年刊, 卷7 2006, 卷6 2005, <br />
卷5 2004, 卷4 2003, 卷 3 2002, 卷2 2001.8, 卷 1 2000.8, 311页, ISBN 978-3-932329-12-8 (3-932329-12-0): 15,29 € (卷 1, 2) 49,50 € (摘自卷3)<br />
德中协会，中德联合公报，1957年起，ISSN 1436-8048, €18 .--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 22:20, 4 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 22:20, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
1/2007<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
From Chinese novels, the Chinese literature in the sign of the "boom": Liu Jiming, Zhang Wei, Liu Qingbang and their response to the big city literature, Teodorico Pedrini, an Italian court musician in the palace of the emperor Kangxis, the awarding of the Orient-und-Okzident Prize to Ieoh Ming Pei, Josefine Huppertz's studies on Chinese seafaring and the question to what is different in China and why<br />
Issue 50 2007<br />
1. ed. 30.06.2007, Paperback<br />
92 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-54-8<br />
36,00 Eur [Ger]<br />
<br />
1/2006<br />
Issue 49 2006/1<br />
1. ed. 30.06.2006, Paperback<br />
118 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-48-7 (3-932329-48-1)<br />
36,00 Eur [Ger]<br />
<br />
2/2005<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Issue 48 2005/2<br />
1. ed. 23.12.2005, Paperback, 82 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-46-3 (3-932329-46-5)<br />
18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
1/2005<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Year 48 2005/1<br />
1. ed. 1.7.2005, Paperback, 82 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-44-9 (3-932329-44-9)<br />
18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
2/2004<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Bulletin of the German China Association <br />
Issue 47 2004/2<br />
1. ed. 23.12.2004<br />
Paperback<br />
100 pp, ISBN 978-3-932329-42-5 (3-932329-42-2)<br />
18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
1/2004<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Issue 47 2004/1<br />
1. ed. 30.06.2004<br />
Paperback<br />
98 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-40-1 (3-932329-40-6)<br />
18,00 Eur[Ger] / 18,60 Eur[At] <br />
<br />
2/2003<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Issue 46 2003/2<br />
Paperback, ed. 15.12.2003<br />
90 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-39-5 (3-932329-39-2), 18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
1/2003<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
<br />
Issue 46. 2003/1, 1. ed. 2003, Paperback<br />
80 pp., numerous black and white Picture(s)<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-38-8 (3-932329-38-4), 18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
Still available older issues: Vol 3 / 1998.12, 66 pp, 1999.5, 116 pp, 1999.12, 66 pp, 2000.5, 78 pp, 2001, 96 pp, 2001.12, 38 pp, 2002.7, 2002.12<br />
<br />
[English / German / Chinese]<br />
European University Press, ISBN 978-3-89966-012-8 (3-89966-012-9), about 80 pages, more than 100 color photos, 29,90 €<br />
<br />
2007年7月德意志中国协会（主编）。从中国小说中看，中国文学有繁荣的迹象：刘继铭，张炜，刘庆邦及其对大城市文学的回应，意大利法院音乐家德奥多里科·佩德里尼（Teodorico Pedrini）在康熙皇帝的宫殿中，向东方明培和何塞芬·霍珀兹（Josefine Huppertz）颁发了“东方与奥克斯坦特奖”，获奖的研究为中国航海、航海对中国带来的改变，以及为什么要发行第50期2007年第1版的问题。 2007年6月30日，平装本92页，ISBN 978-3-932329-54-8 欧元 [德国]<br />
1/2006第49版，2006年1 月第1版。 2006年6月30日，平装本118页，ISBN 978-3-932329-48-7（3-932329-48-1）36,00 欧元 [德国]<br />
1/2005德国中国协会（编辑）第48期2005年1月 第一版。 2005年1月7日，平装本，第82页，ISBN 978-3-932329-44-9（3-932329-44-9）18,00欧元[德国] / 18,60欧元[奥地利]<br />
2004年2月德中协会（eds。）德中协会公报第47期2004年2月 第一版。 2004年12月23日平装本100 页，ISBN 978-3-932329-42-5（3-932329-42-2）18,00欧元[德国] / 18,60欧元[奥地利]<br />
1/2004德中协会（编辑）第47期2004年1月 第一版。 2004年6月30日平装本98 页。ISBN 978-3-932329-40-1（3-932329-40-6）18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [奥地利]<br />
2/2003德中协会（编辑）第46期2003年2月平装本版本。 2003年12月15日90页ISBN 978-3-932329-39-5（3-932329-39-2），18,00欧元[德国] / 18,60欧元[奥地利] <br />
1/2003德国中国协会（编辑。）第46期。2003年1月，第1版。 2003，平装书80 页。大量黑白照片。ISBN 978-3-932329-38-8（3-932329-38-4），18,00 欧元 [德国] / 18,60 欧元 [奥地利]<br />
仍可获取到的旧期刊：第3 卷/ 1998年12月，66 页，1999年5月，116 页，1999年12月，66 页，2000年5月，78 页，2001年，96 页，2001年12月，38 页，2002年7月，2002年12月<br />
[英语/德语/中文]欧洲大学出版社，ISBN 978-3-89966-012-8（3-89966-012-9），约80页，超过100张彩色照片，29,90欧元--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 07:18, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
Chinese-Western cultural comparison<br />
Series: Inter Culturas<br />
ISSN 1613-6195<br />
Published by Hans-Peter Schütt, Ute Gahlings, Guido Rappe<br />
<br />
Interculturas means "between the cultures" and refers not only to the cultural diversity within the European present and the past, but also to the plurality that transcends space and time, in which Europe itself is always one of many cultures. Accordingly, Inter Culturas is an interdisciplinary series for studies on Europe, its culture and its history of ideas, in which not only intracultural but also intercultural work will appear.<br />
<br />
The following priorities are envisaged:<br />
- History of European Philosophy and Literature<br />
- gender research and European feminism<br />
- Europe in cultural comparison<br />
<br />
《中西文化比较》<br />
丛书：跨文化<br />
ISSN 1613-6195<br />
作者：汉斯-彼得·舒特，乌特加林斯，吉多·拉普<br />
<br />
跨文化是指“文化之间”，不仅指欧洲现在和过去的文化多样性，还指超越空间和时间的多元性，在这种多元性中，欧洲本身始终是许多文化之一。因此，国际文化是一个跨学科的系列，研究欧洲，不仅要研究文化内文化和历史思想的，而且也需要跨文化的研究工作。<br />
<br />
以下为预设优先呈现内容：<br />
-欧洲哲学和文学史<br />
-性别研究和欧洲女权主义<br />
-欧洲的文化比较<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中西文化比较<br />
系列:跨文化<br />
ISSN 1613 - 6195<br />
由Hans-Peter Schütt, Ute Gahlings, Guido Rappe出版<br />
<br />
跨文化是指“文化间的”，它不仅指欧洲现在和过去的文化多样性，也指超越空间和时间的多元性，而欧洲本身就是众多文化中的一种。因此，跨文化研究是一个跨学科的系列研究，研究欧洲的文化和思想史，其中不仅有文化内的作品，也会出现跨文化的作品。<br />
<br />
设想了下列优先事项:<br />
-欧洲哲学史和文学史<br />
-性别研究和欧洲女权主义<br />
-文化比较下的欧洲--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 12:47, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Vol. I-IV Guido Rappe: ISBN 978-3-86515-001-1 (3-86515-001-2 ), 4 volumes, approx. 3500 pp., Berlin et.al .: European University Press 2003-2008, with the purchase of the total work 285 euro; 1. volume 1040 pp., ISBN 978-3-86515-002-8 (3-86515-002-0)<br />
59,00 €<br />
<br />
卷1-卷4.吉多·瑞普:ISBN 978-3-86515-001-1 (3-86515-001-2 ).4卷，约3500页，柏林等:欧洲大学出版社 2003-2008.全套书售价285欧元.卷1，约1040页，ISBN 978-3-86515-002-8 (3-86515-002-0)，售价59欧元.<br />
<br />
The four-volume " Interkulturelle Ethik " attempts to acquire transcultural commonalities, which can serve to improve the philosophical understanding between people, using the example of the ancient cultural comparison between Europe and China. From a modern philosophic perspective follwing intensive examination with both the classical texts of the moral theories and the practice of ethical techniques is intended to illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of the different directions in order to promote a mutual learning process. In this way, a conceptual foundation of moral-philosophical thought is aimed at, which is no longer based on the dominance of European thought, but exposes the view to an ethics of the equated, peaceful coexistence of human beings<br />
<br />
《跨文化伦理》总共四卷，该书通过举例对比古欧洲和古中国在文化方面的异同来探寻跨文化的共性，从而进一步增进不同民族之间哲学层面上的相互理解。在对讨论道德理论的经典篇章做了大量的研究之后，该书从现代哲学角度出发，阐明了不同文化的长处和短处，以期促进文化间的相互学习。这样以来，哲学——道德的理念基础就不再以欧洲理念至上，而是将目光投向了一种人类平等和和平共处的伦理理念。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 12:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Vol. I<br />
Guido Rappe<br />
xxv, 1002 pp., 2004<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-002-8 (3-86515-002-0)<br />
59 €<br />
<br />
In today's era of the coalescence of cultures, the question of cross-cultural ethics is of crucial importance. In view of the ever-repeated assertion that these great differences between European and outer-European thinking stand in the way, a critical review of such theses is made and proved that these are usually unauthorized. By following certain dominant European perspectives from ancient times to modern era, the volume exposes the ethnocentric aspects of the tradition of postconventional approaches. On the other hand, there are intensified similarities in time and space that are not sufficiently taken into account by many modern cultural-relativistic approaches. The volume tries to initiate a new intercultural dialogue on ethics by breaking down prejudices on both sides.<br />
在当今文化交融的时代，跨文化伦理问题至关重要。人们接连不断地断言欧洲及欧洲以外的思想之间存在的巨大差异阻碍了跨文化伦理问题的研究，该书对这些论断进行了批判性的审查，并证明这些断言通常是未经证实的。通过遵循从古至今的一些欧洲主流观点，该书册揭示了后传统习俗方法的民族中心主义。 另一方面，时间和空间上的相似性加剧，许多现代文化相对论方法没有充分考虑到这一点。 该册试图通过打破双方的偏见，开始新的跨文化伦理对话。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 13:30, 3 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 07:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Vol. II, Part I<br />
Ethical Anthropology I.<br />
The body as the foundation of ethics,<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-003-5 (3-86515-003-9), 1. Tlbd. 2005 € 59<br />
2 Tlbd. Together 118 €<br />
<br />
In contrast to the dominant scientific concepts of human beings, which have especially gained a stronger public impact through recent research on brain physiology, but also in a critical delimitation towards mental metaphysical ideas, which have determined the ethical discussion of the European tradition for 2500 years, this volume deals with the elaboration of fundamentals of an anthropology that is based on ethical phenomena and the moral quality of man. These are understood as a specific way of human existence, whose roots reach deep into the life of the body. Between the neuronal fire on the one hand and the 'spirit' of the 'soul' or the 'consciousness' on the other side, a critical consideration is to be found in empirical phenomena, with the concept of the body, its vitality, its mnemonic potency and its ability to communicate an orientated terminological foundation, on which both the further personal ethics with the founded moral emotions on it as well as an intercultural comparing of ancient ethics concepts can build up.<br />
<br />
第二卷，第一部分<br />
道德人类学 一<br />
身体是伦理的基础<br />
国际标准书号 978-3-86515-003-5 (3-86515-003-9),<br />
<br />
本卷基于伦理现象和人的道德素质，对人类学的基础进行阐释。和占主导地位的科学概念相反，这次对大脑生理学展开的研究对公众产生了强烈的影响，同时对精神形而上学观念进行了严格划界，这决定了欧洲2500年以来对欧洲传统的道德讨论。这些一直以来都被视作人类存在的一种方式，其根深深扎根于生命中。一方面是神经元之火，另一方面的“灵魂的精神”或“意识”，在这中间，可以从经验中得到一个重要的发现，基于身体、生命力、记忆能力、交流有针对性的术语基础等概念，可以在已发现的道德情感上进一步建立个人伦理，以及对古代伦理进行跨文化比较。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 11:25, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
Vol. II, Part. 2<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-003-5 (2) (ISBN-10 3865150039), 2 parts 2006 59 €<br />
2 parts together 118 €<br />
<br />
A modern ethics needs a conceptual foundation which adequately takes the emotional and intellectual aspects of man into consideration. This is offered in the present Ethical Anthropology with the term of the person, to which the understanding belongs the term of the personal identity, the freedom of will and responsibility as well as the attitude and the conscience. Its development requires a phenomenological-historical view on the understanding of feelings and thinking in European culture, which reveals those aspects which were largely pushed back by the dominant branch of metaphysics in its relevance to the moral foundation. From this perspective, personal ethics explores its basis in emotional experience, without an understanding of moral quality is impossible, and this is discussed with the example of the feeling of sympathy which is found in a moral sense. But moral feelings alone are not sufficient, but require critical support through reason and through an effort for self-cultivation. Only then can they form part of the balanced path to the success of life, which allows man to counter his moral potency in the fulfillment of his life.<br />
现代伦理学需要一个充分考虑人类情感和智力方面的概念基础。这一点是由当代伦理人类学以人的概念提出的，对此的理解属于个人身份这一概念，属于意志自由、责任自由、态度自由以及良知自由。 其发展需要从现象学和历史学的角度探讨对于欧洲文化的情感和思想，这揭示了形而上学的主导分支很大程度上阻碍了关于道德基准这些方面的发展。从这一视角来看，个人伦理学探讨了其在情感经历方面的基础，不理解道德品质是不可能探索的了的。个人伦理学是从道德意义上的同情感为例来展开讨论，但是只有道德情感是不够的，也需要通过理性和努力修身获得批判性的支持。只有这样它们才能成为通往成功人生平衡之路的部分通道，让人们在实现人生的过程中对抗自己的道德力量。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 08:26, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
Vol. III<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-004-2 (3-86515-004-7) 59 €<br />
<br />
The virtue ethics, which has been intensified discussed since the second half of the 20th century, is now a major alternative to the established formal approaches of the metaphysical European tradition of ethics. This is because it can look back on a long history which coincides with the beginning of written philosophy in Greek and Chinese antiquity. The knowledge of the high ethical level of these approaches has been pushed back into the background for a long time, due to the ideological attitudes which have taken place during European Christianization and the persistent misleading polemic. Another non-critical and problematic effect was the uncritical use of the term 'deontological', which had been torn out of the antique context and applied to concepts that were directed against virtuous approaches. The present volume aims to help to overcome these shortcomings and confusion. In doing so it elaborates an intercultural perspective that, based on the ancient Chinese virtue ethics, offers a detailed comparison with Greek approaches. The result of this detailed presentation and intensive philosophical penetration shows not only the cross - cultural anthropological relevance of virtuous ethics, but also the fact that the ancient theories of self - cultivation can also open up perspectives for today 's people who can provide valuable guidance in a time of progressive formalization on the way to a subject-centric self-perfection.<br />
<br />
卷三 ISBN 978-3-86515-004-2 (3-86515-004-7) 59 €<br />
<br />
自二十世纪下半叶以来，人们越发热切地讨论道德伦理学。时至今日，道德伦理学已成为一个替代形而上学式欧洲伦理学传统的主要既成方法。这归因于它可以回顾一段悠久的历史，这与始于希腊和中国古代有记载的哲学相一致。由于欧洲基督教化时期意识形态态度的出现和持续的误导性争论，在很长一段时间内，人们将这些方法的高伦理水平知识推回到背景中。另一个非关键且有疑问的影响是对”义务论”一词的随意使用。这一用语从古老的文本中剥离出来并且应用于直接反对道德流派的概念中。本卷旨在帮助克服这些缺点和困惑。基于中国古代道德伦理学，本文阐述不同文化观点，并呈现中国道德伦理学与希腊道德伦理学的具体不同。这种详尽的呈现和深入的哲学渗透的结果不仅表明了道德伦理学与跨文化人类学相关，而且表明古代的修身理论也可以为现代人开拓视野。人们可以在不断形式化的时代提供价值导向，走向以主体为中心的自我完善的道路。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:13, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
Vol. IV ISBN 978-3-86515-005-9 (3-86515-005-5) 59 €<br />
<br />
ORDERING<br />
Ruhr University, P.O. Box "Bochumer Universitätsverlag", Universitätsstr. 150, 44801 Bochum, Germany Tel. +49 (0) 234 701360, Fax 701230, email info@blaetterwald.net, Publisher's delivery for the European University Press and the Bochum University Press<br />
<br />
卷四 ISBN 978-3-86515-005-9 (3-86515-005-5) 59 €<br />
<br />
订购<br />
鲁尔大学，邮政信箱:波鸿大学出版社，大学:150，44801 波鸿，德国电话:+49（0）234 701360，传真:701230，电子邮箱:info@blaetterwald.net，欧洲大学出版社和波鸿大学出版社发行--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 04:17, 5 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=116213History of Translation Studies 42020-12-20T04:23:23Z<p>Zhangqi: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
=Theories=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
<br />
===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
<br />
====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
<br />
TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
<br />
TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
<br />
First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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3.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
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Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
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Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
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=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
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*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
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*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
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*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
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*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
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*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
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*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
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(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从纽马克的翻译理论看翻译的四个层次<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
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Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
As Li Qingzhao's later representative work, ''shengshengman'', praised by later generations as "the Eternal Farewell", describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong's English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, and beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, it is impractical that a translator wants to make a perfect translation, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
Translation is an activity of expressing the information carried by one language into another language. Each language has its own characteristics, connotation and extension that are influenced by different living environment and cultural background. Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, there is a natural connection between Chinese translation and aesthetics. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in the Chinese translation circle. New theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers. Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thought calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan. This work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs a further development and perfection, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, or comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on. The perspective is relatively narrow, which has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp "spirit" and "tone" of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) --[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: "Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum." (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that "translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style." Here, "meaning" is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: "In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years."(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition, appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. Compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay more attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism, while through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one who introduced Li Qingzhao and her works to the English-speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, his another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' was published by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period. In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions are including Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed their research on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
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In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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This part is discussed the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality. The translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators taking the challenge to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅” is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something, “冷冷清清” is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something, “凄凄惨惨” is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and "戚戚" is the feeling in the deep inner heart. This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated “寻寻觅觅” into 'I look for what I miss', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of "寻寻觅觅" through the description of environment that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,"冷冷清清", is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into 'I know not what it is', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into 'I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in "so+adj" structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful images, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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Xu chooses “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind. At the same time he uses the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, Here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingering. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image who is frail, sad, vulnerable, and unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” don't have such meaning. To convey this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心” is the main part. To Express this very desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that can convey the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense. The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but people feel the same about the up and down of all things in the natural world. So, Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to express it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered but beautiful. In short, for Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, their phonology is very differentas well as the way of expression. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
Therefore, to translate Chinese poems(''ci'') into English is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text. The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also excelled at showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole words are translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of shaping the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or the same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey its beauty, it is obviously useless to translate the original text literally. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
<br />
(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
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The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
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Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
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The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
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By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
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Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
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From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
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Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
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Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
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It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
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The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
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In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
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And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
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[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
<br />
For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
<br />
Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
<br />
Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
<br />
The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
<br />
The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
<br />
Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
<br />
In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
［1］Franzosi，Mario.European Community Trade Mark-Commentary to the European Community Regulations[M].Kluwer Law International.1997，209-222.<br />
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［2］ Myers，Greg.Ad Worlds-Brands，Media，Audience[M].Arnold.1988，55-71.<br />
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［3］Fu Zhongxuan傅仲选.《实用翻译美学》[M].[Practical Translation Aesthetics].上海外语教育出版社. Foreign Language Education Press.1993(06）.<br />
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［11］Shang Guan saijun上官赛君.目的论视角下化妆品商标汉译技巧[J].[Chinese translation skills of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of teleology].考试周刊，Examination Weekly,2011.<br />
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［16］Yu Jun余俊.商标功能辨析[J].[Analysis of trademark function].知识产权,Intellectual Property,2009,19(06):74-78.<br />
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［18］Zhu Fan朱凡.英汉商标词翻译研究述评(1994-2001)[J].[A Review of Research on the Translation of English and Chinese Brand Words].上海科技翻译，Shanghai Science and Technology Translation,2002（04）.<br />
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［19］China Encyclopedia Editor-in-Chief,中国大百科全书总编委会．《中国大百科全书》［M］.[Encyclopedia of China].2nd edition. 第 2 版 ． 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社，Beijing: China Encyclopedia Publishing House,2009 ( 3) : 19－283．<br />
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<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu 202070080630 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu <br />
<br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.<br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao Ronggui, 2005, 9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu Miqing, 1986, 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang Zhanbin, 2007, 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba Jin, 2003, 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba Jin, 1991, 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (Ba Jin, 2003, 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba Jin, 1981, 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba Jin，1981, 16）<br />
<br />
good--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba Jin，1981, 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba Jin，2010, 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 16)--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba Jin, 2010, 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba Jin, 2010, 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba Jin,2010, 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Oscar Wilde, 2015, 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba Jin, 2010, 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, --[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text. On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work. Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. (2011). Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. (2002). Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
in Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). 翻译基础 [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
[4] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (1981). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai上海：Juvenile & Children's Publishing House 少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] Ba Jin 巴金. (2003). 巴金译文选集 [Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works]. Beijing 北京: SDX Joint Publishing Company 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] Ba Jin 巴金译, Oscar Wilde 王尔德著. (2010). 快乐王子 [The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Translation Publishing House上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. Shanghai 上海: Shanghai Foreing Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986).翻译美学概述 [A Survey of Translation Aesthetics].外国语(上海外国语学报) Journal of Foreign Languages, (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1986). 翻译美学基本理论构想 [A Basic Theoretical Supposition of Translation Aesthetics].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 翻译美学导论 [An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics]. Bei Jing 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
<br />
[11] Lin Lin 林琳. (2007). 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》[An Aesthetic Perspective of Ba Jin's Translation of The Happy Prince and Other Stories]. Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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[12] Liu Xiaoyin 刘孝银. (2012). 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话 [Translation Aesthetics Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales]. Shanxi Normal University 山西师范大学.<br />
<br />
[13] Mao Ronggui毛荣贵. (2005). 翻译美学 [Translation Aesthetics]. Shanghai上海: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] Wang Zhanbin 王占斌. (2007).巴金翻译思想探析 [An Exploration and Analysis of Ba Jin's Translation Theories].English Studies英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] Wu Jinhua 吴金华. (1999). 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色 [An Analysis of Linguistic Features of Oscar Wilde's works].Journal of Ningxia University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] Xiang Hongquan 向洪全. (2016). 翻译家巴金研究 [An Research on the Translator Ba Jin]. Shanghai 上海：Fudan University Press 复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] Yang Liqiu 杨立秋. (2016). 巴金翻译美学特征探析 [On Ba Jin's Aesthetic Features in Translation: A Case Study of The Fairy Tales of Oscar Wilde].Beijing Foreign Studies University 北京外国语大学.<br />
<br />
==The Comparison between Lexical Gap in Linguistics and It in Translatology From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Because of globalization, the cross-cultural communication becomes more and more important. The lexical gap causes difficulty in mutual understanding between two cultures. Even though the lexical gap is borrowed from semantics to translatology, they are different. The paper compares the definition, the classification in lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and find that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly concerns the unlexicalized concept within one language, while the lexical gap in Translatology mainly focus on the culture-specific words and denotation and connotation divergence between equivalents in two languages. Besides, the paper also analyzes the causes of lexical gap from cognitive perspective. The experiential and perceptual causes are the main causes of lexical gap. Besides, to solve the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology respectively, the paper provides different translation strategies for the two kinds based on Skopos theory. <br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
<br />
Lexical Gap, Culrure-loaded Words, Skopos Theory<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
由于全球化的发展，跨文化交际变得越来越重要。词汇的差异导致两种文化之间难以相互理解。虽然词空缺是从语义学借用到翻译学，但两者互不相同。本文从定义,分类比较了词汇空缺在语言学和翻译学中的不同，发现语言学的词汇空缺主要关注在同一语言中没有被词汇化的概念，而翻译学的词汇空缺主要指文化造成的概念空缺和两个语言中对应词汇在外延和内涵上的不同。此外，本文还从认知角度分析了造成词汇空缺的原因。经验缺失和认知差异是造成词汇空缺的主要原因。此外，为了解决语言学和翻译学上的词汇空缺，本文基于目的论为这两种词汇空缺提出了不同的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
词汇空缺；文化负载词；目的论<br />
<br />
===Introduction=== <br />
<br />
Word is a basic unit of language. “The vocabulary of a particular language is not just a random list of words. As a matter of fact, the vocabulary is organized in terms of lexical fields.” (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748) In a lexical field, if a concept exists, but the word that represents the concept is absent, so the lexical gap within a language will occur, which is the meaning of lexical gap in linguistics.<br />
<br />
The term of "lexical gap" is originated from a French word "lacuna". (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12) . The “lacuna” means vacancy, therefore, the lexical gap means word vacancy. Researchers in linguistic and researchers in translatology defines lexical gap differently. In translatology, the lexical gap is defined across two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is mainly caused by culture and society difference. However, no researchers until now tries to compare the difference between lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology. Therefore, the paper will try to compare them form definition, classification, translation strategy. (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748)<br />
<br />
Besides, some reseachers equates the lexical gap with the culture-loaded words, but the paper does not agree. Therefore, the paper tries to compare them. (Tian & Yang, 2005: 55)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, the cross-cultural communication become more and more important because of the globalization. To break the language barrier, the translation become very significant. However, the lexical gap confuses the translator in a large scale. Therefore, to know it clearly and to grasp its translation strategy is urgent for the successful communication and culture spreading. The skopos theory provides us a new way to see translation. With different purposes, different translation strategies should be applied. translation for successful communication and translation for culture spreading should apply different strategies. (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12)<br />
<br />
The structure of the thesis is given below. Section 1 introduces the three rules of skopos theory. Section 2 introduces the difference between definitions, classifications of lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and also discusses the causes of lexical gap. Section 3 put forward different translation strategies for the two kinds of lexical gap based on the skopos theory. Section 5 concludes the whole paper. <br />
<br />
===Introduction of Skopos Theory=== <br />
====Development of Skopos Theory====<br />
The origin of Skopos theory can be dated back to Katharina Reiss’s book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism in 1971. In Skopos theory, translation is considered as a human behaviors with certain purposes rather than translating processes. The judgement of a successful translation is whether the translation accords with the intended purpose. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14)<br />
<br />
The development of Skopos Theory can be divided into three phases. In 1971, Katherina Reiss firstly proposed the base form of functionalist approach to translation. On one hand, Reiss suggested that the perfect translation should be translation “in which the aim in the TL is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a SL text”. Reiss defines this kind of translation as “integral communicative performance”; On the other hand, she admits that the absolute equivalence is impossible, besides, in some situations, is not required. The translation should have its own translation brief. In some cases, the different function of the original text is different with the target one, so Reiss proposes that the translator is supposed to pay attention to the function not the equivalence. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)<br />
<br />
Hans Vermeer puts forward Skopos theory based on the ideas of his teacher Katherina Reiss. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of transformation, that is, the transfer of communicative linguistic signs and non-linguistic signs from one language to another. Translation is also a kind of human action. According to the action theory, Vermeer considers translation as the intentional and purposeful behavior under specific circumstances. Translator should translate the original text selectively based on the intentions of translation and the requirements of target readers. Vermeer also emphasizes that translation is not a one-to-one language transformation activity because the human behaviors take place in culturals context and different cultures have different customs and values. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)<br />
<br />
Based on action theory, Justa Holz Manttari (1984) develops the ideas of Vermeer Manttari believes that translation designed to satisfy a particular intention with the coverage of all forms of intercultural transfer, including textural material, pictures, sounds, body movements and so on. Therefore, he emphasizes translating process, the roles of the participants and the situation in which the activities occur. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14-15)<br />
<br />
====Principles of Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
There are three rules in Skopos Theory including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Actually, the skopos rule is the primary rule among the three rules. <br />
<br />
The Skopos theory means that the translational purposes of the target text determine the translation process. The skopos rule can be explained as translate or express the original text in a way that admits your translation to satisfy the function the target readers or you clients want. The rule indicates that the translator may use the free or faithful translation or combination of the two extremes depending on the purposes that the target text requires. That is to say, there is no better way between free translation and faithful translation. The point is how to use them properly. ( Nord, Christiane, 2001, 29)<br />
<br />
By Coherence rule, the standard of “intratextual coherence” should be conformed in the target language (Reiss and Vermeer 1984: 109). That is to say, that the target text that a translator translates should be understood by the receivers. Besides, the words and expressions in the target text should be meaningful and understandable in the culture and communicative situation where target language is used, which means that the target reader can easily comprehend the purposes of the target text quickly. (Tian Xiaoqin, 2006, 23) <br />
<br />
Therefore, the translators have to grasp the the social and cultural knowledge of the target receivers and the original text. based on the absolute understanding of the two culture, the translator can comprehend the inherent meaning of the original text, select the useful message that should be translated in the source text and find or create proper expressions in the target language for the better understanding of target text to make sure the successful cross-culture communication. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)<br />
<br />
Fidelity rule, also called intertextual coherence between source text and target text. As we have discussed above, the purposes that the target text want to satisfy is the most important in the translation, which means the translator may subordinate the faithfulness to the source text to the satisfaction of the purposes. However, it does not mean that the faithfulness is not required. The translators should try their best to be faithful and achieve the purposes at the same time. The degree of the fidelity actually relies on the purpose the translator’s understanding of the source text. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, it is doubtless that skopos rule is the core of Skopos theory. The coherence rule is more important than fidelity rule. If the skopos changes, the degree of inter-textual coherence between source text and target text will change. If the skopos does not require intratextual coherence, the coherence rule is not needed (Nord, Christiane, 2001, 33).<br />
<br />
===Introduction of Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words===<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology==== <br />
<br />
By reading different papers, the paper finds that the different definitions of lexical gap in Linguistics and Translatology. Therefore, the paper discusses the difference between the two definitions and the problems caused by the biased understanding of the lexical gap in Translatology. <br />
<br />
In 1957, Lado R (cf Tan Zaixi, 1982: 6-10) first proposed the concept of "Lexical gaps" in Linguistics across Cultures. In Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, the definition of the lexical gap is “the absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language.” (Richards et al, 2002: 305). Besides, the lexical gap is also defined “a lexical item which has the potential to be lexicalized, but is not actually lexicalized, in the vocabulary according to the rules governing the phonological system, the morpheme combination and the sememe combination of the language in question.” (Wang Qianzhi, 2017, 749-750) <br />
<br />
Though the lexical gap is firstly appeared in the field of the linguistics, the term is also used in the study of translation. The basic idea “the absence of a word” in the definition of lexical gap is used to describe the phenomenon that “the absence in the target language of a word, an expression that exists in the target language.” (Delisle, Jean et al, 1988,77) <br />
<br />
Therefore, in Translatology, the concept of lexical gap is always infused with the concept of culture, especially in China. <br />
The concept of lexical gap is firstly applied by Tan Zaixi (1982). (Qian Jing, 2013, 11-12). As the researcher proposes, the unique characteristics of a culture will be embodied in the language. When the culture uniqueness is reflected in vocabulary, the lexical gap will arise between two languages. (Tan Zaixi, 1982, 6)<br />
<br />
Guo Aixian( 1998) sums up three definitions of lexical gap according to the previous researches, firstly, it refers to unique words of each culture. Secondly, they are the words of the source language that are easily misunderstood in the target language. Thirdly, they are culture-loaded words and expressions. (Guo Aixian, 1998: 42)<br />
<br />
In Sum up, the Lexical gap in linguistics is discussed with a language and the component of culture is not considered, while the lexical gap in Translatology is studied from the perspective of interlanguage and is infused with culture. <br />
<br />
====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology==== <br />
=====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====<br />
<br />
Wenxu (2003) believes that the lexical gap is caused mainly by the hyponymy, antonymy, synonymy and part-whole relation. He puts forward to use the three lexical semantic relations that are proposed by Cruse (1986) to classify the lexical gap, which includes proportional series, hierarchies and opposites. (Wen Xu, 2003, 81)<br />
<br />
Wen also illustrate the three classification of the lexical gap. <br />
<br />
For the proportional series, he gives an example like human—corpse, animal—carcass, plant—?. In this example, human and corpse as well as animal and carcass constitute an intact minimal unit, while the vacancy in the place that express the concept of “dead plant” is a lexical gap in English. (ibid)<br />
By hierarchies, Wen suggests that the hyponymy is a kind of hierarchies. His example is that no hypernym in the category of verbs that express moving in the ground, but there are “swim”, “fly” to express moving in the water and sky, so a lexical gap occurs. By the opposites, Wen proposes that there may exist lexical gap in antonymy. For example, blind, deaf, dumb have no lexicalized antonyms. (ibid)<br />
<br />
From the three classification of the lexical gap in linguistics, it is found that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly occur in the lexical sematic relations within a language. (ibid) <br />
<br />
=====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====<br />
<br />
However, when the “gap” is used to refer to the difference between two languages. <br />
<br />
Therefore, Han (2009) classifies the lexical gap in translatology into two categories and four subcatergories. The two categories are lexical gap including concept vacancy and expression vacancy as well as semi-lexical gap including denotation divergence and connotation divergence. (Han Luan, 2009, 4-6)<br />
<br />
A. Lexical Gap Proper—No Equivalent <br />
<br />
Lexical gap proper means that there exists no equivalent of the words or expressions of the source language in the target language. Lexical gap proper is manifested by two kinds: concept vacancy and expression vacancy. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)<br />
<br />
a. Concept vacancy <br />
<br />
Concept vacancy is a kind of lexical gap that is related to the difference of culture because of the culture difference. The present concept in source language may be absent in the target language. For example, the concept of “土地庙” does not exist in English, and the concept of “Lazy Susan” cannot find equivalent in Chinese. Those words are created based on the unique characteristics of the culture. That is to say, the culture uniqueness causes the absence of concepts in a language. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)<br />
<br />
b. Expression Vacancy<br />
<br />
Expression Vacancy refers to the non-lexicalized concept in the target language, which means that a concept may be represented by a lexicon but by a free combination of words in the target one. For example, Chinese people may use “笔” to refer to the general name of a category, while there exists no such a general name in English. There is no doubt that the English speakers know what is “笔”. They just have no such a word for reference. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)<br />
<br />
B. Semi-lexical Gap—Partial Equivalent<br />
<br />
Actually, semi-lexical gap means partial equivalence. That is to say, even though words and expressions in source language can find equivalents in target language, but they are not totally same. The divergence may occur in the denotation and connotation of the concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)<br />
<br />
a. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence<br />
<br />
Here the paper gives examples to illustrate the kind of lexical gap. For example, the “龙” in Chinese and “dragon” in English. They are always translated as each other, but they have difference in denotation and connotation. The “龙” in China represents power and goodness, while the “dragon” in English represents evil and badness. <br />
<br />
The color “red” in Chinese and English may have same denotation, but they are difference in connotation. The “neighbor” and “邻居” also different in denotation. The range of “neighbor” is much greater than that of “邻居”.<br />
To compare the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology, we can find that the denotation of lexical gap in translatology is richer than that in linguistics. In linguistics, the lexical gap only refers to the absence lexicon or expression that is admitted to exist according to the structure of a language. That is to say, the concept has existed in the language but not be lexicalized. However, in translatology, the lexical gap can not only refer to the lexical gap in linguistics, but also refers to any kinds of lexical vacancy between two languages. The vacancy may be caused by concept absence based on culture difference or caused by semantic difference in the corresponding concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12) <br />
<br />
====The Relation and Difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Word====<br />
<br />
It can be found that the definition of lexical gap in Translatology adds the components of culture. Actually, some researchers including Xu Guozhang even equate the lexical gap with culture loaded words. (Tian Xianzhi & Yang Jinxue, 2005, 55). However, the paper believes that the lexical gap is not equivalent to the culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
=====The Overlap Between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
<br />
Tang (2006) defines culture-loaded words as “the words or expressions that carry the meaning of a cultural trait to a certain socio-cultural community, and their referent also exists in other communities, but doesn’t overlap the one in other community completely in semantic category, and therefore that just has, to some extent, a corresponding equivalent when used in cross-cultural communication.” (Tang Xiuqiong, 2006: 126-127)<br />
<br />
Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) defines the culture-loaded words as words and expressions that carries culture connotation in a specific culture of a nation or a region. The culture connotation of a culture-loaded word is culture-specific and conventional abstract and concrete concept. (Li Yingyu & Guo Jirong & Yuan Liling, 2008, 64) <br />
<br />
From the definition of culture-loaded words, we can find that the culture-loaded words has some similarities with lexical gap in the category of semi-lexical gap. The concept exists in the source language and target language, while the denotation and connotation of the concept in the two languages are not same. Based on the definition of Tang (2006), the concept vacancy does not belong to the category of culture-loaded words. However， the definition of Li & Guo & Yuan (2008) admits that the concept vacancy is a kind of culture-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Therefore, the part of denotation of culture-loaded words overlaps with part of denotation of lexical gap, but their connotations are totally different.<br />
<br />
=====The difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
<br />
Even though there are some similarities between the denotation of lexical gap and that of culture-loaded words, but some difference can also easily found. For example, in China, we use “出轨“ to refer to ”have an affair“ in English, while we also use “戴绿帽子” to represent the same concept. However, the “戴绿帽子” cannot be considered as lexical gap according to the definition of lexical gap, because the concept of “戴绿帽子” has an equivalent expression in English, which means the concept has been filled in English, but Chinese creates another expression to represent the concept based on its culture. Therefore, the “戴绿帽子” is a culture-loaded words but not lexical gap. <br />
<br />
In sum up, there exists some conventionalized expressions that carries culture traits in a language to represents the lexicalized concept. Because the concept has been lexicalized, so there is no lexical gap that need to fill. That is to say, the conventionalized expressions as “戴绿帽子” is just a culture-loaded words but not a lexical gap. <br />
<br />
====The Causes of Lexical Gap====<br />
<br />
=====Experiential Causes=====<br />
<br />
There is no such experience in a culture. Therefore, corresponding concept does not exist in the language. For example, most English speaker never know what the “醪糟” is，while most Chinese never know what the Macaroni and Cheese is. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40) <br />
<br />
=====Psychological Causes and Perceptual Causes=====<br />
<br />
The death of an animal may evoke emotions of human, while the death of a plant may not, which may be caused by construal of human. Human always pays their attention to the animate and movable entity as figure firstly, while the unmovable entities are considered as ground. That is why the plant is ignored. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the psychological causes is always combined with the perceptual causes because human’s perception is subjective, which causes the conscious and unconscious absence of an expression. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40) <br />
<br />
===Translation of Lexical Gap===<br />
<br />
====Translatability and Untranslatability====<br />
<br />
Translatability and untranslatability are a famous and still unsolved paradox. “Translatability is mostly understood as the capacity for some kind of meaning to be transferred from one language to another without undergoing radical change” (Baker, 1998/2004: 273). Wilss (1982/2001: 49) put forwards that translatability of a text can “be measured in terms of the degree to which it can be recontextualized in the TL, taking into account all linguistic factors”. Untranslatability is defined as “impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning.” (Catford, 1965, 94) “Translatability is more like a continuum than a well-defined dichotomy. The text or unit of the primitive is more or less translatable, not absolutely untranslatable. (ibid, 93)”.<br />
<br />
From the definition of the translatability and untranslatability, it can be concluded that untranslatable phenomenon definitely exists in language if we see translatability as a continuum. Because of the difference in culture and lexicalization in different languages, the lexical gap in linguistics may not be translated but can be borrowed. However, lexical gap in translatology can be translated in various ways. <br />
<br />
====The Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap Between English and Chinese Based on the Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Because lexical gap in linguistics is caused by the concept vacancy and non-lexicalization of concepts. Based on the Skopos theory, the purpose of translation determines what kinds of strategies are selected in translation. In translation of Lexical gap, different translation strategies should be applied while facing different purpose.<br />
<br />
If the purpose is successful communication , we may choose not to translation the lexical gap if it will not influence the success of the communication. However, if the purpose is to introduce the culture of source language to the target one, the translation is necessary. Of course, there are lots of purposes of translation and the purpose depends on the genre of source text. If the translation of lexical gap is necessary, several strategies are provided below. <br />
<br />
=====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====<br />
<br />
The translation strategies of lexical gap in linguistic includes mainly borrowing. As we have discussed above, the lexical gap in linguistics can be divided into three categories including proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites. <br />
<br />
For the translation of the three kinds, borrowing is the main methods. English borrows lots of words from French to fill the lexical gap years ago. For example, beef for the meat of cow, loot for war trophies from India. These concepts exist in the mind of English people, but these concepts are not lexicalized, so English loans words from other languages. <br />
<br />
=====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====<br />
<br />
As we have given Above, the lexical gap in translatology is separated into four kinds: concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence.<br />
<br />
a. Concept Vacancy<br />
<br />
For concept vacancy, the first purpose of translation is to introduce the concept to the target readers and let them understand what the concepts are. Therefore, there exists four strategies to translate it.<br />
<br />
For concept vacancy, transliteration are easily used.<br />
<br />
For example, “豆腐”, “饺子”, “混沌”, “叉烧”, “炒面” are translated into “tofu”, “jiaozi” “won ton”, “char shiu” and “chow mein”. (Shun Kaixi, 2013, 30-31). In E-C translation, AIDS is translated into “爱滋病”, “gene” into “基因”, “Internet” into “因特网”, “clone” as “克隆”. This kind of strategy pays attention to the formal fidelity because the concept is absent in the target language. So introducing concept is main purpose in the strategy. (Zhang Lei, 2008, 35-36)<br />
<br />
The literal translation is also applied in translating concept vacancy. For example, we translate “孩奴” as “child slave”, “四书” as “Four Books”. In E-C translation, Ten Commandments is translated into “十诫”, “fast food” into “快餐”，hot dog into“热狗”, “bubble economy” into “泡沫经济”, “e-mail” into “电子邮件”, “honeymoon” into “蜜月”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 45)<br />
<br />
The free translation also can be used. In the process of using literal translation, misunderstandings sometimes occur due to the cultural gap. For example, a famous Sichuan dish “夫妻肺片” is literally translated as "Husband and wife's lung slice". Then foreigners would never dare to taste it. Therefore, it is translated as “sliced beef and ox tongue in chili sauce”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62)<br />
<br />
In addition, westerners' love of cheese has led to the development of many expressions using cheese, for example, “get the cheese”, “the big cheese”. If these expressions are translated literally as “得到奶酪”, “大奶酪”，nobody will understand what the expressions mean. Therefore, they are translated as “碰钉子”, “重要事物”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62) In fact, the free translation is for easy understanding. If the easy understanding is the purpose of the translation, the fidelity of meaning prevails.<br />
<br />
Besides, by using notes, we can explain the concept vacancy in translating. Sometimes, due to the limitations of transliteration and literal translation, the target language readers may misunderstand the transliteration and literal translation and fail to understand its loaded cultural connotation. However, we still want to keep some original things to introduce cultures. Therefore, we can improve the transliteration by adding explanatory notes. “风水” is translated into Fengshui (a traditional Chinese practice of determining the location of a house, tomb, etc.). “阴阳” is translated into Yin and yang (the two opposite principles/forces existing in nature and the human world). (ibid)<br />
<br />
Sme literal translation is hard to understand for target language reader, so somenotes should be added to explain it. For example, “Big Apple” is translated as “大苹果”（纽约的别称）; “裹足” is translated as “bound feet: a vile feudal practice which crippled women both physically and spiritually.” (ibid)<br />
From these examples, it can concluded that strategies like transliteration, literal translation, free translation and using notes. <br />
<br />
b. Expression Vacancy<br />
<br />
For expression vacancy, the main strategy is using general or specific words to replace the lexical gap. For example ,“笔” is usually translated into “pen”. In fact, “笔” is the general name of the category including things like “pen”, “pencil” that function as tools for writing. However, “pen” is just a kind of “笔”. Here, the translator uses a more specific word to translate. In many occasion, the translation does not influence the understanding of the readers according to the theory of Skopos, which emphasis purpose than faithfulness.<br />
<br />
In English, pineapple is used to refer to the two kinds of Chinese fruits “凤梨 (fengli)” and “菠萝 (boluo)”. However, in translation, the pineapple is just translated as “凤梨” or “菠萝”. <br />
<br />
c. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence<br />
<br />
For semi-lexical gap, finding its equivalent expression is a good way for purpose of easy understanding. For example, from “邻居” to “neighbor”, from “龙” to “dragon”, from “red” to “红色”. In fact the denotational meaning and connotational meaning between lexical pair is different. The relation of Chinese “邻居” is closer than English “neighbor” and the range of the “邻居” is narrower than “neighbor”. The image of “龙” and that of “dragon” is different in a large scale. Besides, the Chinese “龙” is kind and good, while the English “dragon” is evil. The “红色” in Chinese is a symbol for happiness and enthusiasm, while the “red” in English means violence and damage. These words can be translated into each other because of the existence of context. <br />
<br />
If the context is absent and the purpose is to introduce the source culture more definitely, the transliteration with notes can be used to translate these words. <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The paper compares the meaning, the classification, the translation strategy of lexical gap in linguistic and translatology.<br />
<br />
It is found that the definition of lexical gap in linguistics is reflected within one language. it refers to the unlexicalized concepts in a language. That is to say, the word should have existed in the language. However, the definition of lexical gap in translatology is based on the difference between two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is much broader than that in linguistics. the lexical gap in translatology can refer to lexical difference totally because of the difference of culture and some word equivalents that has not only similarities but also divergence in denotation and connotation. <br />
<br />
Based on the definition, the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap is discussed. Because of the lexical gap in linguistics is defined within a language, the classification of this kind includes proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites because the lexical gap can occur in the three sematic relations. However, the lexical gap in translatology is classified based on the reason why the lexical gap exists. The category of the lexical gap in translatology includes concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence. <br />
<br />
Based on the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap, the translation strategies of the two kinds are different. The translation strategy of the lexical gap in linguistics is mainly borrowing. However, the translation strategies of lexical gap in translatology includes transliteration, literal translation, free translation, adding notes and using general and specific words. <br />
<br />
Besides, the overlap and difference between lexical gap and culture-loaded words is discussed. The culture-loaded words include kinds of words that can find definite equivalents in target language, while the lexical gap does not include. <br />
<br />
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[14]Wenxu.文旭.(2003).词汇空缺的发现程序和认知理据.[Lexical Gaps: Their Discovery Procedure and Cognitive Motivation].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University].(03)81-86.<br />
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[15]Wu Leya.吴乐雅.(2019).跨文化交际中的文化词汇空缺现象及其翻译策略.[The Phenomenon of Culturally Lexical Gap in Cross-Culture translation and Its Translation Strategy]. 文教资料. [Cultural and Educational Information].(32)44-45+62.<br />
<br />
[16]Zhang Jinlan张锦兰.(2004).目的论与翻译方法.[Skopos Theory and Translation Methods].中国科技翻译.[Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal].(01)35-37+13.<br />
<br />
[17]Zhao Xiuxing.赵秀星.(2015).目的论视角下英剧《神探夏洛克》的字幕汉译研究.[Study of English-Chinese Subtitle Translation of Sherlock from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].山西财经大学.[Shanxi University of Finance & Economics].1-53.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=115543History of Translation Studies 62020-12-19T09:37:33Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization */</p>
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<br />
='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br />
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br />
<br />
Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
归化；异化；功能派理论<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br />
<br />
In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br />
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According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br />
<br />
Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br />
<br />
To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br />
<br />
Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br />
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The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br />
<br />
While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. <br />
<br />
While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br />
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Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.<br />
<br />
Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. <br />
<br />
As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br />
<br />
The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Theory of Translational Action====<br />
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Text Typology====<br />
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br />
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br />
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br />
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br />
<br />
There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br />
<br />
Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br />
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br />
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br />
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br />
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br />
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br />
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br />
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br />
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br />
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br />
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br />
<br />
The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br />
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br />
<br />
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br />
In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br />
Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br />
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Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br />
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余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br />
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br />
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br />
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其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br />
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br />
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The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br />
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br />
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br />
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Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br />
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On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br />
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The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br />
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Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br />
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Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br />
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From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br />
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In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
1.Bassnett, Susan&Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br />
<br />
3.Nida, E. A.&Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br />
<br />
5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br />
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7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br />
<br />
8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br />
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9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br />
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10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br />
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11.Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br />
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12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br />
<br />
13.Cao Xueqin&Gao E曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br />
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14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
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16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br />
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17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
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18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br />
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19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br />
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==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br />
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For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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===Key words===<br />
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />
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===题目===<br />
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br />
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===摘要===<br />
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />
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===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br />
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Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br />
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Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br />
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Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br />
=====1. Literature Review=====<br />
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br />
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Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br />
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Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the "Chinese Literature Today" magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br />
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Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br />
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Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that "Elegance" is more important than "Faithfulness" and "Expressiveness", and "Faithfulness" cannot be ignored by "Elegance".--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br />
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Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's "loyalty" and "infidelity" in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the "creative treason" in translation from Howard's "Big Breasts" and "Big Buttocks". Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's "loyalty" and "treason" when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as "The Legend of Hulan River", "Turbulence", "Six Chapters of My Life", "Red Sorghum" and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br />
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Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br />
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br />
<br />
Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br />
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Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br />
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Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
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What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
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The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br />
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Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work "Red Sorghum" was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br />
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Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20). <br />
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It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br />
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This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br />
=====1. Domestication=====<br />
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br />
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======1.1. Annotation======<br />
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br />
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Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br />
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In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br />
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In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word "的" is usually added to the person's last name. "上官家的" refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses "lady" to explain "的" here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br />
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Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br />
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“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi". <br />
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"八竿子拨拉不着" is equivalent to "Eight poles can’t be struck", which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of "Baganzi".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br />
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======1.2. Addition======<br />
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br />
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E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
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Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br />
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Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom "信马由缰" refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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======1.3. Omission======<br />
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br />
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E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
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Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
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Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br />
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Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of "The Ballad of Garlic", Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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======1.4. Substitution======<br />
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br />
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Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br />
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The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br />
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Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br />
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The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates "亲娘" into "mother", this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with "Mistress" using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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=====2. Foreignization=====<br />
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br />
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======2.1. Transliteration======<br />
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
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It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br />
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However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
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However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as "刘罗汉", and translate it into "Arhat Liu". Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of "Araht", so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br />
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Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br />
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“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br />
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======2.2. Literal Translation======<br />
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br />
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E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br />
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Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br />
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In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
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In this sentence, "癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉" is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br />
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===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br />
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br />
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Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br />
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The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br />
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However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br />
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However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work "Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks", believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br />
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Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br />
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Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br />
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Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br />
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However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br />
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Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br />
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Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br />
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There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br />
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There are "third readers" in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to "fair readers" who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br />
<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br />
<br />
The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br />
<br />
With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to "go out".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br />
<br />
*Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br />
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*Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br />
<br />
*Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br />
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*Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Cao Shunying&Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br />
<br />
*Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
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*Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br />
<br />
*Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
<br />
*Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br />
<br />
*Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br />
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*Liu Yunhong&Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br />
<br />
*Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br />
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*Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br />
<br />
*Wen Jun&Wang Xiaochuan&Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping&Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br />
<br />
*Yan Yixun&Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br />
<br />
*Yin Lingwei&Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br />
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论，归化，异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br />
<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br />
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br />
<br />
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br />
<br />
Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br />
<br />
In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Domestication====<br />
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br />
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Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br />
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Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br />
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Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Foreignization====<br />
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br />
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Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br />
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Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, ."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br />
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The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br />
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On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity". XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br />
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Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br />
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If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br />
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)<br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br />
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br />
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“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br />
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)<br />
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During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br />
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During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br />
<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br />
<br />
*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
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*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br />
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*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br />
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*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br />
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*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br />
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*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br />
<br />
*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br />
<br />
==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br />
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; Hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br />
<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; Therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br />
<br />
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. These two concepts are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
<br />
In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24). <br />
<br />
In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
<br />
Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br />
<br />
Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br />
<br />
In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br />
<br />
Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br />
<br />
Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br />
<br />
Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br />
<br />
Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br />
<br />
====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br />
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).<br />
<br />
As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br />
<br />
Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br />
<br />
====2.1 The type of the text==== <br />
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br />
<br />
Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br />
<br />
Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br />
<br />
Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br />
<br />
These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br />
<br />
Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
<br />
Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br />
<br />
Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br />
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br />
<br />
The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147). <br />
<br />
However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br />
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br />
<br />
As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br />
<br />
Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br />
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br />
<br />
Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
<br />
For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
<br />
In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br />
<br />
For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br />
<br />
Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br />
<br />
Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br />
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====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br />
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br />
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Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br />
<br />
For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
<br />
However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
<br />
For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
<br />
For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br />
<br />
Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
<br />
Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br />
<br />
For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br />
<br />
On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion=== <br />
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br />
<br />
Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br />
<br />
Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br />
<br />
Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br />
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br />
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br />
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br />
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br />
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br />
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center> <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br />
<br />
The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br />
<br />
===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".<br />
<br />
Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term "Xiehouyu". --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The name "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
<br />
The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ". He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br />
<br />
In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br />
<br />
In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
<br />
However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br />
<br />
According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
<br />
In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)" omits the latter part "一场空 (all is empty)". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br />
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br />
There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br />
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There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br />
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br />
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The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
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====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br />
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Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."<br />
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The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as "domesticationg transaltion", and the second strategy as "foreignizing transaltion". <br />
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In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of "foreignization", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br />
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Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br />
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There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
<br />
The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br />
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For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br />
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In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
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In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br />
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（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
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A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
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====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br />
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
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Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br />
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For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
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The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br />
In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br />
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In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
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In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺"、"狗腿子"、"狗仗人势"、"狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
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====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
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For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br />
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（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br />
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（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
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（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br />
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Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br />
<br />
（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br />
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（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
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（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br />
While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br />
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While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br />
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Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning ". The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
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Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br />
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br />
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br />
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When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br />
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When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2.4 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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For example,<br />
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br />
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br />
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The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai,1986)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br />
<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Reference'''===<br />
<br />
1.Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br />
<br />
2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br />
<br />
3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br />
<br />
4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br />
<br />
5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br />
<br />
6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br />
<br />
7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br />
<br />
8. Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br />
<br />
9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br />
<br />
10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br />
<br />
11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br />
<br />
12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br />
<br />
13. Chen Hongwei & Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br />
<br />
14.Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br />
<br />
16.Gao Yun & Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br />
<br />
17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br />
<br />
18.Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
<br />
<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br />
<br />
The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br />
<br />
对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br />
<br />
From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
<br />
Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br />
<br />
As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).<br />
<br />
====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).<br />
<br />
As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118). <br />
<br />
The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br />
<br />
Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br />
<br />
People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br />
<br />
===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br />
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br />
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br />
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In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908). <br />
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As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal". <br />
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These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br />
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br />
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br />
<br />
====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br />
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Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br />
<br />
The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br />
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她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br />
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Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br />
<br />
The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br />
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运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
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Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br />
<br />
The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br />
<br />
等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br />
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Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br />
<br />
Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br />
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一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br />
<br />
This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br />
<br />
The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br />
<br />
English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br />
<br />
====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br />
<br />
Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him".<br />
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咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br />
<br />
特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br />
<br />
Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br />
<br />
Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br />
<br />
匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br />
<br />
Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br />
<br />
主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br />
<br />
For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br />
<br />
Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br />
<br />
====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
<br />
Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"<br />
<br />
梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".<br />
<br />
耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
<br />
Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor". <br />
<br />
The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br />
<br />
蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".<br />
<br />
子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".<br />
<br />
The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br />
<br />
In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br />
<br />
Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning. <br />
<br />
Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). "Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). "On the Different Methods of Translating", in André Lefevere (ed. & trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen & Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br />
<br />
*Schulte, Rainer & Biguenet, John. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translaing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br />
<br />
*Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (01) 40-44.<br />
<br />
*Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 03-05.<br />
<br />
*Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br />
<br />
= '''Title Translation''' =<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br />
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br />
<br />
This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br />
<br />
And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br />
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br />
<br />
Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br />
<br />
===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br />
<br />
Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br />
<br />
Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br />
<br />
The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br />
<br />
It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br />
<br />
The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br />
<br />
The film can accurately "restore" the real world, "show" the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br />
<br />
(1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br />
<br />
(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br />
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(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br />
<br />
People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br />
<br />
(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins "). <br />
<br />
According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br />
<br />
These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br />
<br />
In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br />
<br />
2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br />
<br />
3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br />
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4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br />
<br />
5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br />
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br />
<br />
For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.<br />
<br />
Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br />
<br />
The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br />
<br />
Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br />
<br />
In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.<br />
<br />
The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br />
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br />
<br />
Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br />
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And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.<br />
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"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br />
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=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br />
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant ", but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br />
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As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br />
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Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br />
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====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br />
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br />
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It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.<br />
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Since then, the film has been widely accepted as "the sound of music" by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br />
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This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".<br />
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===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br />
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====4.1 Literal Translation====<br />
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br />
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For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br />
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====4.2 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into "Face Off" or "Face Off". Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br />
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When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into "If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into" cat and mouse game "or" free ", the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br />
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====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br />
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====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br />
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br />
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So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br />
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====4.5 Naturalization====<br />
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br />
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Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br />
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Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br />
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====4.6 Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br />
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The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br />
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Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br />
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===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br />
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Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br />
<br />
[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br />
<br />
[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br />
<br />
[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br />
<br />
[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br />
<br />
[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br />
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[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br />
<br />
[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br />
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[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br />
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[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br />
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[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br />
<br />
== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br />
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<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br />
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==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br />
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A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br />
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A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br />
<br />
This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br />
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====2.1 Film Genres ====<br />
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br />
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According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
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===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br />
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br />
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Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br />
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br />
Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
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=====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br />
The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br />
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The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br />
A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
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A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br />
====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br />
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Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br />
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Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place".Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br />
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Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)".<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br />
All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br />
A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br />
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A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br />
Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br />
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Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br />
Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br />
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Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br />
The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br />
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There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br />
As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br />
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The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br />
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''=== <br />
He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br />
<br />
Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br />
<br />
Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br />
<br />
Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&129.<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br />
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Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br />
<br />
He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br />
<br />
Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br />
<br />
Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br />
<br />
==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br />
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br />
<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===key words===<br />
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br />
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===商标翻译研究===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br />
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===关键字===<br />
商标翻译；原则；方法<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
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In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br />
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The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br />
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First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br />
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br />
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According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
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Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br />
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With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br />
have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br />
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To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br />
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
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The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br />
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br />
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In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br />
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Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br />
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People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br />
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br />
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As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br />
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For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett-packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br />
Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br />
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A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
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For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br />
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Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br />
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br />
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Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon". On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br />
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br />
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Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br />
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br />
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br />
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br />
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Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br />
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====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick", is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
<br />
It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br />
<br />
A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Free translation====<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br />
<br />
Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br />
<br />
However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br />
<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br />
<br />
“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.5 Non-translation====<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br />
<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br />
<br />
On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br />
<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br />
<br />
First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.<br />
<br />
First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br />
<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br />
<br />
[2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of "Three Beauty" in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br />
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[3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br />
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[4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br />
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[6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[7]Wang Hengen. "Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br />
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[8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br />
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[9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br />
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[10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br />
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[11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br />
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[12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br />
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[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br />
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[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). "Revlon" in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br />
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='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br />
<center>周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br />
<br />
===Key word===<br />
culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br />
====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br />
====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br />
<br />
Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
<br />
In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
<br />
In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br />
<br />
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br />
<br />
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br />
<br />
The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br />
<br />
Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br />
<br />
Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
<br />
Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br />
<br />
Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br />
<br />
I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br />
<br />
O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br />
<br />
Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br />
<br />
(2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br />
<br />
I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br />
<br />
I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br />
<br />
In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br />
<br />
In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br />
<br />
I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br />
<br />
I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br />
<br />
The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br />
<br />
(4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br />
<br />
My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br />
<br />
I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,& Chung Ling,1979:56)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br />
However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br />
<br />
The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br />
<br />
People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br />
<br />
Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br />
<br />
The Double Ninth comes now again.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br />
<br />
Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br />
<br />
I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br />
<br />
The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br />
<br />
Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss;<br />
<br />
I know not what it is.<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br />
<br />
Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br />
<br />
Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br />
<br />
Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
(10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br />
<br />
A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br />
<br />
Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br />
<br />
In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br />
<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
*Rexroth, K. & Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br />
<br />
*Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br />
<br />
*Fu Guiying 付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Three-Beauty Principle][D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
* Han Zhouwen 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究[A Study on the Translation of the Culture-loaded Terms of Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out:A perspective of Skopos Theory]——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Li Qing 郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhao 李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's "Our Country and Our People"]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br />
<br />
* Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Yang Jian 杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang 张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br />
<br />
==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br />
<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br />
<br />
By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br />
<br />
沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br />
<br />
通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br />
<br />
因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
<br />
With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br />
<br />
====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br />
For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title "floating life" derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br />
In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that "the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' ". (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br />
<br />
This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br />
<br />
In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as "culture-specific items" and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that "Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text". (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br />
<br />
From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br />
To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br />
Eugene Nida considers that "if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture". (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br />
<br />
In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br />
Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br />
Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br />
Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br />
When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br />
<br />
3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br />
Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br />
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“未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br />
Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br />
Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br />
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3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br />
Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br />
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4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br />
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“Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br />
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“挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br />
<br />
====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br />
In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br />
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7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br />
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7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br />
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In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br />
<br />
======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br />
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This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br />
<br />
====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br />
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“San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br />
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10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br />
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10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br />
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“篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
=====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br />
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11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br />
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The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br />
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=====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br />
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12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br />
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In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br />
<br />
13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br />
<br />
13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br />
<br />
“月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br />
<br />
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==How to Keep "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
<br />
Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br />
<br />
This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br />
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idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===汉语习语英译如何保持"中国性"===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br />
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本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br />
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=== Introduction===<br />
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
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An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
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Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br />
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The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br />
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
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Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br />
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The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 The Importance of Keeping "Chineseness" in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br />
Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br />
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Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br />
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Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of "Chineseness" in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br />
Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br />
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Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br />
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Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate "三顾茅庐" into "repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or "have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly", foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Likewise, the idioms like "班门弄斧" and "卧薪尝胆" are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br />
As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br />
As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br />
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The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br />
As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br />
Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br />
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Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) <br />
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In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. "Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br />
"Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, "The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text", in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br />
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====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br />
<br />
Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. <br />
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====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br />
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Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated as "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated into "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃"[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into "A toad hankering for a tatste of swan"(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the "Chineseness" in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
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Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
<br />
Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
<br />
However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
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For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
<br />
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br />
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The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
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However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
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In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br />
<br />
*He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br />
<br />
*Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br />
<br />
*Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br />
<br />
*Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br />
<br />
*David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London & New York:Routledge,1995:20<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br />
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As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br />
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===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br />
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Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br />
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With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br />
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====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br />
As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br />
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"A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion."(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br />
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"A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation."--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br />
Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br />
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and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br />
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In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br />
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Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br />
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It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br />
Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br />
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Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br />
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roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br />
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What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br />
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From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br />
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====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br />
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It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br />
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Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br />
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In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br />
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It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br />
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In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br />
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====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br />
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As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br />
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Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br />
As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br />
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====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br />
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The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br />
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Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br />
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In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br />
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Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br />
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The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br />
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====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br />
<br />
As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br />
he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br />
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====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br />
<br />
As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br />
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The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br />
<br />
In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br />
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Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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<br />
===4. Conclusion===<br />
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Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br />
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Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br />
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Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br />
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In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />
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Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. References===<br />
*Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br />
*Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br />
*Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br />
*Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br />
*Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br />
*Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br />
*Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br />
*Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br />
*Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br />
*Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br />
*Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br />
*Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br />
*Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br />
*You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br />
*Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br />
<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
<br />
一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
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Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
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Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br />
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1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br />
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Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br />
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Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br />
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Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br />
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The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br />
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1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br />
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In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br />
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Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br />
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We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br />
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The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br />
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With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
<br />
As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br />
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2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br />
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2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
<br />
The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br />
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Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br />
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2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
<br />
To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br />
The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br />
<br />
Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br />
<br />
Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br />
<br />
Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
3.1 Transliteration<br />
<br />
Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br />
<br />
Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br />
<br />
For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br />
<br />
3.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br />
<br />
3.3 Free Translation<br />
<br />
Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br />
<br />
Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
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[2] Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br />
[3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br />
[4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br />
[5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
[6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br />
[7] Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
[8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br />
[9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br />
[10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br />
[11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br />
[12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br />
[13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br />
[14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br />
[15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br />
[16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br />
[17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br />
[18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br />
[19] 杨全红. 高级翻译十二讲[M]. 武汉:武汉大学出版社, 2009.<br />
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<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
<br />
一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
<br />
Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
<br />
Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(<span style="color:red">the</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br />
<br />
To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(<span style="color:red">space</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br />
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====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
<br />
Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (<span style="color:red">delete that have been</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br />
<br />
With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(<span style="color:red">inappropriate</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br />
<br />
Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (<span style="color:red">add the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br />
<br />
First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(<span style="color:red">abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics"哥哥"</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (<span style="color:red">through</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br />
<br />
Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (<span style="color:red">the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br />
<br />
With new things coming in(<span style="color:red">springing up</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br />
<br />
A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (<span style="color:red">updating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br />
<br />
The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(<span style="color:red">developing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
<br />
In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(<span style="color:red">one after another</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
<br />
In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(<span style="color:red">their</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(<span style="color:red">various ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br />
<br />
We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(<span style="color:red">such</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br />
<br />
The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (<span style="color:red">For example,</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br />
<br />
With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(<span style="color:red">increasingly strong</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
<br />
As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (<span style="color:red">them and their</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br />
<br />
====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (<span style="color:red">transending</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br />
<br />
In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(<span style="color:red">construction</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br />
<br />
Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (<span style="color:red">during translating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(<span style="color:red">improved</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (<span style="color:red">also</span>)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br />
<br />
Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (<span style="color:red">following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br />
<br />
In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(<span style="color:red">expressions</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(<span style="color:red">with</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br />
<br />
It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(<span style="color:red">delete above</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
<br />
Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(<span style="color:red">contained</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
<br />
For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (<span style="color:red">describes</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
<br />
To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (<span style="color:red">employing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, it is common to see(<span style="color:red">observe</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
<br />
Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(<span style="color:red">long</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
<br />
Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(<span style="color:red">readers</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br />
<br />
For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and (<span style="color:red">has</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(<span style="color:red">delete a process</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
<br />
The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (<span style="color:red">ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
<br />
In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(<span style="color:red">manifest</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(<span style="color:red">conveys</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
<br />
For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br />
<br />
In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br />
<br />
In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br />
<br />
To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br />
<br />
Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br />
<br />
Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br />
<br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br />
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*Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br />
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*Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br />
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*Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br />
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*Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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*Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br />
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*Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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*Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br />
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*Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br />
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*Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br />
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*Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br />
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*Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br />
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*Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br />
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*Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
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*Zhang Jian & Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br />
<center>刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br />
<br />
With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Keywords ===<br />
<br />
Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
<br />
中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
<br />
As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
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It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
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The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
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And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
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There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br />
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Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br />
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Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br />
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Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br />
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They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
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(1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br />
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Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same "with" structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br />
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The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br />
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The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br />
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After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br />
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But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br />
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Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br />
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Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br />
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Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br />
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The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br />
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Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br />
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4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
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Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
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First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
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Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
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One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
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Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
<br />
The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
<br />
The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
<br />
As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
*Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du & Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br />
<br />
*Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br />
<br />
*Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br />
<br />
*Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br />
<br />
*Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br />
<br />
*Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br />
<br />
*车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br />
<br />
*李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br />
<br />
*莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of "re-creation" translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br />
<br />
*屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
<br />
*邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br />
<br />
*吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of "Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research"]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br />
<br />
*张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of "China on the Tip of the Tongue" guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br />
<center> 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br />
Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to "the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language". This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, "Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text." (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br />
<br />
First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches "private" meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br />
Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br />
<br />
Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br />
<br />
Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br />
<br />
A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br />
<br />
Informative Function<br />
<br />
The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Function<br />
<br />
If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cultural Function<br />
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Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br />
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====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br />
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br />
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There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br />
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Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br />
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator "deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures".(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br />
Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br />
The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br />
Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br />
Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br />
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Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox". (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br />
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Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox".(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br />
The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br />
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The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on "Ingredient and Main Ingredient" or "Main ingredient and Soup"====<br />
The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by with or in. e.g."冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br />
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The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by “with or in”, for example, "冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". The choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br />
When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of "seasoning+main ingredient" can use the structure of "main ingredient+with+seasoning", such as "芥末鸡条" can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as "Cumin Beef".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", e.g. "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", for example, "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br />
The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, "芙蓉鸡片" can be translated as "Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White" and "菊花鱿鱼"as "Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", e.g. "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", for example, "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names "--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape" can be translated as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient", such as "干煸牛肉丝". "干煸" is the cooking method, "牛肉" is the main ingredient and "丝" is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as "Dry-fried Shredded Beef".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from "Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient" to "Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient"====<br />
In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as "person's name+main ingredient" can be made directly. For example, in "组庵豆腐", "组庵" is the name of a person and "豆腐" is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as "Zu'an Tofuo".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+，+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", e.g. "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", for example, "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name of a dish can be translated in the form of "cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style", e.g. "毛氏红烧肉", which can be translated as "Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. "(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br />
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====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as "Utensil + Main Ingredient"====<br />
Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br />
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Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br />
Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br />
<br />
Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
<br />
This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br />
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Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br />
<br />
A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br />
<br />
[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br />
<br />
[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br />
<br />
[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br />
<br />
[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br />
<center> 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br />
<br />
<br />
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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<br />
中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br />
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After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br />
Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications among China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Below I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br />
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====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br />
China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods vary from region to region. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can’t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people laugh. For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it doesn’t reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. But he didn’t have cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn’t reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is more appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br />
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====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br />
At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese food culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so no explanation can also be. The first translation is more vivid and make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese food culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br />
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====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br />
The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don’t understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.(Wang Junjian 2017，107)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br />
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To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br />
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To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural background contained in dish names, and using inappropriate translation methods. The paper tries to solve these problems by adopting domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduces the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br />
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===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br />
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====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book “Translator's Invisibility” according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expression that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation of translation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions, requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the difference of national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Baidu Encyclopedia, Susong Longhua ,2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br />
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====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br />
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Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level, adopting foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of its reader-oriented characteristics, domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove the obstacles of communication. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, combining domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths, avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br />
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Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br />
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Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and application. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the authors. On the one hand, we should consider their way of thinking and understanding ability as far as possible from the reader's point of view, so that they can understand the translation content. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retain the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br />
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===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br />
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====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br />
Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br />
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Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br />
There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br />
slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br />
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====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br />
“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br />
Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br />
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Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br />
The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br />
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As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br />
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=====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br />
以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br />
There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br />
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There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. She casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br />
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=====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br />
带地名和人名的菜名<br />
There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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There are usually two translation methods for the dish name with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br />
<br />
“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as“pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual“step by step” (步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br />
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====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br />
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Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br />
<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are opposite in theory, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this paper can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br />
*Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br />
*Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br />
*Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br />
*Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. "Baidu Encyclopedia". https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br />
*Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br />
*Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br />
*Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br />
*Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br />
*Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br />
*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of "Translation Strategies", "Translation Methods" and "Translation Skills"]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br />
*Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br />
*Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br />
*Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br />
*Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br />
*Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br />
*Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=115537History of Translation Studies 62020-12-19T09:33:37Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Introduction */</p>
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br />
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<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br />
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br />
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Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
归化；异化；功能派理论<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br />
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In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br />
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From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br />
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According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br />
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Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br />
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To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br />
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Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br />
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The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br />
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While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. <br />
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While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br />
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Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.<br />
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Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. <br />
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As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br />
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The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br />
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According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Theory of Translational Action====<br />
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Text Typology====<br />
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br />
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br />
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br />
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br />
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There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br />
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Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br />
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br />
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br />
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br />
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br />
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br />
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br />
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br />
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br />
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br />
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br />
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The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br />
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br />
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Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br />
In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br />
Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br />
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Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br />
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余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br />
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br />
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br />
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其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br />
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br />
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The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br />
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br />
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br />
<br />
Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br />
<br />
On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br />
<br />
The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br />
<br />
Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br />
<br />
Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br />
<br />
In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
1.Bassnett, Susan&Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br />
<br />
3.Nida, E. A.&Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br />
<br />
5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br />
<br />
7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br />
<br />
8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br />
<br />
9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br />
<br />
11.Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br />
<br />
12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br />
<br />
13.Cao Xueqin&Gao E曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br />
<br />
17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br />
<br />
19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br />
<br />
For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br />
<br />
Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br />
=====1. Literature Review=====<br />
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the "Chinese Literature Today" magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br />
<br />
Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br />
<br />
Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that "Elegance" is more important than "Faithfulness" and "Expressiveness", and "Faithfulness" cannot be ignored by "Elegance".--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's "loyalty" and "infidelity" in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the "creative treason" in translation from Howard's "Big Breasts" and "Big Buttocks". Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's "loyalty" and "treason" when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as "The Legend of Hulan River", "Turbulence", "Six Chapters of My Life", "Red Sorghum" and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br />
<br />
Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br />
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br />
<br />
Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br />
<br />
Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br />
<br />
Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
<br />
What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
<br />
The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br />
<br />
Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work "Red Sorghum" was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br />
<br />
Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20). <br />
<br />
It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br />
<br />
This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br />
=====1. Domestication=====<br />
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br />
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======1.1. Annotation======<br />
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br />
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Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br />
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In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br />
<br />
In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word "的" is usually added to the person's last name. "上官家的" refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses "lady" to explain "的" here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br />
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Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br />
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“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi". <br />
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"八竿子拨拉不着" is equivalent to "Eight poles can’t be struck", which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of "Baganzi".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br />
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======1.2. Addition======<br />
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br />
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E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
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Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br />
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Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom "信马由缰" refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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======1.3. Omission======<br />
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br />
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E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
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Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
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Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br />
<br />
Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of "The Ballad of Garlic", Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
======1.4. Substitution======<br />
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br />
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Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br />
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The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br />
<br />
Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br />
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The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates "亲娘" into "mother", this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with "Mistress" using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
=====2. Foreignization=====<br />
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br />
<br />
======2.1. Transliteration======<br />
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
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It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br />
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However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
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However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as "刘罗汉", and translate it into "Arhat Liu". Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of "Araht", so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br />
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Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br />
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“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br />
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======2.2. Literal Translation======<br />
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br />
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E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br />
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Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br />
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In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉" is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br />
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===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br />
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br />
<br />
Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br />
<br />
The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br />
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However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work "Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks", believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br />
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Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br />
<br />
Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br />
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Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br />
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However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br />
<br />
Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br />
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Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br />
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There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br />
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There are "third readers" in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to "fair readers" who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br />
<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br />
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The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br />
<br />
With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to "go out".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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===References===<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br />
<br />
*Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br />
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*Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br />
<br />
*Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br />
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*Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
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*Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
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*Cao Shunying&Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br />
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*Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
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*Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br />
<br />
*Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
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*Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br />
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*Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br />
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*Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br />
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*Liu Yunhong&Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br />
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*Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br />
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*Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br />
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*Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br />
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*Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br />
<br />
*Wen Jun&Wang Xiaochuan&Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping&Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br />
<br />
*Yan Yixun&Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br />
<br />
*Yin Lingwei&Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br />
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论，归化，异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br />
<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br />
<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br />
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br />
<br />
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br />
<br />
Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br />
<br />
In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br />
<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Domestication====<br />
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)<br />
<br />
Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br />
<br />
Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br />
<br />
Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Foreignization====<br />
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br />
<br />
Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br />
<br />
"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, ."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br />
<br />
The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br />
<br />
On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity". XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br />
<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br />
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)<br />
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<br />
“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br />
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“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br />
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br />
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“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br />
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)<br />
<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br />
<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
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*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br />
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*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br />
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*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
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*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br />
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*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br />
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*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br />
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*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br />
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*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br />
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*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br />
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*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br />
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*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br />
<br />
==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br />
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; Hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br />
<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; Therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
<br />
In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24). <br />
<br />
In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
<br />
Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br />
<br />
Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br />
<br />
In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br />
<br />
Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br />
<br />
Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br />
<br />
Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br />
<br />
Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br />
<br />
====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br />
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).<br />
<br />
As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br />
<br />
Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br />
<br />
====2.1 The type of the text==== <br />
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br />
<br />
Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br />
<br />
Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br />
<br />
Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br />
<br />
These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br />
<br />
Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
<br />
Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br />
<br />
According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br />
<br />
Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br />
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br />
<br />
The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147). <br />
<br />
However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br />
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br />
<br />
As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br />
<br />
Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br />
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br />
<br />
Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
<br />
For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
<br />
In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br />
<br />
For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br />
<br />
Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br />
<br />
Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br />
<br />
====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br />
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br />
<br />
Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br />
<br />
For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
<br />
However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
<br />
For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
<br />
For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br />
<br />
Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
<br />
Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br />
<br />
For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br />
<br />
On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion=== <br />
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br />
<br />
Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br />
<br />
Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br />
<br />
Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br />
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br />
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br />
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br />
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br />
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br />
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center> <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br />
<br />
The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br />
<br />
===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".<br />
<br />
Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term "Xiehouyu". --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The name "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
<br />
The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ". He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br />
<br />
In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br />
<br />
In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
<br />
However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br />
<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br />
<br />
According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
<br />
In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
<br />
''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
<br />
The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
<br />
In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br />
<br />
The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)" omits the latter part "一场空 (all is empty)". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br />
<br />
In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br />
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br />
There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br />
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There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br />
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br />
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The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
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====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br />
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Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."<br />
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The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as "domesticationg transaltion", and the second strategy as "foreignizing transaltion". <br />
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In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of "foreignization", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br />
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Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br />
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There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br />
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For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br />
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In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
<br />
In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br />
<br />
（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
<br />
A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br />
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
<br />
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br />
In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br />
<br />
In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
<br />
In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺"、"狗腿子"、"狗仗人势"、"狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br />
<br />
（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br />
<br />
（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
<br />
（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br />
<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br />
<br />
（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br />
<br />
（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
<br />
（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br />
While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br />
<br />
While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br />
<br />
Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning ". The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br />
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br />
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br />
<br />
When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br />
<br />
When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.4 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br />
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai,1986)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br />
<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Reference'''===<br />
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1.Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br />
<br />
2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br />
<br />
3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br />
<br />
4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br />
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5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br />
<br />
6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br />
<br />
7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br />
<br />
8. Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br />
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9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br />
<br />
10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br />
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11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br />
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12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br />
<br />
13. Chen Hongwei & Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br />
<br />
14.Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br />
<br />
16.Gao Yun & Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br />
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17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br />
<br />
18.Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
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<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br />
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The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br />
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===题目===<br />
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br />
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===摘要===<br />
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br />
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归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br />
<br />
对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br />
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===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br />
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From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
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Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br />
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As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).<br />
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====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).<br />
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As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118). <br />
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The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br />
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Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br />
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Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br />
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People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br />
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===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br />
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br />
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====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br />
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br />
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In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908). <br />
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As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal". <br />
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These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br />
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====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br />
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br />
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For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br />
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===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br />
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br />
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====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br />
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Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br />
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The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br />
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她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br />
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Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br />
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The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br />
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运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
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Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br />
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The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br />
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等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br />
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Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br />
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Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br />
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一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
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Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br />
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This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br />
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The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br />
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English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br />
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====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br />
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Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him".<br />
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咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
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Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br />
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特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br />
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Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br />
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Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br />
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匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br />
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Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br />
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In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br />
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主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
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Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br />
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For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br />
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Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br />
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====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
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Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"<br />
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梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
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Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".<br />
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耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
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Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor". <br />
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The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br />
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蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br />
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Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".<br />
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子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br />
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Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".<br />
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The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br />
<br />
In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br />
<br />
Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning. <br />
<br />
Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). "Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). "On the Different Methods of Translating", in André Lefevere (ed. & trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen & Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br />
<br />
*Schulte, Rainer & Biguenet, John. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translaing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br />
<br />
*Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (01) 40-44.<br />
<br />
*Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 03-05.<br />
<br />
*Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br />
<br />
= '''Title Translation''' =<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br />
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br />
<br />
This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br />
<br />
And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br />
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br />
<br />
Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br />
<br />
===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br />
<br />
Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br />
<br />
Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br />
<br />
The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br />
<br />
It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br />
<br />
The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br />
<br />
The film can accurately "restore" the real world, "show" the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br />
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(1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br />
<br />
(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br />
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(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br />
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People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br />
<br />
(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins "). <br />
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According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br />
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These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br />
<br />
In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br />
<br />
2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br />
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3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br />
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4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br />
<br />
5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br />
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br />
<br />
For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.<br />
<br />
Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br />
<br />
The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br />
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Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br />
<br />
In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.<br />
<br />
The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br />
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br />
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Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br />
<br />
And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.<br />
<br />
"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br />
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant ", but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br />
<br />
As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br />
<br />
Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br />
<br />
====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br />
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br />
<br />
It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.<br />
<br />
Since then, the film has been widely accepted as "the sound of music" by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br />
<br />
This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".<br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Literal Translation====<br />
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br />
<br />
For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into "Face Off" or "Face Off". Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br />
<br />
When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into "If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into" cat and mouse game "or" free ", the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br />
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br />
<br />
So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br />
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====4.5 Naturalization====<br />
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br />
<br />
Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br />
<br />
Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br />
<br />
====4.6 Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br />
<br />
Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br />
<br />
Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br />
<br />
[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br />
<br />
[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br />
<br />
[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br />
<br />
[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br />
<br />
[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br />
<br />
[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br />
<br />
[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br />
<br />
[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br />
<br />
[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br />
<br />
[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br />
<br />
== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br />
<br />
<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
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English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br />
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==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br />
<br />
A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br />
<br />
This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br />
<br />
This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Film Genres ====<br />
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br />
<br />
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
<br />
===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br />
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br />
<br />
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br />
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br />
Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
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=====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br />
The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br />
<br />
The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br />
A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
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A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br />
====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br />
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Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br />
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Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place".Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br />
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Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)".<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br />
All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br />
A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br />
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A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br />
Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br />
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Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br />
Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br />
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Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br />
The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br />
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There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br />
As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br />
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The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br />
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br />
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==='''References'''=== <br />
He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br />
<br />
Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br />
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Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br />
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Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br />
<br />
Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br />
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Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br />
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Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&129.<br />
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Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br />
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Reiss, K. & Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br />
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Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br />
<br />
He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br />
<br />
Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br />
<br />
Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br />
<br />
==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br />
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br />
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With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===key words===<br />
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br />
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===商标翻译研究===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br />
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===关键字===<br />
商标翻译；原则；方法<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
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In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br />
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The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br />
<br />
First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br />
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br />
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According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
<br />
Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br />
<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br />
have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br />
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To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br />
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
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The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br />
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br />
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In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br />
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Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br />
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People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br />
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br />
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As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br />
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For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett-packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br />
Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br />
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A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
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For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br />
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Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br />
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br />
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Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon". On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br />
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br />
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Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br />
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br />
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br />
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br />
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Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br />
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====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick", is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
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It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br />
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A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Free translation====<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br />
<br />
Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br />
<br />
However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br />
<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br />
<br />
“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.5 Non-translation====<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br />
<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br />
<br />
On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br />
<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br />
<br />
First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.<br />
<br />
First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br />
<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br />
<br />
[2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of "Three Beauty" in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br />
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[3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br />
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[4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br />
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[6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[7]Wang Hengen. "Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br />
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[8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br />
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[9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br />
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[10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br />
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[11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br />
<br />
[12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br />
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[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br />
<br />
[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). "Revlon" in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br />
<center>周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br />
<br />
===Key word===<br />
culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br />
====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br />
====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br />
<br />
Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
<br />
In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
<br />
In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br />
<br />
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br />
<br />
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br />
<br />
The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br />
<br />
Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br />
<br />
Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
<br />
Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br />
<br />
Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br />
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(1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br />
<br />
I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br />
<br />
O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br />
<br />
Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br />
<br />
(2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br />
<br />
I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br />
<br />
I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br />
<br />
In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br />
<br />
In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br />
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(3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br />
<br />
I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br />
<br />
I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br />
<br />
The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br />
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(4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br />
<br />
My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br />
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I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,& Chung Ling,1979:56)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br />
However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br />
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====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br />
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(5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br />
<br />
The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br />
<br />
People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br />
<br />
Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br />
<br />
The Double Ninth comes now again.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br />
<br />
Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br />
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(7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br />
<br />
I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br />
<br />
The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br />
<br />
Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss;<br />
<br />
I know not what it is.<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br />
<br />
Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br />
<br />
Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br />
<br />
Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
(10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br />
<br />
A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br />
<br />
Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br />
<br />
In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br />
<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
*Rexroth, K. & Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br />
<br />
*Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br />
<br />
*Fu Guiying 付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Three-Beauty Principle][D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
* Han Zhouwen 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究[A Study on the Translation of the Culture-loaded Terms of Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out:A perspective of Skopos Theory]——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Li Qing 郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
*Li Zhao 李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's "Our Country and Our People"]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br />
<br />
* Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.<br />
<br />
*Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Yang Jian 杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang 张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br />
<br />
==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br />
<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br />
<br />
By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br />
<br />
沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br />
<br />
通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br />
<br />
因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br />
<br />
===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
<br />
With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br />
<br />
====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br />
For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title "floating life" derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br />
In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
<br />
====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that "the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' ". (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br />
<br />
This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br />
<br />
In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as "culture-specific items" and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that "Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text". (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br />
<br />
From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br />
To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br />
Eugene Nida considers that "if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture". (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br />
<br />
In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br />
Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br />
<br />
===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
<br />
====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br />
Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br />
Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br />
When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br />
<br />
1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br />
<br />
The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br />
<br />
3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br />
Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
<br />
2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br />
<br />
“未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br />
Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br />
Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br />
<br />
3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br />
<br />
The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br />
Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br />
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4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br />
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“Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br />
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“挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br />
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====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br />
In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
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====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br />
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7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br />
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7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br />
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In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br />
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======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br />
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This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br />
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====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br />
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“San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br />
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10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br />
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10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br />
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“篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br />
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=====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br />
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11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br />
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The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br />
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=====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br />
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12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br />
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In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br />
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13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br />
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13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br />
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“月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br />
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===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br />
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Eugene, A. Nida. (2001). Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br />
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Eugene, A. Nida. (2004). Toward a Science of Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br />
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Mona, Baker. (2000). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. ''Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press''.<br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M] [Cultural Context and Language Translation]. ''北京：中国对外翻译出版公司'' Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company.<br />
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Feng Li 冯丽. (2013). 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J] [A Brief Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Culture]. ''漯河职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Luohe Vocational and Technical College (3) 116-117.<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi 胡壮麟，姜望琪. (2002). 语言学高级教程[M] [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. ''北京：北京大学出版社'' Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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Liu Aili 刘艾莉. (2015). 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA] [A Study on the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Fortress Besieged'' from the Perspective of Cognitive Translation]. ''广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies.<br />
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Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. (2017). 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J] [A Study on the Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' at home and abroad: Review and Prospect]. ''外语教育研究'' Research on Foreign Language Education (4) 53-59.<br />
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Li Yi 李懿. (2013). 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J] [Translation of cultural Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (11) 43-44.<br />
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Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (Biligual Edition)]. ''湖南：湖南文艺出版社'' Hunan: Hunan Literature and Art Publishing House.<br />
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Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''浙江：浙江工商大学出版社'' Zhejiang: Zhejiang Gongshang University Press.<br />
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Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA] [Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' by Lin Yutang]. ''上海外国语大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
==How to Keep "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
<br />
Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br />
<br />
This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br />
<br />
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===汉语习语英译如何保持"中国性"===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br />
<br />
本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br />
<br />
=== Introduction===<br />
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
<br />
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
<br />
Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br />
<br />
The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br />
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
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Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br />
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The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 The Importance of Keeping "Chineseness" in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br />
Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br />
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Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br />
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Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of "Chineseness" in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br />
Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br />
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Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br />
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Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate "三顾茅庐" into "repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or "have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly", foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Likewise, the idioms like "班门弄斧" and "卧薪尝胆" are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br />
As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br />
As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br />
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The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br />
As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br />
Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br />
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Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) <br />
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In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. "Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br />
"Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, "The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text", in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br />
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====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
<br />
That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br />
<br />
Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. <br />
<br />
====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br />
<br />
Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated as "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated into "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃"[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into "A toad hankering for a tatste of swan"(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the "Chineseness" in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
<br />
Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
<br />
Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
<br />
However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
<br />
For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
<br />
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
<br />
One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br />
<br />
The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
<br />
However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
<br />
In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br />
<br />
*He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br />
<br />
*Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br />
<br />
*Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br />
<br />
*Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br />
<br />
*David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London & New York:Routledge,1995:20<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br />
<br />
As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br />
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===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br />
<br />
Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br />
<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br />
As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br />
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"A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion."(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br />
<br />
"A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation."--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br />
Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br />
<br />
and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br />
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In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br />
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Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br />
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It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br />
Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br />
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Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br />
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roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br />
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What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br />
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From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br />
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====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br />
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It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br />
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Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br />
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In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br />
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It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br />
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In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br />
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====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br />
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As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br />
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Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br />
As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br />
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====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br />
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The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br />
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Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br />
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In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br />
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Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br />
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The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br />
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====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br />
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As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br />
he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br />
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====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br />
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The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br />
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In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br />
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Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
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Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br />
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Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br />
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Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br />
<br />
In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />
<br />
Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. References===<br />
*Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br />
*Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br />
*Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br />
*Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br />
*Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br />
*Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br />
*Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br />
*Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br />
*Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br />
*Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br />
*Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br />
*Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br />
*Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br />
*You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br />
*Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br />
<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
<br />
一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
<br />
Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
<br />
Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br />
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1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br />
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Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br />
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Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br />
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Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br />
<br />
The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br />
<br />
1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br />
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Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br />
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We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br />
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The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br />
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With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
<br />
As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br />
<br />
2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br />
<br />
2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
<br />
The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br />
<br />
2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br />
<br />
Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br />
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2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br />
<br />
2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br />
<br />
Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
<br />
To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br />
The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br />
<br />
Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br />
<br />
Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br />
<br />
Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
3.1 Transliteration<br />
<br />
Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br />
<br />
Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br />
<br />
For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br />
<br />
3.2 Literal Translation<br />
<br />
Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br />
<br />
3.3 Free Translation<br />
<br />
Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br />
<br />
Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br />
<br />
Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
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[3] Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br />
[4] Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br />
[5] Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
[6] Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br />
[7] Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
[8] 付蓉. 从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[J]. 北京:语文建设, 2015.<br />
[9] 亢世勇. 《新词语大辞典》的编撰[J].辞书研究, 2003.<br />
[10] 李春江. 汉语网络新词的英译探究[J]. 宁波:宁波工程学院学报, 2015. <br />
[11] 廖颖颖． 论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[J]. 长沙:湖南师范大学学报, 2008.<br />
[12] 刘宓庆. 新编当代翻译理论[M]. 北京:中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005.<br />
[13] 刘晓骏. 汉语网络新词英译中的文化因素[J]．内蒙古:语文学刊，2012.<br />
[14] 欧阳因. 朗文中国流行新词语[M]. 北京:北京大学出版社, 2000．<br />
[15] 丘柳珍. 汉语网络新词的英译[J]. 赤峰学院学报:自然科学版, 2014.<br />
[16] 田龙娇. 对外汉语新词新语教学研究[D]. 四川师范大学, 2013.<br />
[17] 王维东. 网络热词汉译英探究[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2011.<br />
[18］吴秋芬,杨司桂. 汉语新词英译研究十年述评[J]. 燕山大学学报, 2014.<br />
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<br />
==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
<br />
On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
<br />
一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
<br />
Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
<br />
Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(<span style="color:red">the</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br />
<br />
To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(<span style="color:red">space</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
<br />
Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (<span style="color:red">delete that have been</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br />
<br />
With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(<span style="color:red">inappropriate</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br />
<br />
Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (<span style="color:red">add the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br />
<br />
First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(<span style="color:red">abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics"哥哥"</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (<span style="color:red">through</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br />
<br />
Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (<span style="color:red">the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br />
<br />
With new things coming in(<span style="color:red">springing up</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br />
<br />
A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (<span style="color:red">updating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br />
<br />
The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(<span style="color:red">developing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
<br />
In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(<span style="color:red">one after another</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
<br />
In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(<span style="color:red">their</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(<span style="color:red">various ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br />
<br />
We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(<span style="color:red">such</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br />
<br />
The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (<span style="color:red">For example,</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br />
<br />
With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(<span style="color:red">increasingly strong</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
<br />
As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (<span style="color:red">them and their</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br />
<br />
====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (<span style="color:red">transending</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br />
<br />
In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(<span style="color:red">construction</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br />
<br />
Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (<span style="color:red">during translating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(<span style="color:red">improved</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
<br />
The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (<span style="color:red">also</span>)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br />
<br />
Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (<span style="color:red">following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br />
<br />
In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(<span style="color:red">expressions</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
<br />
Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(<span style="color:red">with</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br />
<br />
It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(<span style="color:red">delete above</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
<br />
Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(<span style="color:red">contained</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
<br />
For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (<span style="color:red">describes</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
<br />
To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (<span style="color:red">employing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br />
<br />
Nowadays, it is common to see(<span style="color:red">observe</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
<br />
Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(<span style="color:red">long</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
<br />
Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
<br />
Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(<span style="color:red">readers</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br />
<br />
For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and (<span style="color:red">has</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
<br />
Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(<span style="color:red">delete a process</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
<br />
The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (<span style="color:red">ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
<br />
In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(<span style="color:red">manifest</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(<span style="color:red">conveys</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
<br />
For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br />
<br />
In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br />
<br />
In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br />
<br />
To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br />
<br />
Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br />
<br />
Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br />
<br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br />
<br />
*Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br />
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*Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br />
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*Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br />
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*Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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*Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br />
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*Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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*Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br />
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*Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br />
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*Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br />
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*Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br />
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*Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br />
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*Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
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*Zhang Jian & Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br />
<center>刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br />
<br />
With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Keywords ===<br />
<br />
Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
<br />
中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
<br />
As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
<br />
It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
<br />
The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
<br />
And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
<br />
There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br />
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They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
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(1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br />
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Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
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Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same "with" structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br />
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The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br />
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The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br />
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After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br />
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But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br />
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Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br />
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Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br />
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Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br />
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The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br />
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Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br />
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4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
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Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
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First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
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Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
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Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
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One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
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Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
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The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
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The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
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As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
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With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
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There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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*Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du & Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br />
<br />
*Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br />
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*Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br />
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*Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br />
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*Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br />
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*Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br />
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*车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br />
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*李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br />
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*莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of "re-creation" translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br />
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*屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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*邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br />
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*吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of "Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research"]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br />
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*张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of "China on the Tip of the Tongue" guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br />
<center> 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
<br />
====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br />
Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to "the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language". This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, "Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text." (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br />
<br />
First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches "private" meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br />
Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br />
<br />
Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br />
<br />
Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br />
<br />
A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br />
<br />
Informative Function<br />
<br />
The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br />
<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Function<br />
<br />
If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Cultural Function<br />
<br />
Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br />
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br />
<br />
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br />
<br />
Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br />
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
<br />
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br />
<br />
As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator "deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures".(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br />
Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br />
The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br />
Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br />
Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br />
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Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox". (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br />
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Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox".(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br />
The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br />
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The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on "Ingredient and Main Ingredient" or "Main ingredient and Soup"====<br />
The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by with or in. e.g."冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br />
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The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by “with or in”, for example, "冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". The choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br />
When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of "seasoning+main ingredient" can use the structure of "main ingredient+with+seasoning", such as "芥末鸡条" can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as "Cumin Beef".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", e.g. "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", for example, "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br />
The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, "芙蓉鸡片" can be translated as "Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White" and "菊花鱿鱼"as "Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", e.g. "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", for example, "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names "--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape" can be translated as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient", such as "干煸牛肉丝". "干煸" is the cooking method, "牛肉" is the main ingredient and "丝" is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as "Dry-fried Shredded Beef".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from "Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient" to "Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient"====<br />
In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as "person's name+main ingredient" can be made directly. For example, in "组庵豆腐", "组庵" is the name of a person and "豆腐" is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as "Zu'an Tofuo".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+，+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", e.g. "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", for example, "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name of a dish can be translated in the form of "cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style", e.g. "毛氏红烧肉", which can be translated as "Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. "(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br />
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====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as "Utensil + Main Ingredient"====<br />
Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br />
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Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br />
Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br />
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Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br />
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Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br />
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A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br />
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[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br />
<center> 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br />
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As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br />
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After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br />
Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br />
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Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications among China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Below I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br />
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====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br />
China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods vary from region to region. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can’t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people laugh. For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it doesn’t reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. But he didn’t have cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn’t reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is more appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br />
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====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br />
At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese food culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so no explanation can also be. The first translation is more vivid and make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese food culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br />
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====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br />
The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don’t understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.(Wang Junjian 2017，107)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br />
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To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br />
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To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural background contained in dish names, and using inappropriate translation methods. The paper tries to solve these problems by adopting domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduces the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br />
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===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br />
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====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book “Translator's Invisibility” according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expression that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation of translation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions, requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the difference of national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Baidu Encyclopedia, Susong Longhua ,2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br />
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====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br />
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Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level, adopting foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of its reader-oriented characteristics, domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove the obstacles of communication. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, combining domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths, avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br />
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Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br />
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Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and application. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the authors. On the one hand, we should consider their way of thinking and understanding ability as far as possible from the reader's point of view, so that they can understand the translation content. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retain the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br />
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===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br />
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====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br />
Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br />
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Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br />
There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br />
slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br />
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====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br />
“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br />
Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br />
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Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br />
The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br />
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As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacies and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br />
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=====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br />
以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br />
There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br />
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There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. She casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br />
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=====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br />
带地名和人名的菜名<br />
There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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There are usually two translation methods for the dish name with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as“pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual“step by step” (步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br />
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====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br />
<br />
Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br />
<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are opposite in theory, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this paper can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:32, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br />
*Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br />
*Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br />
*Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br />
*Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. "Baidu Encyclopedia". https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br />
*Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br />
*Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br />
*Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br />
*Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br />
*Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br />
*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of "Translation Strategies", "Translation Methods" and "Translation Skills"]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br />
*Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br />
*Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br />
*Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br />
*Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br />
*Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br />
*Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6&diff=115529History of Translation Studies 62020-12-19T09:26:39Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Abstract */</p>
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br />
<center> 汤蓓 Tang Bei, 202070080607.</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation is purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.<br />
<br />
Translation is a purposeful and trans-cultural communication. And domestication and foreignization are two strategies to cope with cultural differences in translation. This thesis attempts to explain the choice of demestication and foreignization in translation by case studies from the perspective of functionalist approaches.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
domestication; foreignization;functionalist approaches<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译是一种有目的的跨文化交际，处理翻译的文化差异可以使用两种方法：归化和异化。本文从德国功能派翻译理论出发，利用该理论的主要观点，从翻译功能的角度分析译者在翻译过程中对翻译的两大策略——归化与异化的选择做出解释。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
归化；异化；功能派理论<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Translation, bridging the world of different cultures together, is a cross-cultural activity to the essence as well as an important medium to promote cultural communication. However, due to the differences between materials, customs, religions, thoughts, living environments and language systems, cultural gaps, independent of man’s will, exist objectively, which cause the main difficulties in cultural communication. Only by adopting proper translation strategies can translators reduce cultural conflicts and effectively achieve cultural communication. There are arguments in translation circles on which translation strategy is the better one to remove cultural confusion and promote cultural communication. Domestication and foreignization are two points at issue. Some are for domestication, and some are for foreignization.<br />
<br />
In 1970s, the German functionalist approaches emerged. “Functionalist” means focusing on the function or functions of texts and translations. Functionalism is a broad term for various theories that approach translation in this way. Although Skopostheory has played a major role in the development of this trend. For the functionalist, translation is a purposeful activity, Nord had mentioned that a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose.(Nord,1997) .The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “Skopos rule”, that is “the end justifies the means” (Nord 1997:29). Plus Holz-Manttari’s theory of tranlational action, Reiss’s text typology, the functionalism is intended to solve the eternal dilemma of many issues in translation studies, and the strategies of domestication and foreignization are without exception.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of functionalist approaches, the choice of translation strategies depends on the functions of the texts, the Skopos. To achieve the prospective purposes, the translator has the freedom to choose the method he needs domestication or foreignization, or both. The functionalist approaches provided a perspective of translation studies.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:24, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter1: Brief Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization, two different yet functionally related strategies, the two terms were formally put forward by Laurence Venuti, aiming at explaining two kinds of translation strategies in The Translator’s Invisibility in 1995. Venuti claimed that he traced the root of the terms back to Friedrich Schleiermacher’s famous notion about translation. Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher, said in a lecture in 1813 on the different methods of translation, which stated that “There are only two. Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti 1995:37).<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, “domestication means bringing the foreign culture closely to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her see the differences” (Venuti 1995:148).<br />
<br />
Mark Schuttleworth and Moria Cowie defined domestication and foreignization in the following way: “Domesticating translation is a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers”, while “Foreignizing translation is a term used by Venuti to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original”. (Schaffner 1995:21)<br />
<br />
To sum up above, the conclusion can be drawn like this: domestication refers to a reader-oriented translation which makes use of acceptable expressions in the target culture to make the target text easy to understand and suitable for the target text readers. Foreignization translation is a culture-oriented translation, which tries to retain the charm of the original text as much as possible in order to preserve the flavour of the original text.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:26, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Supporter of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Eugene. A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist dedicated to the communicative function of translation, is widely considered to be the most important supporter for domestication. Nida understands the concepts of domestication and foreignization as “dynamic or functional equivalence” and “formal equivalence” or “formal correspondence”. Dynamic equivalence is a principle of translation. According to this principle, the translators translate the original text with the purpose of making the impact of target language wording on the target culture readers. (Nida&Taber, 1969:200). He argues that, “Under normal circumstances, translators always change the form of the original text ,but as long as the conversion rules change the consistency of transfer in the context of the source language to follow the rules and follow the anti-conversion target language, then the information is retained, and translation is faithful”. (Nida, 1964:118) <br />
<br />
Nida divides equivalence into two levels : the lowest level and the highest level of equivalence. The lowest level on the translation is of important and basic requirements; while the highest level on the translation is the ideal, and is therefore difficult to achieve. If the translator is unable to achieve the lowest level of equivalence, it is not enough. He also states that: “The purpose of dynamic equivalence in the translation is to achieve natural expression and to link the receptor and relevant behavior patterns within receptor’s cultural context.” (Nida, 1964:165) <br />
<br />
The natural expression indicates fluency is very important to this translation theory. Apparently, domestication in Nida’s works is involved in this fluency. Nida and other proponents of domestication have their own reasons: First, it is not only unrealistic, but also dangerous for translators to try to impose the linguistic and cultural norms of the source text on the target text. Language barriers and cultural barriers should be overcome in a good translation. Second, since translation is an important and necessary medium in both cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communication, the behavior patterns of the target culture should absorb some parts of the source culture in translation. Third, the language of the translated text should be natural, authentic and understandable, which is one of the requirements of translation. This requirement aims to avoid the misunderstanding caused by the target audience because of the language barriers. Domestication is considered to be the most important from the perspective of “natural expression” in Nida translations.<br />
<br />
While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture unique. <br />
<br />
While Venuti, who is the famous representative of the foreignization school questioned Nida’s translation strategy, and proposed his own “resistant strategy” against the dominant fluency. He argues that “cultural differences will be contained in fluent translation strategy, which in fact is a practice of cultural imperialism” (Venuti, 1995:20). Venuti points out that foreignizing strategy of resistance is a pressure on those values to show the linguistic and cultural differences between the original and the translated text. By resisting the dominant cultural values, the role of resistant strategy in questioning, changing and destroying the native cultural norms is positive. With the destruction of the cultural norms of the target language, foreignization translation maintains foreignness and culture uniqueness. <br />
<br />
Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation not only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.<br />
<br />
Venuti sees domestication as a way for a strong culture to exert cultural hegemony over a weak culture. Considering the cultural inequality, domestication has more significance. Thus, “the foreignization translation in English can be a form which is based on the interests of democratic geopolitical relations. Venuti’s foreignizating strategy of resistance has a positive impact on studies about translation. He focuses translation neither only on the language level, nor only view domestication and foreignization as translation strategies.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Venuti and other proponents of foreignization argue reasons as following: First of all, “cultural authenticity” which embodies the characteristics of a foreign culture is one of the basic principles of foreignization translation. Only through the destruction of cultural norms of the target language, can foreignization maintain foreignness and cultural characteristics of foreign text. The supporters for foreignization hold that the target readers want to feel exoticism of the translated text. The translators should present a new cultural identity to the readers, because that is the purpose of the reader to read translated works. Thus readers may know the real outside world through translated works. The translators should have confidence in the readers’ intelligence and imagination to appreciate cultural differences. Third, the exchange and dissemination of culture should be one of the main purposes of the translation. The introduction of authentic exotic culture promotes cultural exchanges. Only when translation can transfer the source linguistic phenomenon and cultural phenomenon, can it be seen as faithful translation. Cultural communication can improve the development and prosperity of the local culture by means of foreignization translation. The local culture can be greatly enriched by absorbing nutritious heterogeneous culture. The culture of a nation will become energetic and influential through an open and receptive attitude towards foreignness.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:28, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====My Understanding on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
As it is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from the perspective of a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood. <br />
<br />
As is known that the argument about domestication and foreignization has a long period history. In these arguments, the translators always focus on one while ignores the another. In fact, domestication and foreignization have both its advantages and disadvantages. Actually, we should learn these two kinds of strategies from a neutral standpoint. From above mentioned, it can be concluded that domestication can effectively avoid the misunderstanding of the original text by cultural differences. Translation is a kind of cultural exchange, and the main task of the translator is to establish effective communication between different cultures by eliminating cultural conflicts. Such communication may be effective in the source culture, but may not be effective in the target culture. The target audience can easily interpret the translated text in terms of their familiar cultural norms. If the information in the translation is within the understanding of the target audience, this translation can better convey the message. If not, the message may be misunderstood.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
While in foreignization, it can be concluded that the target readers want to experience a foreign culture. In other words, it is usually presumed that understanding foreign culture is one of the main purposes of the target readers in reading translated works. Generally speaking, foreignization is relatively smoother, simpler, clearer and more conventional, and can entertain ordinary readers and achieve a lively effect because the expression and style of such translation are familiar to the target readers. Foreignization is somewhat clumsy, unnatural and unfamiliar, and can be used to introduce foreign culture, history and philosophy, and let readers feel the exotic culture and customs. However, foreign cultural images and language features may cause information overload for readers. In a word, both domestication and foreignization have its advantages and disadvantages so it is hard to say which one is better. So we need a theoretical framework to guide us how to choose the translation strategy.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter2:Brief Introduction of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in the late of 1970s. In the translation of non-literary text types such as scientific and academic papers, instructions for use, tourist guides, contracts etc, Vermeer came to realize that the contextual factors surrounding the translation cannot be ignored. These factors include the culture of the intended of the target text and of the client who has commissioned it, and, in particular, the function which the text is to perform in that culture for those readers. Later Vermeer and his followers continue to complete the theory and prove that it also can be applied to literary translation. Within the framework of Skopos theory, translation is not regarded as a process of transcoding, but as a specific form of human action. Like any other human action, translation has a purpose, and the word Skopos is used as a technical term for the purpose of a translation.<br />
<br />
The general and primary rule of Skopos theory is the skopos rule. Vermeer assumes that as a general rule it must be the intended purpose of the text that determines translation methods and strategies. Translation is determined by its purpose. It all depends on the Skopos of translation whether to employ domesticating or foreignizing strategy. The second general rule is the coherence rule. This rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended users to comprehend it, given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances. The third general rule is the fidelity rule. The rule concerns intertextual coherence between translation, the outcome of translational action, and source text. It stipulates only that some relationship must remain between the two once the overriding principle of the first two rules have been satisfied. Among the three rules, the skopos rule plays the most important role while the other two should subject to it. In the Skopos theory, another important term is “translation brief” which specifies what kind of translation is needed. In the ideal situation, translator can decide what strategy to use by the translation brief given by the initiator.<br />
<br />
According to Skopos theory, a text is viewed as an “offer of information”(Reiss &Vermeer 1984: 139) made by a producer to a recipient. Translation is a secondary offer of information, imitating a primary offer of information. Translation is the production of a functionally appropriate target text based on an existing source text, and the relationship between the two texts is specified according to the Skopos of the translation. It is up to the translator to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. The decisive factor is the specified Skopos. As a result, the status of the source text is much lower in Skopos theory than in equivalence-based theories.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:34, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Theory of Translational Action====<br />
The theory of translational action was developed by Holz-Manttari in1980s. The theory is based on the principles of action theory put forward by Wright and Rehbein and is designed to cover all forms of intercultural transfer. In her model, translational action is “the process of producing a message transmitter of a certain kind, designed to be employed in superordinate action systems in order to coordinate actional and communicative cooperation” or “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 1997).The primary purpose of translational action is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate communication to take place across cultural barriers. Holz-Manttan pays special attention to the actional aspects of the translation process and she analyzes the roles of the participants (such as initiator,translator, user, message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place, medium) in which their activities take place. In her model, the source text is viewed as a mere tool for the realization of communicative functions. It is a text to which a translation initiator, a client, has assigned the function of serving as source material for translational action. It is totally subordinate to its purpose and is afforded no intrinsic value, thus it may undergo radical modification in the interest of the targeted reader.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Text Typology====<br />
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br />
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:37, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The text typology of functionalist approaches was developed by Reiss in the book cooperating with Vermeer in 1984. The theory is based on the “origin model” of language functions proposed by the German psychologist Karl Buhler in 1934. The three functions of his theory refer to the representation of objects and phenomena, the attitude of the text producer towards such phenomena, and the appeal to the text receiver that correspond broadly to Jackobson’s Reprecentational, Expressive and Conative functions. It is on this basis that Reiss distinguishes among the informative text, the expressive text and the operative text, each calling for particular sets of skills and strategies on the part of the translator. <br />
Reiss distinguishes between two forms of text categorization, which are located on different levels of abstraction: on the one hand, text types are classified according to the dominant communicative function (basically informative, expressive or operative mentioned above); on the other hand, text genres or varieties are classified according to linguistic characteristics or conventions (like those of reference books, lectures, satires or advertisements). (Nord, 1997)--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter3:The Choice of Domestication and Foreignization in Translation from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches===<br />
====From the Perspective of Skopoos Theory====<br />
The Skopos theory gets its name from the Greek word “Skopos” which means “purpose”. This approach to translation stresses the purpose of the translation, which determines the translation strategies to be adopted. A translatum i.e. the translated text is determined by its Skopos. Knowing why a text is to be translated and what its function is going to be in the target culture is important in this approach. Like the summary Nord made in 1997, Skopos theory seemed to be exactly the translational model that was needed since it was pragmatic, culture-oriented, consistent, practical, normative, comprehensive and expert. The main point of this functional approach is the following: it is not the source text as such, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, as is postulated by equivalence-based translation theories, but the prospective function or Skopos of the target-text as determined by the initiator’s, i.e. client’s, needs. Consequently, the Skopos is largely constrained by the target text user and his situation and cultural background.<br />
<br />
There are some examples showing the function of Skopos rule. Translators’ choices of translation strategies are often decided by their purposes. Both Yang Xianyi and David Hawkes translated Hongloumeng, one of the four Chinese classical masterpieces. However, the two translators adopted totally different strategies. Yang tends to employ foreignizing translation while Hawkes domesticating translation. The translation of the title of Hongloumeng shows the difference. Yang translated the title into “A Dream of Red Mansions” while Hawkes chosen another name of the masterpiece, “The Story of the Stone”. For Hawkes, the Chinese traditional, noble red color won’t raise the same imagination in the westerners. Contrarily, it will be connected with blood, violence and so on. Therefore, he avoided translating the character literally and resorted to another English word “green” that has more pleasant meaning in English language. As a result, “怡红院” was translated as “the house of green delights” and “怡红公子”as “green boy” . <br />
<br />
Another domesticating example is the translation of “鸳鸯” , the mandarin duck which is the symbol of true love. He used “lovebird” to replaced the specific Chinese word. In order to make the translated text easier to understand, and “谋事在人，成事在天”were rendered as “Man proposes, God disposes”. The Chinese Buddhist “heaven” becomes the western Christian “God”. Hawkes’ purpose is to entertain his English readers and he adopted those easy-understood words and phrases in English culture in spite of sacrificing the original cultural connotation. Contrarily, Yang’s purpose is to introduce the luxuriant Chinese culture to the western world. That’s why so many words and phrases with culture-specification were maintained and translated literally. His expected readers are those who are willing to know Chinese culture and to absorb new expressions. Consequently he adopted a rather foreignizing method, attempting to maintain the exotic cultural factors of source text. Examples were seen as following:<br />
1.俗语说的好：“一龙九种，种种个别。”未免人多了就有鱼龙混杂，下流人物在内。(第九回)<br />
“A dragon begets nice offspring, each one different.” And inevitably among so many boys there low types too, snakes mixed up with dragons.(Yang 202)<br />
“There are nice kinds of dragon and no two kinds are alike”. Where many are gathered together the wheat is sure to contain a certain amount of chaff; and this school was no exception in numbering some very ill-bred persons among its pupils.(Hawkes 206)<br />
2.真是天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福。(第十一回)<br />
“Truly, ‘Storms gather without warning in nature, and nature, and bad luck befalls men overnight’”.(Yang 291)<br />
“I know ‘the weather and human life are both unpredictable’.”(Hawkes 294)<br />
3.俗话说得好：“杀人不过头点地。”(第十二回)<br />
Remeber the proverb “A murder can only lose his head.”(Yang 318)<br />
“You know what the proverb says: He who checks a moment’s rage, shall calm and carefree end his days.”(Hawkes 322)<br />
It is can concluded that cultural gaps between the source language and the target language is always a hard nut for a translator to crack. Every language has its own specific cultural connotation, and sometimes the contained meanings are very difficult to convey by another language in the process of translation. <br />
<br />
The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The famous Chinese anesthetist, translator Zhu Guangqian pointed out: “Because of the different cultural situation and living status, words refer to the same thing sometimes can bring about different imagination and esthetics. For instance, the English words fire, sea, Roland, castle, sport, shepherd, nightingale, race will cause different psychological reaction between the English and the Chinese people. For English people, have abundant cultural factors. On the other hand, the Chinese characters and words like风，月，江，湖，梅，菊，燕，碑，笛，僧，隐逸，礼，and阴阳can evoke special association of ideas among Chinese people which may not be comprehended easily by the English people.”(Zhu Guangqian 1984:335) Consequently, the translating strategies translators choose must be determined by the Skopos of translation. Based on this Skopos, translators can select either foreignization, oriented towards the SL culture or domestication, oriented towards the TL culture, or both.--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====From the Perspective of Translational Action====<br />
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. <br />
<br />
Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and it focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer. Holz-Manttari says that translation is not only about translating words, sentences or texts but is in every case about guiding the intended co-operation over cultural barriers enabling functionally oriented communication. For her, translating is a form of translational, intentional and interpersonal interaction. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
As a form of communicative action, translating is a form of translational interaction. Translational interaction takes place in situations that are limited in time and space. This means every situation has historical and cultural dimensions that condition the agents’ behavior, their knowledge and expectations of each other, their appraisal of the situation, and the standpoint from which they look at each other and at the world. As a result, translators, who enable communication to take place between members of different culture communities, are conditioned by these factors too. Their decision of translating strategy is without exception. In addition, translation is an intentional interaction. For translators, there is a choice to act one war or another.<br />
In Manttari’s model inter-linguistic translation is seen as a communicative process with a series of roles and players. The roles and players are: The initiator, the person, group or institution that starts off the translation process and determines its course by defining the purpose for which the target text is needed. (Nord,1997:20 )The commissioner, is the person who asks the translator to produce a target text for a particular purpose and addressee. Sometimes he may influence the very production of the target text by demanding a particular text format or terminology.The ST producer, the person who writes the ST;the TT producer, who is the translator;the TT user, who is the person who uses the TT; the TT receiver, who is the final recipient of the TT.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
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These roles and players are interconnected through a complex network of mutual relation. Among these roles, the initiator and the translator are the most significant since it is the initiator who gives out the translation brief and thus determines translator's translation strategy. Sometimes the roles and players can be overlapped, one person playing the roles of several agents at the same time. For example, translator can be the initiator and TT producer at the same time if he is the person who wants to translate the source text into target culture, Yan Fu and Lin Shu are of this kind. In this situation, the translator can determine the translation strategy subjectively according to the purpose he wants to attain. They initiated the translation action themselves and had their prospective TT receivers in mind. Thus the intentions of the translators, the initiators and the aesthetical expectation of TT receivers together determined the translators to choose the strategy of domestication.<br />
Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detail explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Lin Yutang, a famous Chinese writer and translator, candidate of Nobel Prize for literature, once asked his friend Yu Dafu to translate his masterpiece A Moment in Peking that had achieved a great success in the English world. He sent him a detailed explanation of the idioms and quotations from Chinese culture in detail. Unfortunately, the deal turned out to be unaccomplished. (Later,some translators translated it into Chinese. However, Lin felt unsatisfied with all these translated versions.) In this case, Lin is the source text producer and the initiator, he gave out the translation brief and largely determined the translating strategy. Lin’s other works, such as The Importance of Living, My Country and My People, are originally written in English and later translated into Chinese. Compared the English and the Chinese versions, we can find great differences, especially those concerning Chinese specific cultural phenomena. Then what led to these differences? What are the purposes of the initiator? The reasons probably lie in this: creating a work that can satisfy both English and Chinese readers. --[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the English readers are not familiar with the Chinese culture, Lin described it in great details; while in its Chinese version, these details were omitted. In Lin’s translation of Chinese classics, such as Laozi and Zhuangzi’s Taoism, he also adopted the same routine and won a large number of readers. In another translated work The Six Chapters of a Floating Life《浮生六记》, he adopted both domesticating and foreignizing strategies. The examples are in the following:<br />
<br />
余笑曰：“卿非解人，摸索在有意无意间耳，拥而狂探，田舍郎之所为也。”<br />
Beauty of caressing lies in doing naturally and half unconsciously. Only a country bumpkin will hug and caress a woman roughly. (Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
惠来以番饼二圆授余，即以赠曹。曹力却，受一圆而去。<br />
Hueilai gave me two Mexican dollars which 1 gave to Ts’ao, but Ts’ao would not take them, only after my insistence did he receive one dollar before going away.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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In the two examples quoted above, Lin employed domesticating translation. The Chinese classics was translated into modern English and the cultural images were replaced, such as “田舍郎，番饼二圆”. The translation became fluent and transparent as if the translator was invisible. However, in order to introduce the profound Chinese culture, he also adopted foreignizing translation in the same text. The example is in the following:<br />
<br />
其形削肩长颈，瘦不漏骨，眉弯目秀，顾盼神飞，惟两齿微露，似非佳相。<br />
Of a slender figure, she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck, slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes there was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two font teeth slightly inclined forward, which was not a mark of good woman.(Quoted in Meng Jiangang, 2002)<br />
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The lines described the appearance of a Chinese woman. However, the traditional Chinese beauty may not be beautiful in western culture; and it is difficult for the westerners to understand that “两齿微露” is a premonition of disaster. Lin made no explanation here since he believed western reader would interpret the cultural connotation according to the context. There is no doubt that he succeeds.<br />
<br />
The secret of his success is to focus on the function of the target text. Since translation is an intercultural action, different cultures can communicate smoothly by this means. In Lin’s case, he played the roles of source text producer, initiator and translator. Initiators can be a group or an institution. In order to achieve some kind of political purpose, government sometimes initiates a series of translation action and determines the translating strategies for translators. In addition, in order to get more benefit, publisher, the initiator, sometimes will set a translation brief for translators, and asks them to act accordingly. These phenomena are common in modern society. For example, many foreign romances are translated into Chinese in recent years. Some are domesticating while others are foreignizing. The reasons behind them probably lie in the publishers’ intention to satisfy their perspective readers. Translatorial action produces a TT that is functionally communicative and functionally suitable in the target culture. It places translation in its socio-cultural context, which includes the interplay between the translator and the institution that initiated it and stresses functionality.--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====From the Perspective of Text Typology====<br />
Among the advocates of functional approaches to translation is Reiss who works on text types which determine translation. Reiss’s approach considers the text rather than the word or the sentence as the translation unit and hence the level at which equivalence is to be sought. The contents of Reiss’s text typology are in the following:<br />
The first one is the “informative” text where the content is the main focus. These texts do plain communication of facts, information, knowledge, opinions etc. The logical or referential dimension of language is what is involved. The second one is the “expressive” text where the focus is on creative composition and aesthetics. Both the author (the sender) and the message are what are foregrounded. Imaginative creative literature exemplifies these texts and the third one is the “operative” text where the focus is “appellative” by which what is meant is that the text appeals to the reader to act in a certain way, persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling him. The form of language is dialogic.(Reiss, 1971:25)<br />
Correspondingly Reiss advocates specific translation methods for these text types. The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication where required, the aim being to transmit the referential content of the text. The text styles concern philosophy, news reports, science and so on that aim at introducing foreign culture, history and custom. This text type focuses on the convey of specific culture. Together with the function of Skopos theory, a foreignizing translation should be advocated. The target text of an expressive text should use the “identifying” method, the translator having to look at it from the ST author’s standpoint. The text type of this kind mainly is literature that concerns various linguistic, cultural factors with the functions of cognition, expression, moralism, aesthetics and so on. <br />
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Since it connects closely to culture, the choice of translation strategy seems more complex. Generally speaking, we can make the decision according to its function and purpose. For those works rich in cultural connotation, if the purpose is to introduce the source text culture to the target one, we should take foreignizing translation, such as Yang Xianyi’s A Dream of Red Mansions. Since the classic is a representation of Chinese culture and conventional moral, we should convey these information to foreign readers and avoid misreading or misunderstanding. <br />
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On the contrary, if the translator’s intention is to entertain the readers and provide the plot of the story, he can adopt the domesticating translation as Hawkes did in his The Story of the Stone. More examples can be seen at Su Mashu and Chen Duxiu’s 《悲惨世界》, all headings of the original novel were domesticated into typical Chinese traditional parallel sentences. For example, “The Close of A Day’s March” and “Prudence Recommended to Wisdom” were translated into “第一回 迪涅城行人落魄，苦巴馆店主无情” and “第二回 感穷途华贱伤心，遇贫客渔夫设计” respectively. Both content and form of an operative text are subordinate to the extra linguistic effect that the text is designed to achieve. “The translation of an operative text has to employ the ‘adaptive’ method, trying to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The translation of operative texts into operative texts should be guided by the overall aim of bringing about the same reaction in the audience, although this might involve changing the content and/or stylistic features of the original.” (Nord, 1997:38) <br />
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The examples can be found in the translation of advertisement. For instance, the famous trade mark “Coca Cola” was translated into “可口可乐” and reached a totally success. “Coca” is the plant the Indians view as saint and from which people abstract cocaine. If it is translated directly into“古柯” it probably cannot raise the nice flavor of the drink in Chinese customers. Then “Coca” was domesticated into “可口” while “Cola” maintained its foreigness. Therefore, for an operative text, since communicative function is prior to everything else, we tend to employ domesticating translation. <br />
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Reiss also mentioned evaluating criteria, which vary according to text types. Thus while the translation of any content-oriented text has to aim at semantic equivalence, and a popular science piece will have to preserve the ST style, there is greater need to retain a metaphor in an expressive text than in an informative target text. Reiss thinks one could gauge the adequacy of a TT by intra-linguistic criteria like semantic, grammatical and stylistic features and extra-linguistic criteria like situation, subject field, time, place, receiver sender and implications like humor, irony, emotion and so on.<br />
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Reiss’s text typology is a useful but it is clear that texts are often not as hermetically sealed as Reiss has once believed. A biography or an editorial could have informative as well as appellative content. A personal letter could well be informative, expressive and appellative as can be an advertisement. As a result, translators should take other factors into account, such as functions, Skopos and so on and make judgement accordingly. --[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 07:39, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
Domestication is reader-centered and TL culture-oriented, and foreignization is author-centered and SL culture-oriented. However, which of the two translating strategies should be chosen evokes a heated and endless debate at home and abroad, since scholars of these two opposite schools can't convince each other. Many scholars regard these two strategies as oil and vinegar, and believe that they can never coexist harmoniously in translation. People who advocate foreignization believe that, as a means of cultural communication, translation should introduce foreign culture and exoticness to target reader, meanwhile taking in new expressions. On the contrary, people who prefer domestication argue that translation should help to overcome not only language barrier but also cultural conflict. For them, the task of translator is to avoid cultural conflict, and domesticating translation can help readers understand the source text better and finally reach the goal of cultural communication. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of functionalist theory, as a communicative, intercultural action, translation is viewed as an intentional, interpersonal interaction. From the angle of Skopos of translation, together with action theory and text typology theory, funetionalist approaches provide us a perspective. Skopos rule is the principal rule determining any translation process in the purpose of the overall translational action. Plus loyalty rule put forward by Nord, functionalist approaches put translation into the framework of action theory and cross-culture communication theory. And adequacy rather than equivalence should be the criterion of judging the quality of a translation. By analyzing the purposes of different parties involved in the translation action(such as initiator, translator, and reader)，guided by translation brief given by the initiator, a translator can determine which translation strategy should be chosen. If the purpose of translation is to introduce domestic culture, history, philosophy to foreign readers, then foreignization should be employed. On the other hand, if the purpose of translation is to entertain the target reader, domestication can add more readability and get better function. Besides, text typology can help translator to figure out the function of a source text and make wiser decision about translation strategy. In one word, from the viewpoint of functionalist, domestication and foreignization have different functions in target language culture. Translator can adopt either or both of them in order to achieve the prospective functions. They are not, and should not be regarded as contradictory, but complementary, and can be employed simultaneously in translation. <br />
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In a word, translation can realized cultural communication and transplantation goal under the guidance of the functionalist approaches.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 12:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
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1.Bassnett, Susan&Andre Lefevere. (2001). ''Constructing cultures: Essays on Literary Translation.'' Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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2.Hawkes, David. (1982). ''The Story of the Stone.'' New York: Penguin Books.<br />
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3.Nida, E. A.&Chr. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation.'' Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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4.Nida, E. A. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating.'' Leiden: E. J. Bril1.<br />
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5.Nord, Christiane. (1997).''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist ApproachesExplained.'' Manchester:St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
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6.Reiss, K. (1971). ''Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.'' Munich: Hueber.<br />
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7.Schaffner, (1995). Christina. ''“Editorial.” Cultural Functions of Translation.'' Clevedon: Multilingual Matters LTD.<br />
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8.Schleiermacher, A. (1992) On the Different Methods of Translating [A]. ''Theories of Translation: An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida''[C]. Schulte, R&Biguenet, J. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,36-54.<br />
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9.Venuti, L.(1995). ''The Translator’s Invisibility.''[M]. London: Routledge.<br />
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10.Venuti, L.(1998). ''The Scandal of Translation.''[M]. London:Routledge.<br />
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11.Yang, Xianyi&Yang Gladys.(1994) ''A Dream of Red Mansions.'' Beijing: Foreign Language Press.<br />
<br />
12.Cai Ping 蔡平.(2002).翻译方法应以归化为主[Domestication should be the Main Strategy in Literary Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal(5):39-41.<br />
<br />
13.Cao Xueqin&Gao E曹雪芹&高鹗.(1992)''红楼梦''[Hongloumeng].Beijing:People's Literature Publishing Press 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
14.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000).''文化与翻译''[Culture and Translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co.中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (1999)''当代美国翻译理论''[Contemporary American translation theory]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
16.Meng Jiangang 孟建刚. (2002).''关于翻译原则二重性的最佳关联性解释''[Accounting for the Duality of the Translating Principles of Foreignization and Domestication with the Notion of Optimal Relevance]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (5):27-31.<br />
<br />
17.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1991). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short Translation History in the West].Beijing:The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
18.Tang Zaixi 谭载喜. (1999). ''新编奈达论翻译'' [A new edition of Nida’s theory of translation].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Co. 中国对外翻译出版社公司.<br />
<br />
19.Zhu Guangqian朱光潜.(1984). ''谈翻译:翻译论文研究集''[On Translation: A collection of research papers on translation].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />
<center> 欧蓉 Ou Rong, 202020080629.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. And the study abroad on his works in translation has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflect in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out merits and and demerits of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures and promote Chinese literature goes ahead with the world.<br />
<br />
For a long time, due to its unique style, Chinese literature has attracted widespread attention of world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge and a medium for cross-cultural communication. Mo Yan is a well-known representative writer in China and won the 2012 Nobel Prize in Literature. His translation works have never stopped studying abroad. Howard Goldblatt is a well-known American translator who specializes in contemporary Chinese literature. All English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. By analyzing the domestication and foreignization in the translation of Mo Yan's works translated by Howard Goldblatt, this article aims to point out the advantages and disadvantages of this application, and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English. It can help deepen understanding, improve the fluency of communication between different cultures, and promote Chinese literature to the world.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
domestication; foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
葛浩文英译莫言作品中的归化和异化之应用<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名作家，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过，2012年他获得诺贝尔文学奖。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其优点与缺点，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度，帮助中国文学走出国门，面向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译；归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
From ancient to present, despite of its unique style, Chinese literature only has its own several classic works as famous among the world, such as Four Great Classical Novels---Water Margin, Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Dream of the Red Chamber. Also, few literature works created in modern history have theirs own statues in the international. With the establishment of People’s Republic of China and Reform and Opening, there are a handful of modern and contemporary works that are well-known abroad(Lv Minhong, 2011:6).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works are published abroad and squeeze into bookshelves fill with English native books. The prominent Chinese writers in and out include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing and so on. Until 2012, the time that Mo Yan was awarded Nobel Prize, people’s interest in Chinese literature reached a climax(Sun Huijun,2014:86). In the process of flowing overseas, translator plays a crucial role in cultural transmission. The American sinologist Howard Goldblatt is the typical example, who made great contributions for the output of Chinese Culture(Ge Haowen,2014).<br />
<br />
Some Chinese literary works were published abroad and crowded on shelves filled with English local books. Famous writers at home and abroad include Lu Xun, Mo Yan, Yu Hua, Lao She, Shen Congwen, Zhang Ailing, etc. It wasn't until Mo Yan was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2012 that people's interest in Chinese literature reached a climax (Sun Huijun, 2014: 86). In the process of moving overseas, translation plays a vital role in cultural communication. American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt is a typical example, who has made great contributions to the development of Chinese culture (Ge Haowen, 2014).--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
He can be called the mirror of Mo Yan in America, even the critic Updike said,the translation of contemporary Chinese novels in the United States seems to be the lonely career of Professor Howard Goldblatt(2005:37). Until now, his translation works of Mo Yan include Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, The Garlic Ballads, The Republic Wine, Sandalwood Death and so on. His superb translation for Mo Yan in certain sense helps a lot for Mo’s position in world literature. <br />
<br />
Mo Yan said: ''without the outstanding work of Professor Howard Goldblatt, the translator of my novels, my novels could have been translated into English and published in the United States by others, but there is absolutely no such perfect translation as today. Many friends who are proficient in both English and Chinese said to me, Professor Howard Goldblatt’s translation perfectly matches with my original work. But I prefer to believe that his translation adds great luster to my original work''(2000:170).<br />
=====1. Literature Review=====<br />
Howard Goldblatt, who is well-known as a translator, sinologist and writer, translated many works of Chinese writers. During his 30-year translation career, he has translated more than 50 modern and contemporary Chinese literary works, making an inestimable contribution to the spread and influence of Chinese literature overseas(Jia,Yanqin,2012:62). However, as Howard mentioned in the interview, ''Americans don’t pay much attention to translated text. Because they are always suspicious to translation''(2009:50). Although translator plays a key role in literary dissemination and communication, the work of translators has not received the attention they deserve. And the researches on translation abroad also mainly focus on translation theorists rather than translators.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the study about Howard Goldblatt’s translation is also not paid attention intensely outside. In 2011, the journal "Chinese Literature Today" was jointly organized by the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University as an important platform for Chinese literature dissemination and research overseas, in which Howard, as the special guest, was introduced in details. In this journal, Christopher Lupke(2011)introduces Howard’s career of translation and studying, assesses his style of translation and discusses his faithful translation strategies.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the research on Howard Goldblatt's translation has not attracted widespread attention from the outside world. In 2011, the University of Oklahoma and Beijing Normal University jointly organized the "Chinese Literature Today" magazine as an important platform for the dissemination and research of Chinese literature overseas. In particular, Howard was introduced as a special guest. In this journal, Christopher Lupke (2011) introduced Howard's translation and learning career, assessed his translation style and discussed his faithful translation strategies.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Also, after three years, the journal “Chinese Literature Today” invited Howard again. Stalling Jonathan(2014)gives an original interview about Howard Goldblatt. The new point is the mention of opera of Yuan dynasty, which helps a lot for Howard’s translation of the work Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out.<br />
<br />
Although there are few response to Howard Goldblatt’s translation abroad, many scholars in domestic regard him as a hot research object. Ji Jin(2009) conducts an interview on the situation of contemporary Chinese literary works overseas, Howard Goldblatt's criteria for choosing text, Howard Goldblatt's views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his prospects for the development of contemporary Chinese literature in the future. This kind of study aims to find the problems Chinese literary works encountering with outside and to think about the solution. <br />
<br />
Although there is not much reaction to Howard Goldblatt's translation abroad, many domestic scholars regard him as a popular research object. Ji Jin (2009) the status quo of overseas contemporary Chinese literary works, Howard Goldblatt’s book selection criteria, Howard Goldblatt’s views and evaluations of contemporary Chinese writers, and his development of contemporary Chinese contemporary literature The prospect was interviewed. This kind of research aims to discover the problems encountered by Chinese literary works in the outside world and think about solutions.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt’s view, principles and specific strategies on translation. Zhang Yaoping(2005)collects all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and figures out his views and style of translation. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian(2007)summarize Howard Goldblatt’s four principles on translation. From the interview to Howard, Yan Yixun(2014) gets his ideas that “Elegance” is more important than “Faithfulness” and “Expressiveness” and that “Faithfulness” cannot be neglected by “Elegance”. <br />
<br />
Some scholars are interested in Howard Goldblatt's views, principles and specific translation strategies. Zhang Yaoping (2005) collected all Chinese works translated by Howard Goldblatt and pointed out his views and translation style. Then, Wen Jun, Wang Xiaochuan and Lai Tian (2007) summarized Howard Goldblatt’s four translation principles. From interviews to Howard, Yan Yixun (2014) got his idea that "Elegance" is more important than "Faithfulness" and "Expressiveness", and "Faithfulness" cannot be ignored by "Elegance".--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the most common is the research on the text of translated version by Howard Goldblatt. Shao Lu(2013), through analyzing Howard’s Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out, finds Howard’s “fidelity” and “infidelity” in translating. Shi Guoqiang(2013)points out Howard’s “Creative treason” on translation from his Big Breasts and Wide Hips. Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu(2020)discuss Howard’s “fidelity” and “treason” in his translation of the work Frog. Many other works, such as Tales of Hulan River, Turbulence, Six Chapters From My Life Downunder, Red Sorghum and so on, also are studied by many scholars. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the most common is Howard Goldblatt's research on translations. Shao Lu (2013) analyzed Howard's life and death are wearing me down, and discovered Howard's "loyalty" and "infidelity" in translation. Shi Guoqiang (2013) pointed out the "creative treason" in translation from Howard's "Big Breasts" and "Big Buttocks". Yin Lingwei and Shen Xiangyu (2020) discussed Howard's "loyalty" and "treason" when translating frog works. Many scholars have also studied many other works, such as "The Legend of Hulan River", "Turbulence", "Six Chapters of My Life", "Red Sorghum" and so on.--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In this way, most scholars only reach a conclusion by analyzing a novel translated by Howard Goldblatt. Although the most studied is the translated texts of Mo Yan’s works, it lacks a systematic study of Howard’s translation strategies in a writer’s several works. Shao Lu(2011)has studied Howard’s translation of Mo Yan’s whole works, but her focus is translator’s decisive effect to promote the output of the original author’s works. <br />
<br />
Therefore, the paper aims to analyze the domestication and foreignization in Howard Goldblatt's translation of Mo Yan's novels, find pivotal obstacles, and think about practical measures to promote Chinese culture to the world.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan===<br />
Mo Yan, one of Chinese contemporary writers, born in Gaomi of Shandong province, creates plenty of novels in which the story happened in his hometown, Red Sorghum, Big Breasts and Wide Hips contained. His novel draws on the artistic guidelines of modernist novels such as magical realism, surrealism, symbolism, and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations, and irony to express the profundity of the society, history, culture and the beauty of thousands of styles of regional culture in China.(Lv Minhong,2011:102) <br />
<br />
Mo Yan, one of the contemporary Chinese writers, born in Gaomi City, Shandong Province. Many of his novels took place in his hometown of red sorghum, big breasts and wide hips. His novels draw on the artistic direction of modernist novels, such as magic realism, surrealism, symbolism and stream of consciousness. He uses metaphors, symbols, exaggerations and satire to express the profound connotations of society, history, culture, and the beauty of thousands of regional cultures in China. (Lu Minhong, 2011: 102)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Notwithstanding there is another feature in Mo Yan’s works---neutral and objective portrayal to the characters from different parties. For example, in Red Sorghum, when it comes to theme of history, to reconstruct history by overturning the dualistic opposition in the creation of traditional anti-Japanese novels, he presents the vague horizon between past and present, death and life, good and evil(Shao Lu,2011:51). <br />
<br />
Combining the living description and impersonal history sense, Mo Yan’s work receives much attention from readers over the world. However, Mo Yan’s unique writing style with dialects and local color is difficult to translate into another language. It is Howard Goldblatt who translates his novels into English that speeds up the spreading overseas.<br />
<br />
Howard Goldblatt, although with American descent, is interested in Chinese culture very much. He once studied and taught in Taiwan for many years, which provides him much experience to absorb Chinese culture. He once said Taiwan is his another home. When he came back to America, he was matriculated by San Francisco State University to study Chinese language literature. After several years, he went to Indiana University of Pennsylvania for further study under the guidance of the Professor Liu Wuji who is a well-known expert in Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
<br />
What drive Howard to choose Mo Yan continually and frequently can probably be several causes following. Firstly, Howard himself is interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term study in China and his further study with the help of the Professor Liu Wuji. Here Mo Yan is a convinced writer representing Chinese literature(Lv Minhong,2011:29). <br />
<br />
The reasons that prompted Howard to continuously choose Mo Yan may be the followings. First of all, Howard himself is very interested in Chinese culture, which can be seen from his long-term research in China and further research with the help of Professor Liu Wuji. Here, Mo Yan is a persuasive writer, representing Chinese literature (Lu Minhong, 2011: 29).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Secondly, Mo Yan’s work meets the taste of Americans. After his translated work Red Sorghum was published in America, the volume pressed and sale is impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three kinds of novels---those more about sex and politics or the detective novels(2009:46). Obviously, the former two elements can be shown in Mo Yan’s work. <br />
<br />
Secondly, Mo Yan's works are in line with American tastes. After his translation work "Red Sorghum" was published in the United States, the printing volume and sales volume were impressive. Howard explained that American readers prefer two or three novels-more novels about sex, politics, or detective novels (2009: 46). Obviously, the first two elements can be reflected in Mo Yan's works.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Finally, there is a great relationship established between Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan. They would communicate with each other frequently. Each Mo Yan’s new book, Howard said, he would read it and admit the value of Mo’s works(2009:54). Just occasionally, Mo Yan once praised Howard’s rigorous spirit in translation and expressed his gratification to the cooperation(2000:170).<br />
<br />
Finally, Howard Goldblatt and Mo Yan established a very good relationship. They will communicate with each other often. Howard said that with every new book of Mo Yan, he will read and recognize the value of Mo Yan (2009: 54). Mo Yan occasionally praised Howard's rigorous spirit in translation and expressed satisfaction with the cooperation (2000: 170).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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So much connection with China and accumulation of Chinese culture fosters his profound knowledge about Chinese literature. From 1970s Howard began to translate Chinese literary works. Among the works he had translated, the number of Mo Yan’s works is the most. And the version translated by Howard is the most accepted.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Embodiment of Demestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are frequently used in the process of translation. The two terms were first brought forward by Venuti, an Italian. According to Venuti, domestication is to "bring the original author into the target language culture", while foreignization is to "accept the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text and bring the reader into the foreign context"(2004:20). <br />
<br />
It implies that domestication requires the translator to get closer to the readers of the target language. The translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become an authentic native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the language characteristics of foreign cultures in translation and absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to move closer to the original author, adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author's use to convey the content of the original text, that is, the source language culture is the destination(Venuti,2004:25). <br />
<br />
This means that domestication requires translators to maintain closer contact with readers in the target language. The translator must speak like a local author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the reader, the translation must become a true native language. On the contrary, foreignization accepts the linguistic features of foreign cultures and absorbs foreign language expressions in translation. It requires the translator to be closer to the original author, and to convey the content of the original text in a language corresponding to the original language used by the author, that is, the source language culture is the destination (Venuti, 2004: 25).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In Howard Goldblatt’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, the application of domestication and foreignization are ubiquitous. <br />
=====1. Domestication=====<br />
To convey the information more fluently and naturally, providing convenience to readers to understand, Howard applies domestication a lot in his translated works. Annotation, addition, omission and substitution, which are methods of domestication, can be seen in the Howard Goldblatt’s translated works.<br />
<br />
======1.1. Annotation======<br />
In Mo Yan’s work, there are many unique elements that exist in Chinese culture. To avoid obstacles for foreign readers, Howard makes some explanations based on the original meaning. There are several examples following:<br />
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E.g: Original text: 她回头对上官吕氏说：“上官家的，你跟我进来。”(Mo Yan,2012:10)<br />
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Translated text: She stopped, turned and said to Shangguan Lv:“Lady Shangguan, come with me.”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:17)<br />
<br />
In China, especially in the northern regions, when addressing a person’s wife, the word “的” is usually added to the man’s last name. “上官家的” refers to Shangguan Fulu’s wife. It is a kind of dialect, showing the local color of Gaomi town. Here Howard uses “lady” to explain “的”, for the former is commonly used in English expression to greet a married woman. American readers could keep pace with the plots without culture gap, avoiding the obstacle for understanding.<br />
<br />
In China, especially in the northern regions, when calling someone’s wife, the word "的" is usually added to the person's last name. "上官家的" refers to Shangguan Fulu's wife. This is a dialect that shows the local color of Gaomi Town. Howard uses "lady" to explain "的" here, because the former is usually used to greet married women in English expressions. American readers can keep pace with the plot without cultural differences, thus avoiding barriers to understanding.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
There are some special expressions only in Chinese local culture, which are even able to be understood by the local. Howard also adds some annotations following:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 八竿子拨拉不着的个表姨。(Mo Yan,2012:328)<br />
<br />
Translated text: You’re such a distant aunt.(Howard Goldblatt,2011:363)<br />
<br />
“八竿子拨拉不着” is equivalent to the meaning of “Eight poles can’t be struck”, describing the relationship between the two being alienated or unrelated. The original description of the person killed by the little lion is a whole number when counted on the table. Howard adopts the strategy of domestication, only expressing the distance between the two, without literally translating "Baganzi". <br />
<br />
"八竿子拨拉不着" is equivalent to "Eight poles can’t be struck", which describes the alienated or irrelevant relationship between the two. When counting on the table, the original description of the person killed by the lion cub is an integer. Howard adopts a domestication strategy, only expressing the distance between the two, without the literal translation of "Baganzi".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
The translator is responsible for the original work and also for the target readers, paying attention to reader’s acceptance and to the fluency of the translation. Therefore, Howard puts the content and form of the translation within the knowledge range of the target language readers, helping them to better understand the translation with their own cultural concepts.<br />
<br />
======1.2. Addition======<br />
It is known that addition can be used as a method of domestication to explain the concealed information.<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text:---信马由缰式的---(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Prepared to go with the flow---that was how he lived his life---he followed the man inside.(Wen Jun,2007:79)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character idiom of Chinese is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has. Peole cannot find a perfect expression in another language. There is not an absolutely identical expression matches the meaning of certain an idiom. The idiom of Chinese The idiom “信马由缰”means to wander aimlessly on a horse. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in specific situations based on the meaning in the text(Xu Yuanchong,1993:87).<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong believes that the four-character Chinese idiom is an advantage that the West does not have, and only China has it. Peole couldn't find the perfect expression in another language. There is no absolutely identical expression that matches the meaning of an idiom. The Chinese idiom idiom "信马由缰" refers to horse riding aimlessly. Howard Goldblatt not only translated the literal meaning of the idiom, but also explained the meaning of the idiom in a specific situation based on the meaning in the text (Xu Yuanchong, 1993: 87).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
======1.3. Omission======<br />
There are some elements in original text that are difficult to understand for foreign readers. Therefore, Howard makes some omissions when translating. <br />
<br />
E.g:Original text: 谢谢审判长的提醒，我马上进入实质性辩护。近几年来，农民的负担越来越重。我父亲所在村庄，种一亩蒜薹，要交纳农业税九元八角。要向乡政府交纳提留税二十元，要向村委会交纳提留三十元，要交纳县城建设税五元（按人头计算），卖蒜薹时，还要交纳市场管理税、计量器检查税、交通管理税、环境保护税，还有种种名目的罚款！(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Thank you for reminding me, Your Honor. I’ll get right to the point. In recent years the peasants have been called upon to shoulder ever heavier burdens: fees, taxes, fines, and inflated prices for just about everything they need.(Cao Shunying,2015:127)<br />
<br />
Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically do not understand Chinese legal policies, which are too difficult and boring to understand. If the translator makes too many descriptions of these details, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. It is also an embodiment of domestication. By the way, in the end of The Garlic Ballads, Howard makes a great change that he deletes some problematic plot and turns the imperfect ending into a satisfying ending. This action, certainly proved, is correct(Yan Yixun,2014:197).<br />
<br />
Compared with the original work, some details of Chinese legal policies are obviously omitted here, because foreign readers basically don't understand Chinese legal policies, which is too difficult and boring. If the translator describes these details too much, foreign readers will lose interest in this work. This is also a manifestation of domestication. By the way, at the end of "The Ballad of Garlic", Howard made a big change. He deleted some problematic plots and turned the imperfect ending into a satisfying one. This action is correct (Yan Yixun, 2014: 197).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
======1.4. Substitution======<br />
Sometimes, the meaning of words or expression is not equal to the literal meaning. Perhaps, it is the contrary or unrelated meaning, which requires translators make a closing reading and recognize the real meaning the original author want to express. This time, translators should find a more accurate native expression to substitute the original expression. There is an typical example following:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 余占鳌在火辣辣的痛楚中，忽然感到一阵酥酥麻麻的快乐，这快乐冲到喉咙，启动牙齿，化作一连串胡言乱语：“亲娘亲娘亲娘……亲娘……亲娘……”(Mo Yan,2007:158)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Stung by the pain, he experienced a sense of numbing ecstasy, and when it reached his throat it activated his teeth moving and emerged as a stream of gibberish:“Mistress Mistress Mistress...”(Howard Goldblatt,1994:165)<br />
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The Chinese “亲娘” and “亲妈” are not only called as the biological mother, but also often people’s blurting when sighing. For example, if people are shocked by something, they will say: “哦，我的妈呀！” Here, the author uses the word “亲娘” five times to express the confusion and excitement in Yu Zhanao's heart. <br />
<br />
Grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into her room, but Yu Zhanao admired her grandmother, so he regarded her grandma's behavior as a flirtation, so he was happy. If the translator literally translates “亲娘” as “mother”, this will not only make readers feel very confused about the relationship and plot, but also the original flirting feeling will be indifferent. Howard Goldblatt uses the strategy of domestication to replace it with “mistress”. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and smooth.<br />
<br />
The grandmother scolded Yu Zhanao as a punishment for him breaking into the room, but Yu Zhanao admired his grandmother very much, so he regarded her grandmother's behavior as flirting, so he was very happy. If the translator literally translates "亲娘" into "mother", this will not only make readers feel very confused about this relationship and plot, but the original flirting feeling will also become indifferent. Howard Goldblatt replaced it with "Mistress" using domestication strategies. It not only eliminates the differences between language and culture, but also makes translation more fluent, natural and fluent.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
=====2. Foreignization=====<br />
To close the distance with the original text and try at most to transmit the authentic culture of original text, translators apply foreignization as a translation method. This kind of method usually does not change the style and order of the characters in original text, keeping the exotic tinge of original culture in the target language. Transliteration and literal translation, as the methods of foreignization, are the most frequently used by Howard Goldblatt.<br />
<br />
======2.1. Transliteration======<br />
In most cases, transliteration is the best translation method for names without special meaning. When translating a name, transliteration is a very important way. The translator can translate the name according to its pinyin without changing the Chinese order. Howard Goldblatt uses a lot of transliteration when there is no special meaning in the translation of Red Sorghum. For example, “戴凤莲” was translated as “Dai Fenglian”, “豆官” was “Douguan”, and “单庭秀” was “Shan Tingxiu”. “王文义” means “Wang Wenyi”(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above that Howard extremely respects the original author in the translation of such names. He not only uses pinyin completely, but also follows the order of Chinese names, that is, the surname is first and the first name is last, respecting and obeying Chinese traditional cultural customs.<br />
<br />
However, when translating some characters’ nicknames and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as “刘罗汉”, which is translated into “Arhat Liu”. Because 刘罗汉 was a loyal, firm and honest helper. He passed away in order to protect the property of his host. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of “Araht”, so Howard’s translation of it is very symbolic(Howard Goldblatt,1994).<br />
<br />
However, when translating nicknames with certain characters and names with special meanings, transliteration is not applicable. The translator needs to find out the specific implicit meaning, and then choose the most suitable translation, such as "刘罗汉", and translate it into "Arhat Liu". Because Liu Luohan is a loyal, firm and honest helper. He died to protect the owner's property. His spirit is consistent with the meaning of "Araht", so Howard's translation of it is very symbolic (Howard Goldblatt, 1994).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
There is another transliteration that appears with some annotations, which can enlarge reader’s insight and make the plot more logically:<br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 直到春暖花开的清明节。(Mo Yan,2012:110)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Qingming, the day of ancestral worship in the warmth of spring, when flowers were in full bloom. (Howard Goldblatt,2011:140)<br />
<br />
“清明节” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is a festival to worship ancestors. The traditional activity is tomb sweeping. Using transliteration and short explanations, readers can have a basic understanding of this object, and can remind readers of its uniqueness.<br />
<br />
======2.2. Literal Translation======<br />
In the translation of some idioms and culturally loaded words, Howard Goldblatt also adopts the literal translation method to maintain the characteristics of the source language, so that people of different nationalities can share some common points in cognition. <br />
<br />
E.g: Original text: 母亲咬着牙齿说：“姓沙的，你癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉，做梦去吧！”(Mo Yan,2012:85)<br />
<br />
Translated text: Mother clenched her teeth. “You there, Sha”, She said, “Like the toad who want to feast on a swan, you can just dream on!”(Howard Goldblatt,2011:113)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, “癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉” is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, one wants to obtain something impossible. For American readers, they may not be able to fully understand the relationship between Toad and Swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉" is a common Chinese idiom, which means that without self-knowledge, people want to obtain the impossible. For American readers, they may not fully understand the relationship between toad and swan in Chinese. But in this way, they can understand what the author wants to express based on their own experience and context.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In this way, Howard has neither changed the lively image of the original text nor has it lost the connotative meaning of the original text. He once said:''If I can find appropriate slangy or regional or slightly archaic or unusual words that carry that sense, I’ll certainly use them. If I can’t I won’t.''(2014:8)<br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Enlightenment for Translation===<br />
Howard Goldbaltt puts faithfulness to the original text in the first place, reproduces the original content and ideas and retains the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator’s ethics of being faithful to the original text; secondly. To consider the target language reader's reading ability and translation the translator adopts domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduces the cultural information of the original text, and provides a naturally familiar target language for readers of the target language(Chen Jiayu,2019:20). <br />
<br />
Howard Goldbaltt will first be faithful to the original text, reproduce the original content and ideas, and retain the original writing style and language characteristics. It reflects the translator's ethics of being loyal to the original text; secondly. In order to consider the reading ability and translation ability of target language readers, translators adopt domestication strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers, appropriately reduce the cultural information of the original text, and provide the target language readers with a naturally familiar target language (Chen Jiayu, 2019): 20).<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
In order to promote cultural exchanges and realize cross-cultural communication, translators adopt foreignization strategies to preserve the cultural and national characteristics of the original text as much as possible. This not only allows target language readers to understand foreign cultures and customs, but also promotes cultural exchanges and dissemination and makes outstanding contributions to promoting Chinese literature to overseas.<br />
<br />
The purpose of Howard Goldbaltt’s translation is to complete a translation that is readable for Americans and highly accepted by the market. And about Howard’s translation of domestication and foreignization, there are many some arguments. Most scholars confirm to that Howard Goldblatt’s translation is applied domestication more frequently, while foreignization is minor(Yin Ting,2014:150). <br />
<br />
However, in studying the translated text Big Breasts and Wide Hips, Shi Guoqiang(2013:80) thinks that foreignization is the main methods of Howard’s translation, domestication minor. He comes up with several aspects that Howard use foreignization in his translation, such as some idoims, special nouns and two-part allegorical saying and so on. Despite of the arguments, Howard’s excellent translation cannot be denied, which help a lot for the going abroad of Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
However, Shi Guoqiang (2013: 80), when studying the translated work "Big Breasts and Wide Buttocks", believes that foreignization is the main method of Howard's translation, and domestication is secondary. He put forward several aspects of Howard's use of foreignization in translation, such as certain idols, special nouns and allegorical two parts. Despite all the controversies, Howard's excellent translation is undeniable, which will greatly help Chinese literature to go overseas.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Analyzing the Howard’s translated works of Mo Yan’s, although his translation is the best version of Mo Yan’s novels until now, as for the output of Chinese litertature even Chinese culture, we still can get some enlightenment. <br />
<br />
Firstly, when translating Chinese literature into other languages, the translator himself is important. Usually, the translators who translate Chinese into another language are our Chinese. They translate their mother language into another language, in a sense, not as well-master as the people of target language. It causes a problem that the readers of target language cannot read and understand the translated version naturally and easily by Chinese translators. And the Chinese translators, most of them, are living in China, lack of the context of target language(Hu Anjiang,2010:11). <br />
<br />
Also, the Chinese translators who specialize in two languages and cultures are rare. What is more, the foreign translators familiar with Chinese culture is less. Therefore, according to Xu Jianping and Zhang Rongxi, the most effective way for Chinese-English translation is the cooperation of the original author and foreign translator of target language(2002:38). Howard Goldblatt and MoYan is the best example. And Howard himself also expresses the similar view(2014:201). <br />
<br />
Secondly, the translation strategy is also crucial. Chinese literature is the “weak literature”(Yin Lingwei,2020:109), so Xu Jianping thinks that foreignization should not be widely used in Chinese-English translation, because foreign readers’ understanding of China and its language and culture is far less than Chinese readers' understanding of foreign language and culture(2002:38). <br />
<br />
However, from the 1870s to the 1970s, for a hundred years, Chinese literary translation was roughly based on domestication; during the two decades of reform and opening up, inspired by Western translation theories, the Chinese translation community rethought foreignization and domestication, and the two methods have gradually become balanced in China. Therefore, Sun Zhili believes that the translation of Chinese literature in the 21st century will be dominated by foreignization(2002:40). <br />
<br />
Actually, it is not suitable to regard domestication and foreignization by dichotomy. Combining the two ways, the starting point should be to bring Chinese literary translations closer to Western readers through the domestication translation method, so as to enter the mainstream Western culture. Let Western readers first understand our cultural routines and ways of thinking, and then talk about further transformation and influence on the West Follow-up issues such as literary creation mode(Hu Anjiang,2010: 15). <br />
<br />
Finally, the responsibility of publishers and editors is also heavy. When Chinese literature goes out, the most in short supply of talents are intermediary talents, that is, intermediary agencies that can understand Chinese contemporary literary works, and at the same time understand the international market, and have a good background of cooperation with international publishing institutions...(Li Yun,2007) <br />
<br />
There is “the third readers” in the world. They usually don't pay much attention to the content when reading, because they are more in love with the readability or text style of the work. Also, they do not compare the translations with the original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or those literary translations translated from other languages into English. Paying more attention to such “fair readers” who pursue pure literary feeling and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translations to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics(Medougall,2007:23)<br />
<br />
There are "third readers" in the world. They usually pay less attention to the content when reading, because they prefer the readability or text style of the work. Moreover, they do not compare translations with original works, but only compare these translations with original English works or literary works translated into English from other languages. Paying more attention to "fair readers" who pursue pure literary sense and pure aesthetic experience will be an important guarantee for literary translation to gain the literary market, commercial profits and even the status of translated literary classics (Medougall, 2007: 23)<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 14:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice made in the translation process is not random or blind, but has a clear consciousness and clear goals, and they strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve the value of translation(Liu Yunhong, 2014). Through analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization Howard Goldblatt’s translation of Mo Yan’s works, some enlightenment can be concluded. The translators, the translation strategies and the publisher and editor can be taken as the crucial aspects. <br />
<br />
For any responsible translator, every choice in the translation process is not random or blind, but with clear consciousness and clear goals. They strive to resolve various contradictions encountered in translation to achieve translation The value of (Liu Yunhong, 2014). By analyzing the application of domestication and foreignization, Howard Goldblatt translated Mo Yan's works and can draw some enlightenment. Translators, translation strategies, and publishers and editors can be seen as crucial aspects.<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
Citing the words of Nida, for a truly successful translation, bilingual proficiency in culture is more important than in language, because words have meaning only in the culture in which they function(1993:83). This shows that in the process of translation, translators should not stick to a single domestication or foreignization translation strategy. They should comprehensively consider various factors such as language, culture, and readers’ comprehension, and adopt appropriate strategies to arrive at a degree of integration and adaptation for the highest translation.<br />
<br />
The needs of the target language culture have changed with the development of society and the changes of the times, and the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture have also increased with the increase of China's international influence. Many things that tended to be domesticated in the past are now or in the future using foreignized translations that are completely acceptable to the target language readers, and even look forward to them. Translating Chinese literary works with increasingly alienated strategies, allowing the world to read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to “go out”.<br />
<br />
With the development of society and the changes of the times, the needs of the target language and culture have changed. With the increase of China's international influence, the target language readers' acceptance and understanding of Chinese culture has also increased. In the past or present, many things that tend to be domesticated will use the target language readers to fully accept and even hope their foreignized translations. Using increasingly alienated strategies to translate Chinese literary works so that the world can read Chinese stories and understand Chinese culture is the only way for Chinese culture to "go out".<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 13:42, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(2011). ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' [M]. New York: Arcade Publishing.<br />
<br />
*Goldblatt, Howard(1994). ''Red Sorghum'' [M]. New York: Viking Penguin.<br />
<br />
*Jonathan, Stalling(2014). ''The Voice of the Translator: An Interview with Howard Goldblatt'' [J]. Translation Review (1):1-12.<br />
<br />
*Lupke, Christopher(2011). ''Hankering after Sovereign Images'' [J]. Chinese Literature Today (1):48-56. <br />
<br />
*Medougall, Bonnie(2007). ''Literary Translation: The Pleasure Principle'' [J]. Chinese Translation(5):22-29. <br />
<br />
*Eugene, Nida(1993). ''Language,Culture and Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence(2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br />
<br />
*Cao Shunying&Wang Miaomiao曹顺应，王苗苗.(2015).翻译与变异--与葛浩文教授的交谈关于翻译与变异的思考[J].[Translation and Variation--Conversation with Professor Howard Goldblatt on Translation and Variation].清华大学学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Tsinghua University(Social Science Edition) (1):124-128,183. <br />
<br />
*Updike,季进,林源(译).(2005).苦竹：两部中国小说[J].[Bitter Bamboo:Two Chinese Novels].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
<br />
*Hu Anjiang胡安江.(2010).中国文学“走出去”之译者模式及翻译策略研究---以美国汉学家葛浩文为例[J].[Translator Model, Translating Strategy, and the “Going Out” Project to Promote Chinese Literature Abroad: With American Sinologist Howard Goldblatt as an Exemplar].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (6):10-16,92.<br />
<br />
*Ji Jin季进.(2009).我译故我在---葛浩文访谈录[J].[I Translate, Therefore I Am--An Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (6):45-56.<br />
<br />
*Jia Yanqin贾燕芹.(2012).翻译家葛浩文研究述评[J].[A Review of the Studies of Translator Howard Goldblatt].楚雄师范学院学报Journal of Chuxiong Normal University (8):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Li Xiaoqin李晓琴.(2020).葛浩文英译莫言小说翻译策略初探[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s English Translation of Mo Yan's Novel Translation Strategies].英语广场English Square (23):20-22. <br />
<br />
*Li Yun李芸.(2007).中国文学走出去，翻译是道坎[N].[When Chinese literature goes out, translation is a barrier].科学时报Science Times. <br />
<br />
*Liu Yunhong&Xu Jun刘云虹,许钧.(2014).文学翻译模式与中国文学对外译介---关于葛浩文的翻译[J].[Literary Translation Models and the Introduction and Translation of Chinese Literature---On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University) (3):6-17. <br />
<br />
*Lv Minhong吕敏宏.(2011).葛浩文小说翻译叙事研究[M].[A Study on Howard Goldblatt’s Novel Translation Narration].北京:中国社会科学出版社Beijing:China Social Sciences Press.<br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2012).丰乳肥臀[M].[Big Breasts and Wide Hips].北京:作家出版社Beijing:Writers Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2007).红高粱家族[M].[Red Sorghum].北京:人民文学出版社Beijing:People's Literature Publishing House. <br />
<br />
*Mo Yan莫言.(2000).我在美国出版的三本书[J].[Three books I published in the U.S.].小说界Fiction (5):170-173. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2011).莫言小说英译研究[J].[A Study on English Translation of Mo Yan's Novels].中国比较文学Chinese Comparative Literature (1):45-56. <br />
<br />
*Shao Lu邵璐.(2013).莫言英译者葛浩文翻译中的“忠实”与“伪忠实”[J].[“Faithfulness” and “False Faithfulness” in the English Translation of Mo Yan by Howard Goldblatt ].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (3):62-67. <br />
<br />
*Shi Guoqiang史国强.(2013).葛浩文的“隐”与“不隐”---读英译《丰乳肥臀》[J].[Howard Goldblatt’s “Hidden” and “Not Hidden”--An English Translation of ''Big Breasts and Wide Hips'' ].当代作家评论Contemporary Writer Review (1):76-80. <br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化[J].[Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (1):40-44. <br />
<br />
*Wen Jun&Wang Xiaochuan&Lai Tian文军,王小川,赖甜.(2007).葛浩文翻译观探究[J].[On Howard Goldblatt’s Translation View].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching (6):78-80.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping&Zhang Rongxi许建平,张荣熙.(2002).跨文化翻译中的异化与归化问题[J].[Foreignization and Domestication in Cross-cultural Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (5):36-39. <br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.(2012).再谈中国学派的文学翻译理论[J].[On the Literary Translation Theory of the Chinese School].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (4):83-90,127. <br />
<br />
*Yan Yixun&Howard Goldblatt闫怡恂,葛浩文.(2014).文学翻译：过程与标准---葛浩文访谈录[J].[Literary Translation: Process and Standards---Interview with Howard Goldblatt].当代作家评论Contemporary Writers Review (1):193-203. <br />
<br />
*Yin Lingwei&Shen Xiangyu殷凌薇,沈翔宇.(2020).论葛浩文《蛙》英译本的忠实与背叛[J].[On the Faithfulness and Betrayal of Howard Goldblatt’s English Version of ''Frog''].北方工业大学学报Journal of North China University of Technology (3):108-113. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Yaoping张耀平.(2005).拿汉语读，用英文写——说说葛浩文的翻译[J].[Read in Chinese, Write in English——A Talk about Howard Goldblatt’s Translation].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (2):75-77.<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopos Theory 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br />
<center> 谭星越 Tan Xingyue,202020080642.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America, in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more easily understood by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which held that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research, and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization were put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous translation theorist in America in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'' in 1995. Domesticating translation places emphasis on the target culture, which makes the original text more understanable by the target-language readers, while foreignizing translation aims to produce the foreignness and cultural characteristics in the source text as much as possible.<br />
Skopos theory was proposed by Reiss and Vermeer in the 1970s, which holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation strategy. This thesis takes Skopos Theory as the basis of theoretical research and analyzes the application and practice of domestication and foreignization in the course of translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Skopos Theory, domestication, foreignization<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出来的。归化翻译是一种倾向于译入语文化的翻译方法，使原文文本更加容易被目的语读者所接受。异化翻译则旨在尽可能地传递原文文本的异质性和文化特色。翻译目的论由赖斯和弗米尔于20世纪70年代提出，该理论认为翻译目的决定翻译策略。本文将以目的论作为理论研究的依据，分析归化和异化在翻译过程中的应用和实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论，归化，异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choosing according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the landmark of functional approaches to translation, which is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.<br />
<br />
In the context of economic globalization, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent among countries. Translation, turning an original or “source” text into a text in another language, is an effective way of cultural communication. As a bridge of communication between cultures, translation plays an implacable role in the interaction. Since translation requires constant language choice according to different context of culture, different translation theories have been proposed. Traditional translation theories focused on the equivalence of meaning and form of language, and literal translation and free translation were the main approaches. In the 1990s, there was a “cultural turn” in translation. The study of translation was no longer limited to the linguistic level, which has greatly widened the theoretical scope of translation. Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, proposed two translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization.<br />
In contemporary translation studies, Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer as the landmark of functional approaches to translation is relatively accepted by the public. Vermeer (1987:26) held that translation is a kind of transformation behavior based on the original text and translation behavior is an intentional and purposeful behavior in a specific context.<br />
The thesis is comprised of five sections. The first part presents an introduction of this thesis. The second part discusses the origination and formulation of Skopos Theory and three rules of Skopos Theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. The third part gives a brief interpretation of the two translation methods: domestication and foreignization. The fourth part analyzes the application and practice of the two methods in the course of translation under the direction of Skopos Theory. The last part draws a conclusion for this thesis.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Skopos Theory===<br />
According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was listed as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object has been proposed. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings, in this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.<br />
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According to Gentlzer(1993:18), before the 1960s, translation was regarded as a kind of code-switching, reorganization and meaning equivalence of two languages. Under these circumstances, translation was accounted as a branch of linguistics. For a long time, linguists devoted themselves to studying the translation methods, principles and standards in the linguistic range of research, without concerning the factors of external language, such as the author and reader, or the speaker and hearer. With going deep into the research work, a new theory has been proposed based on the premise that linguistics is only a tool of translation study but not the object. Proposers considered translation as a kind of communicative activity between human beings. In this case, pragmatic level should be given priority to translation study, and background knowledge such as the conventions, norms and habits of different cultures should not be ignored. This chapter will focus on the introduction to this new theory of translation study—Skopos Theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====1.1 Origination and formulation of Skopos Theory====<br />
The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized, therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. <br />
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The formulation and development of Skopos Theory has undergone four stages. The representative of the first stage was Katharina Reiss, who was one of the founders of Functional Approaches to translation. The early theories of Katharina Reiss were based on the concept of equivalence. Reiss(1984:21) advocated that the equivalence between translation had to shift its focus from word and sentence level to textual level and that translators should take translation strategies, language functions, discourse types and text genres into account in the process of translation. Based on the three characteristics of linguistic functions, Reiss divided texts into three types: informative type, expressive type and operative type. These three different types of texts respectively served the communication between content, the communication between artistically organized content and the communication between content with a persuasive character, as a result, translation strategies for different text types were proposed. But in later studies, she realized that equivalence between translation was an impossible-to-be-realized. Therefore, Reiss revised her theory of Text Typology, and the analysis of text types was no longer the main reference of translation strategies. She held that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence, and in the whole process of translation, the communicative functions that the target language was expected to achieve should be of great significance in the cultural environment of the target language. Thus, it can be seen that Reiss’s theory laid the foundation for the formulation of Skopos Theory of translation. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory, and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose, and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claimed that the intended purpose of the translation determined the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
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In the second stage, Vermeer (1987:27) broke through the limitations of equivalence theory and took textual purpose as the primary criterion for the translation process. He developed functional skopos theory and made outstanding contributions to functionalist translation theory. He tried to build a bridge between practice and theory, considering that translation was a transformation of language, and also a kind of human behavior. As we all know, any action has its goal or purpose and leads to a result, a new situation or event. This was why Vermeer named his theory as “Skopos Theory”, which was proposed in the 1970s in German. “Skopos” was a word in Greek, which meant “aim”, “purpose”, “intention” or “function”. Generally, "Skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the translation. According to Vermeer’s Theory, the text’s purpose must remain a high priority, which will directly affect all aspects of the translation process. According to Vermeer, there were three purposes of translation: the translator's purpose, the purpose of dissemination of the translation, and the specific purpose of the special translation strategy. It was the initiator of the translation act that determined the purpose of the translation. But the translator did not passively accept everything. He can also act as the initiator, directly participating in determining the purpose of the translation (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:35). Moreover, Skopos Theory claims that the intended purpose of the translation determins the methods and strategies of translation and that three rules of translation should be observed: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages between different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation needed not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.<br />
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Translation Action based on the communication theory and action theory was elaborated by Justa Holtz Manttari in the third stage of the development of Skopos Theory, which has expanded the scope of functional translation theory. She regarded translation as a person-to-person, purpose-driven and result-oriented interaction activity. Manttari conducted a detailed analysis of the participants and behavior in the translation processes, mainly including the initiator / client, the commissioner, the ST producer, the TT producer, the TT user and the TT receiver. (Manttarri,1984: 398)Translation was the transfer of complex information including texts, pictures, sounds and languages among different cultures. The purpose of translation action was to overcome cultural and language barriers, so as to achieve cultural communication. She insisted that adaptations, compilations, edits and information inquiries were of essentiality in the process of translation activities, and she even included editing, consulting, and other activities related to foreign cultures into the translation action. The translator produced "message transmitter" that met the specific needs of the recipient's cultural background according to the client's requirements. As long as the target text can be produced to meet the client's needs, the task of translation was complete. In other words, the translation need not be equivalent to the original, which contrived the theory of Translation Action to be an extreme functional theory.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity or faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.<br />
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In the fourth stage, Christian Nord (2001：12)proposed two kinds of translation strategies, in response to the fact that Manttari completely ignored the original text: (1)Documentary translation: it referred to record the information contained in the original text in the communication of target language; it emphasized the direct production of the original text regardless of the context of the target.(2) Instrumental translation: it referred to the translation that achieved different functions for the certain purposes in the target language culture. Nord's contribution to translation studies was many-sided, and she proposed the theory of Function plus Loyalty. Function referred to the factors that made the translation work in a predetermined way in the target language environment, while loyalty referred to the interpersonal relationship among the translator, the original author, the recipient of the translation, and the initiator of the translation. In Nord’s view, loyalty was a kind of concept that translators should be loyal to both the original text and the target of the translation, and that was different from the concept of fidelity and faithfulness which only focused on the relationship between the original and the translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen from the above that the landmark theories of the German functionalist approach were: Katharina Reiss’ Text Typology, Hans Josef Vermeer’ Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’ Theory of Translation Action and Nord's Function plus Loyalty.<br />
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====1.2 Three rules of the Skopos Theory====<br />
The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There were three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text, and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.<br />
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The Skopos Theory proposed by Vermeer is the most important theory of functional approaches to translation. There are three ways to understand this word "skopos": the purpose of the translator; the communicative purpose of the text; the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation strategies. Usually, "skopos" referred to the communicative purpose of the text. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004:36). First, under an ideal situation, the initiator of the translation will give details of the elements in the process of translation, such as the recipient of the translation, the environment in which the translation was used, and the functions that the translation should achieve. According to Skopos Theory, the primary rule followed by all translators was the “skopos rule”: The translation purpose determined the translation methods and strategies. Second, coherence rule pointed that the translation must meet the criteria of intra-textual coherence and that translated text must be sufficiently coherent to allow the intended addressees to comprehend it, given that their assumed background knowledge and situation circumstances. Third, fidelity rule meant that the translated text should bear some relationship with the corresponding source text and there should be intra-textual coherence between the original text and the translation. Intra-textual coherence was similar to what was commonly referred to as fidelity to the original, and the degree and form of fidelity were determined by the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation that there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.<br />
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As we all know, translation has shifted its emphasis from language conversion to cultural transformation. Translation is no longer only regarded as the transformation of language symbols, but a mode of cultural transformation. Since translation is closely related to culture, a problem naturally arises: how to deal with the cultural factors in the text, especially in the text with great cultural differences between the source language and the target language. It is on the issue of how to deal with cultural differences in translation in which there exist disagreements in the field of translation. Generally speaking, it can be divided into two opposite opinions, namely, domestication and foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Domestication====<br />
Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not every person in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.<br />
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Domestication is an important term in cultural criticism, cultural translation theory and cultural exchange. Due to the differences in geographical environment and social history, the differences between eastern and western cultures exist objectively. In other words, not all people in the west can understand the cultural symbols of the east. When dealing with various oriental materials, the oriental scholars in the west can only make some transformation based on some methods such as domestication or foreignization.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. He proposed that domestication is an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, openly adopt conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and cater to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)<br />
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Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translator, was the first person to introduce the term “domestication” in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation''. He proposed that domestication was an approach that the translator "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" and that domesticating translation should abide by the current mainstream values of the target language and culture, and that openly adopted conservative assimilation methods to the translation of the original text, and that catered to local canon, publishing trend and political needs. (Venuti, 2001:19)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book Dictionary of Translation Studies defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers. . .it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)<br />
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Schuttleworth and Cowie in their book ''Dictionary of Translation Studies'' defined “domestication” as “a term used to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TL readers...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with [target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other”.(Schuttleworth & Cowie, 2004:59)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to as “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)<br />
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Douglass Robinson, a Canadian translator who discussed domestication and foreignization from the perspective of postcolonial theory, defined domestication as a term used by translators who were strident advocates of foreignizing translation to describe the worst translation. This kind of translation adopts the way of domesticating the original text into the target culture and language values. Traditionally, this concept is often referred to “free translation”. (Robinson, 1997:114)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domesticating translation, which emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period of time. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.<br />
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Domesticating translation that emerged in the 17th century when the translation activities mainly focused on the introduction of religious classics, classical literary works and the dissemination of Enlightenment thoughts, has been playing a dominant role in British for a long time. There were lots of scholars who firmly advocated the domesticating translation. For example, one of the representatives Eugene Nida has put forward the famous dynamic equivalence and the theory of reader’s response. He proposed that translation should achieve dynamic equivalence, not only in the form of expression, but also in accordance with the norms of the target language. He believed that the cultural category of the target readers should be taken into consideration in terms of expression, choice of words and sentences, and writing style, which should conform to the reading habits and reading psychology of the target readers (Nida, 2003:159). Meanwhile, in the United States, domesticating translation occupied the dominant position in the field of translation in a very long period. At that time, the critics in the United States strongly criticized those poems that tried to faithfully convey the exotic flavor of the original text, and publishers also strongly rejected this kind of foreignizing translation, which made it hard to get the chance of publication. They thought that only domesticating translation is the authentic translation, and in this way the translation can be read as if it is created in the target language. The translators completely vanish in the kind of fluent, domesticating translation that has erased every trace of exoticism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into the identity of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.<br />
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In some sense, domestication aims to transform the cultural identity of “the other” into that of “I”, so that the thoughts, values and behaviors of “the other” conform to “my” standards. As a result, cultural standardization eliminates and replaces cultural differences, leading to the emergence of cultural supremacy or ethnocentrism which refer to the tendency of all countries and nationalities to regard their own way of life, beliefs, values and codes of conduct as superior to others. Homi Bhabha ever claimed that with the global expansionism of the strong culture of Europe and America, non-western countries have been placed in a narrow narrative of progress and development and their civilization described as decadent and autocratic (An Feng, 2004: 15). Under this circumstance, Vetinu proposed the foreignizing translation in order to achieve the deconstruction of ethnocentrism.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Foreignization====<br />
Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as the standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.<br />
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Based on a thorough study of the history of translation in the West from the 17th century to the present, Venuti (2001:23) found that the adoption of domesticating translation strategies was the dominant practice in the history of western translation. Such a translation tradition implies the fact that translators take the western ideology as a standard and foreign texts are shaped by the values of western nationalism and imperialism. Venuti has challenged this kind of translation tradition and firmly advocated foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:<br />
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Venuti studied translation from the perspective of society and culture. His theory was directly derived from the German tradition of emphasizing foreignization, the influence of French thinker Derrida and the school of cultural studies. In the mid-18th century, German translators and writers have put other languages in the same position as German, and the respect for foreign languages has become a guiding principle in the course of translation, from which people learn to adjust themselves to the heterogeneous elements in foreign texts. In the 19th and 20th century, attention to the foreignness of the original text has become an undercurrent in the study of German translation theory. During this period, the theorists were cautious and avoided the words of "literal translation" and "free translation". They no longer focus on the unit of translation, but turn to the issue of the interpretation of cross-cultural text. For example, German scholar Schleiermacher ever stated:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] express itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language, because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)<br />
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"An inner necessity, in which a peculiar calling of our people [the Germans] expresses itself clearly enough, has driven us to translating en masse; we cannot go back and we must go on. Just as our soil itself has no doubt become richer and richer fertile and our climate milder and more pleasant only after much transplantations of foreign flora, just so we sense that our language can thrive in all its freshness and completely develop its own power only through the most many-sided contacts with what is foreign because we exercise it less owing to our Nordic sluggishness, ."(Schleiermacher, 2004:62)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “differance” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Differance” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.<br />
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The German tradition of emphasizing “foreignness” (especially Schleiermacher's argument) provided the theorical basis and direction for Venuti's thoughts, then Derrida's "Deconstruction" philosophy provided a “strategy” for Venuti's translation theory. Derrida challenged all the traditional translation theories and practices with the concept of “difference” in his writing activity and deconstruction strategy. “Difference” is the source of uncertainty and difference. And the meaning of text is always be influenced by the temporization and spacing of the difference; therefore, meaning cannot be completely determined and the absolute translation of original text is always impossible (Graham, 1986:146). Deconstructive translation theory deconstructs the authority of the original text, and puts the translation on an equal and complementary position with the original, thus giving the translator more autonomy. Meanwhile, deconstructive translation theory emphasizes “difference”, and aims to achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between languages through translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in translation literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates to promote the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.<br />
<br />
On the basis of previous scholars' theories, combined with American modernist translation theory, Venuti developed the connotation of foreignizing translation at least from the following aspects(Zhang Jinghua，2009:68): (1) The "heterogeneity" of modernist foreignization comes not only from foreign languages and cultures, but also from those excluded and marginalized discourses in local discourses. (2) The modernist text in foreignizing translation develops the idea of "translation autonomy" and enriches the connotation of foreignization translation in ethical sense, which also conforms to the Frankfurt School's thought of "artistic autonomy" in the translation of literature.(3) The foreignization of modernism advocates the promotion of the renewal of the target-language system with the help of marginal languages such as new words and ancient words. (4) In the discourse strategy, foreignizing translation endows translators with more freedom, highlights the subjectivity of the translator, and no longer relies solely on the literal translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 05:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Translation Method under the Direction of Skopos Theory===<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity". XIE(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images for the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a behavior of cross-cultural communication. Translation is the bridge of cultural integration. The negation and exclusion of foreign cultures are incompatible with the role of translation as a cultural bridge; however, the overall acceptance of foreign language will also lead the original language to lose its "social identity".(Xie Yao,2017:360) stated that the translation work inevitably bears its cultural imprint, and domestication and foreignization are main ways to lessen the conflict between source language culture and target language culture. Foreignization does a good job in keeping the culture and images of the source language, while domestication means removing all strangeness and foreignness of the source text and making the translation clearly readable. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.1 Target reader-oriented approach — domestication====<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, and considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.<br />
<br />
If translators aim to produce equivalent translation, especially pragmatic equivalent translation to achieve communicative effect with fully understanding the semantic meaning and pragmatic meaning, or considering the acceptance and response of readers, the domesticating translation should be given priority. Therefore, one of the responsibilities of translators is to avoid cultural conflicts, which can lead to various forms of misunderstanding. When transplanting a text into another culture, the translator should carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. Therefore, we should try our best to transform the source language culture into the target language culture. At the same time, the translator is also a disseminator. In cross-cultural communication, he/she should eliminate barriers and deliver the meaning of the source culture to the readers of the target culture. Then, I will analyze the practice of domesticating translation combined with some examples.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“煮茶非漫浪,要须其人与茶品相得。故其法每传于高流隐逸、有烟霞泉石磊磈于胸次间者。<br />
The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake. The moral state of the brewer should match well with the quality of the tea. That explains why the techniques of tea brewing are usually handed down only to eremitic wisdoms with lofty characters and peaceful mind." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang，2009:36)<br />
<br />
<br />
“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art needed no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public eye for a long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. <br />
<br />
“The art of tea brewing is not for roman' s sake”, the sentence pattern of this translation is obviously derived from “art for art's sake”, which reminds people of the aesthetic movement that appeared in the late 19th century in the field of British Art and Literature. “Art for art’s sake”, a slogan translated from the French “l’art pour l’art”, which was coined in the early 19th century by the French philosopher Victor Cousin. It expressed the belief held by many writers and artists, especially those associated with Aestheticism, that art need no justification, and that it served no political, didactic, or other purposes. This form of expression has already been in the public's eye in the long term. Therefore, the translator resorted to the domesticating method according to the cultural standards and traditions of the target language so that the information can be easily understood and accepted by the receptors. --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Many more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “角楼”, an ancient architecture in China, as another example. The word “角楼” has a long history, which first appeared in the book History of the Three Kingdoms · Wei Shu. It was built on the corner rampart. Because the horizon from the “角楼” is very wide and the enemy's situation can be observed clearly. Therefore, “角楼” was used as an important facility of the defense project in ancient times. At present, there are four “角楼” in the Palace Museum in Beijing. The most common translation of “角楼” is “turret”. The word "turret" originates from the Latin word "turris", which means a small tower that projects vertically from the wall of a building such as a medieval castle and is used to provide a projecting defensive position allowing covering fire to the adjacent wall. It can be seen that the meaning of the word is very similar to that of the “角楼”. Here, the translator adopts the domesticating strategy to try to find the equivalent words of the image “角楼” in the western culture. Much more examples could be mentioned. For instance, “肉夹馍” is a famous snack in Xi’an and has been listed as a cultural heritage, which is one of the delicacies for foreign tourists to taste in Xi'an. The official translation of “肉夹馍” in Xi'an is “Rougamo”. However, the more well-known or widely spread translations are "Chinese hamburger" and "Chinese sandwich", because foreign tourists think that “肉夹馍”is a popular Chinese "meat burger" or "meat sandwich", and the translation here adopts the domestication strategy.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====3.2 The purpose of source culture dissemination—foreignization====<br />
For the sake of spreading the source language culture, translator should adopt foreignization so as to promulgate the culture of the original language to the target readers to the largest degree, stimulate the readers to learn the unknown source culture, help to overcome the obstacles in cross-cultural communication, and finally facilitate cultural integration. Then, I will analyze the practice of foreignizing translation combined with some examples.<br />
<br />
<br />
“凡采茶,在二月、三月、四月之间。<br />
The second, third, fourth months of the lunar year are a proper time for almost all sorts of tea to get harvested." <br />
(Jiang & Jiang, 2009:48)<br />
<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introduced into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.<br />
<br />
During the Tang Dynasty, there was no strict time requirements for tea plucking. In the Classics of Tea, Lu Yu said that the optimum time for tea plucking was between February and April in the lunar calendar, that is to say, it is between March and May according to the current solar calendar. In this sentence, the translator supplemented the cultural element “the lunar year” for accurate time expression. The lunar calendar was established in ancient China based on the operating cycle of the moon, which has been used for thousands of years, guiding the Chinese nation's spring planting, autumn harvest, daily life, containing the wisdom of harmonious coexistence between the Chinese people and nature, and inheriting the continuous national life culture. With the western learning introducing into China, the solar calendar has gradually become a common social calendar, and the lunar calendar is to a large extent an expression of life customs and the inheritance of folk customs. The translator used communicative translation strategies to explain the precise season of tea-picking to the target readers. From the perspective of cultural communication and the expectations of the target readers, the translator tried his best to make the target readers appreciate the exotic and unique cultural information of the source text in the process of compensating for cultural defaults. For publicity translation, the original text can be regarded as a collection of languages, and also a mirror of national history and culture. It can be said that any text is always loaded with certain cultural information to show its unique national cultural temperament. In order to achieve cultural exchange, translators convey the cultural information in the original text accurately and faithfully. This is a good example of foreignizing translation.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in The Dream of Red Mansions, as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel, and Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.<br />
<br />
Then, I take the translation of “谋事在人，成事在天”, an ancient proverb in ''The Dream of Red Mansions'', as another example. David Hawkes translated it into “Man proposes, God disposes”. He quoted Western proverbs to express the central idea of the original sentence. However, his translation of “天” into “god” was based on his western mode of thinking. Hawkes' translation ignored the differences of religious and cultural information and failed to convey the cultural elements of the original text. However, Yang Xianyi translated this proverb into “Man proposes, Heaven disposes”. Besides, “阿弥陀佛” appeared many times in the novel. Hawkes translated into “my Lord” or “my God” while Yang Xianyi translated into “Amida Buddha”, which showed the character's Buddhist belief. We can clearly see that Yang Xianyi employed the foreignizing translation. In the course of translation, foreignization is more favorable to show the cultural differences to the readers, and enable them to understand the Chinese religious and other cultural backgrounds more accurately.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criterions of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.<br />
<br />
Based on Skopos Theory, combined with the prop criteria of skopos rule, this thesis studies the domestication and foreignization in the course of translation. It should be said that the two strategies, domestication and foreignization, are not opposite or even contradictory, but complementary in translation. Cultural transplantation would be successfully achieved with a variety of methods and models. With Skopos theory applied to make a comprehensive analysis of various factors involved in translation, we can conclude that translators can adopt the principles and methods of both domestication and foreignization. (Guo Jianzhong,1998:5)As for to what extent source culture must be preserved in the translation, how to preserve it, and to what extent source culture must be adjusted to adapt to the target culture, we have to make a choice based on our correct understanding of the nature and the purpose of translation and the demands of target readers. Therefore, it is important for translators to have a deep cultural awareness in the process of translation, and to be sensitive to the similarities and differences between the two cultures. In addition, once one kind of translation method has been employed in a particular text during the process of translation, the translator better keep this basic tendency as far as possible.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Gentzler, Edwin.(1993). ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Graham, Joseph.(1986). ''Difference in Translation''[M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.<br />
<br />
*Justa Holz-Manttari.(1984). ''Translatorisches Handeln, Theorie und Methode''[M]. Distributor, Akateeminen Kirjakauppa.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (2003). ''Toward a Science of Translating''[M]. Brill Academic Publishers.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane.(2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Reiss, Katharine. &Vermeer, Hans. J. (1984). ''Towards a General Theory of Translational Action: Skopos Theory Explained'' [M]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Robinson, Douglass. (1997). ''Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theory Explained''[M]. Manchester: St Jerome.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Friedrich. (2004). ''On the Different Methods of Translating''[A]. In Lawrence Venuti ed. The Translation Studies Reader[C]. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Schuttleworth, Mark. & Cowie, Moria. (1997). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''[C]. Manehester: St Jerome. <br />
<br />
*Vermeer, Hans. J. (1987). ''What does it Mean to Translate'' [J]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics (2):25-33.<br />
<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence.(2001). ''The Translator’s Invisibility: History of Translation''[M]. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*An Feng安锋.(2004). 霍米·巴巴“后殖民理论研究”[D].[ Homi Bhabha’s Study on Postcolonial Theory ]. 北京语言大学Beijing Language and Culture University.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong郭建中.(1998).翻译中的文化因素:异化与归化[J].[Cultural Factors in Translation:Foreignization and Domestication].上海外国语大学学报Journal of Shanghai International Studies University (2):3-5.<br />
<br />
*Jiang Xin&Jiang Yi（唐）陆羽，姜欣, 姜怡（译）. (2009).大中华文库·茶经[M]．[The Classics of Tea].湖南：湖南人民出版社Hunan People's Press．<br />
<br />
*Xie Yao 谢瑶.(2017).“一带一路”背景下中国茶文学作品的归化翻译与异化翻译[J].[Domesticating and Foreignizing Translation of Chinese Tea Literature in the Context of Belt and Road].福建茶叶Fujian Tea(2) :360-361．<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinghua 张景华.(2009). 翻译伦理：韦努蒂翻译思想研究[M].[Ethics of Translation: A Study of Venuti's Thought on Translation]. 上海交通大学出版社Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press. <br />
<br />
*Zhang Jinlan张锦兰. (2004).目的论与翻译方法[J].[The Skopos Theory and Translation Method]. 中国科技翻译 Technology Translation in China(1):35-37.<br />
<br />
==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br />
<center> 周罗平 Zhou Luoping,202020080670.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; Hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two strategies to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce domestication and foreignization and explore how to use them in cross-cultural translation.--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
跨文化翻译中归化和异化研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择使用这两种翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
归化 异化 跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation and then choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader. Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication (Jiang 2016，146-147).<br />
<br />
====1.1 Introduction of Domestication====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus bringing the author back home. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
<br />
In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it makes the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domestication, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers’ understanding of foreign culture (He 2019, 70).<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida’s functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domesticating translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida & Taber 2004, 24). <br />
<br />
In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader’s response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader’s language culture and the reader’s ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers’ strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domesticating translation.<br />
<br />
====1.2 Introduction of Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad. In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar (Venuti 2009, 20). <br />
<br />
Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication (He 2019, 71).<br />
<br />
Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation doesn’t conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. To achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language. In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language (Jiang 2016, 147).<br />
<br />
In his book The Translator’s Invisibility, Venuti expresses his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. Firstly, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language instead of scientific translation. In the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language (Venuti 2009, 42). <br />
<br />
Secondly, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language (Venuti 2009, 35). <br />
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Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations (Venuti 2009, 21). <br />
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Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center. Venuti elaborates that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenges and questions this phenomenon. The smooth translation covers up the translator’s intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work (Venuti 2009, 17). <br />
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Therefore, he puts forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation. Venuti challenges the dominant position of British and American culture and introduces the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation (Jiang 2016, 169). <br />
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Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand and perceive cultural diversity (Jiang 2016, 170).<br />
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====1.3 Literal translation, free translation, domestication, and foreignization====<br />
There are a lot of discussions on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and literal translation and free translation. Many people think that domestication is equal to free translation, while foreignization is equal to literal translation. I don’t think so. In this section, I will make a comparison and distinction between the two groups of translation concepts. <br />
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Literal translation refers to the translation that maintains the content and style of the original text while following the norms of the target language. Literal translation starts with word to word translation (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 129). However, due to the need to be consistent with the grammar of the target language, the final target text may also present the equivalence of phrase to phrase or clause to clause. Free translation, as opposed to literal translation, refers to the translation that reads naturally, rather than the type of translation that completely retains the wording of the source text. Free translation is usually oriented to the target language (Shuttleworth & Moira 2005, 84).<br />
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As mentioned before, domesticating translation covers up the differences between different cultures and weakens the strangeness of the original. The translation produced by domestication is very fluent and natural so that readers are able to read and understand the translation according to their own language expressions. Foreignising translation requires the translation to show the heterogeneity of the original text and convey the foreign cultural characteristics of the original text as far as possible so that the reader will feel a strange feeling when reading the translated text and sometimes they will have some misunderstanding or questions that are caused by exotic culture. <br />
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Literal translation and free translation emphasize whether the translation is consistent with the original text in terms of language form and style. Domestication and foreignization not only emphasizes the language level, but also pays attention to whether the values and cultural traditions conform to the expression habits of the target language. Additionally, it is worth mentioning that literal translation and free translation are static opposites. Whether the translation is faithful to the original is mainly seen from the linguistic unit. Domestication and foreignization is a pair of dynamic opposites. With the frequency of cultural exchanges and the passage of time, the original foreignization will become domestication. Therefore, we cannot easily equate literal translation with foreignization, nor can we equate free translation with domestication (Lu 2018, 57).<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Factors influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translators are always faced with the choice of domestication and foreignization. Then, how does the translator make a choice? This chapter will explore some factors that influence the choice of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and then discuss when to domesticate and when to foreignize the text.<br />
<br />
====2.1 The type of the text==== <br />
Different text has its own function. When dealing with different kinds of texts, translators should choose different translation strategies to translate text and to better show the function of the text. Newmark, a famous translator, divides text into three types according to its content and style: expressive function, informational function, and vocative function.<br />
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Expressive text mainly has literary value or shows the author’s unique writing style, including some serious literary works, such as some serious imaginative literature, authoritative statements and some literary works like personal letters, autobiography, and essay. Expressive text emphasizes the expressive function of language. This kind of the text takes the authority of the original author into consideration and pays less attention to readers’ responses (Newmark 2001, 39). <br />
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Compared with other types of texts, expressive texts use artistic and beautiful language, with the purpose of creating artistic images, so that readers can be inspired and moved by the language in the process of reading. The characteristics of expressive texts require translators to translate not only meaning, but also the emotion in the process of translation, so as to reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text to the greatest extent and make readers feel the artistic charm of the source text when reading the translated text. Therefore, the linguistic features and purposes of expressive texts require translators to use foreignization as much as possible to reflect the exotic flavor of the source language and reproduce the artistic features of the source text (Wang 2008, 138).<br />
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Informative text is mainly to convey the original information to readers truthfully and smoothly, mainly including technical reports, articles in newspapers or periodical, general teaching materials, product descriptions and other text whose content is more important than form. This kind of text is created without author’s personal emotion and its main function is to lead readers to know and understand information (Newmark 2001, 40). <br />
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These characteristics require translators to focus on the content of the text and uses simple or clear expression as far as possible to convey the content so that readers can fully accept the meaning; therefore, it’s better to use domestication as much as possible to reproduce the content of the original text instead of sticking to the language styles. <br />
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Vocative text is mainly to call readers to take action, to think, and to make reaction, including notice, instruction, and advertisement. This type of text emphasizes the infective function of the language and it takes readers as center. Vocative text emphasizes the readability of the text and the acceptability of the reader. It is necessary to put the readers of the target language in the first place and take their culture and receptivity into consideration, so that they can clearly get the information (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
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Therefore, when translating such texts, translators should grasp the cultural differences between different languages and put the cultural habits of target readers in the first place. Only in this way can readers truly think, feel, and act. Additionally, in the course of translation, translators should give full play to the linguistic advantages of the target language and should not be limited to the expression of the original text, so as to achieve the same effect as the original language as far as possible (Wang 2008, 139).<br />
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According to Newmark, the division of text is not absolute, and most texts have all three functions at the same time with one or two of them dominate (Newmark 2001, 42). <br />
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Hence, in the actual translation, domestication and foreignization should be combined. They are not always antithetical; on the contrary, they complement each other. When choosing foreignising translation strategy, translators should pay attention to the smoothness and understandability of the target text. When choosing the domestication translation strategy, translators should also pay attention not to lose the flavor and style of the original text. During translating, to a certain extent, translators have freedom so they should give full play to the advantages of the two translation strategies. Translators can adopt domesticating translation to familiarize language expression and use foreignising translation to keep cultural elements (He 2019, 71).<br />
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====2.2 Readers of the target language====<br />
The translator choosing which translation strategy is not only influenced by the type of text, but also by the target readers. Reader is an important factor influencing the choice of domestication and foreignization so translator should take readers’ age, gender and educational level in the consideration in the course of translation. <br />
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The translation under the domestication strategy is smooth and natural and it’s easier to be accepted by readers. Therefore, if the target readers of the translated text are young children or readers with low education level, the translator can use the domestication strategy more when translating, so that the readers can understand and accept the information of the translated text (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147). <br />
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However, the translation under the foreignization strategy aims at revealing the heterogeneity of the source culture, spreading foreign culture, and preserving the unique expression and original flavor of the original text. Such a translation may be awkward and difficult to understand. If the readers of the target text are highly educated, highly receptive, or have a certain understanding and cognition of the culture of the source language, the translator can use the foreignization strategy to show the style of the source text, so that the readers can better understand the foreign culture and broaden their horizon (Zhang & Wang 2007, 147).<br />
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Generally speaking, most works have a specific audience for reading. Different groups of readers have their own characteristics and different levels of comprehension; therefore, translators should take the factor of readers into consideration to choose domestication strategy or foreignization strategy in the actual translation. <br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The application of translation methods in domestication and foreignization===<br />
In cross-cultural translation, translating culturally-loaded expressions is difficult. Choosing appropriate ways to translate culturally-loaded expressions will not only keep the original favor, but also make readers of target language understand so in this part I will introduce some methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions under the domestication and foreignization strategy.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Introduction of culturally-loaded expressions====<br />
Culturally-loaded words refer to words with certain cultural background or profound cultural implication, including proverbs, allusions, special characters’ names and current idioms and idioms that have been deposited in a certain historical stage (Fang 2011, 297). <br />
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As culturally-loaded words have their own uniqueness, the following principles should be followed in the translation of culture-loaded words. According to Wang Zhenqi, first, the key implied meaning of the expression in the source text should be converted into non-implied meaning in translation. Second, the representation of the lexical meaning of the source language should be given priority to the representation of the form. Third, the context of the source words should be taken into full consideration in the choice of translation (Wang 2014, 97). <br />
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Then, in the translation of such words, the translator takes cultural exchange as the purpose, evaluates the readers’ cultural reception and perceptivity, and adopts flexible and appropriate translation methods, so as to ensure that the translated text not only retains the cultural information and cultural color of the original text, but also has readability. There are different ways of translating culturally-loaded words because of their different forms and cultural meanings.<br />
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====3.2 Translation methods under the domestication strategy====<br />
Under the domestication translation strategy, there are three main methods to translate culturally-loaded expressions, namely: free translation, cultural substitution, and simplification.<br />
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Free translation is a common way in translating culturally-loaded words. Free translation is to translate the cultural information in the source text as much as possible. If the translator only conveys literal meanings of the words that are rich in cultural information, sometimes they will confuse and even misunderstand readers. In order to better convey the meaning of the original text, the translator adopts free translation method to translate the real connotation of culturally-loaded words, fill the gap in the readers’ culture, and let readers understand the text more naturally and smoothly (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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For example, some color words in Chinese have lots of different symbolic meanings. The color purple in Chinese culture represents the spirit of saints and emperors, which is maybe unfamiliar to readers of other cultures. Hence, when translating the term “紫禁城”，in order to eliminate misunderstanding, the translator tends to adopt free translation to translate it as “the forbidden city”. When translating “紫气” in the phrase “紫气东来”, the translator translate it as “propitious omen”, which shows its cultural meaning (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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In cross-cultural translation, the translator may face such difficulty that there is no corresponding word in the target language equaling to the culturally-loaded word in source language. In this case, cultural substitution is a good choice. Cultural substitution, put forward by Beekman and Callow, is a method of dealing with things that exist in the source language but do not exist in the target language. It is defined as using things in target language to replace the things in source language culture that is unknown to readers of target language. In order to maintain the functional meanings, both things have the same function. There are three points to note. Firstly, do not replace history with didactic words; secondly, choose the one that suits best and not just the one with the most obvious function; thirdly, avoid functional conflicts between source language and target language (Fang 2011,104).<br />
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For example, in order to let readers of target language better feel and understand the love of Romeo and Juliet, we will use cultural substitution methods and translate it into the love between Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai, which eliminates the unfamiliarity of the cultural image in source language and is the representation of domestication. Using the cultural images in the target culture, the translator enables the target readers to understand the foreign culture on the basis of their own culture, thus strengthening the understanding between different cultures.<br />
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Simplication is also a good way to deal with culturally-loaded expressions translation. According to Wang, simplified translation is to translate the core meaning of culture-loaded words in the source language into a simple and clear target language. In cross-cultural translation, the translator may encounter such a situation when the long-winded concept of the original text can be simply expressed in the target language, such as using idiom, and such a translation is more acceptable to the target language readers. Therefore, it is very effective to use simplified translation which not only preserves the core concept of the original text, but also makes the translation acceptable (Wang 2014, 98).<br />
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Free translation, cultural substitution and simplication are all translation methods to eliminate the strangeness caused by culturally-loaded words in the source language text and avoid readers’ confusion or misunderstanding. These domesticated text translation methods facilitate readers’ reading, better ensure that readers correctly understand the content of the source language text and experience the emotion of the source language text. <br />
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====3.3 Translation methods under the foreignization strategy====<br />
Under the foreignization translation strategy, there are five main methods to translate culturally-loaded words, namely: literal translation, literal translation plus annotation, transliteration, transliteration plus annotation, and cultural borrowing.<br />
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Literal translation is loyal to the meaning and structure of the source text, directly translating the source language into the target language. With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges, some loaded words and expressions have gradually become familiar to people (Fang 2011, 104). <br />
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For example, the proverb “All roads lead to Rome” is directly translated as “条条大路通罗马” . “A near friend is better than a far-dwelling kinsman” is translated as “远亲不如近邻”. These culturally-loaded expressions are directly translated into the target language and Chinese readers can clearly understand the meanings (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
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However, when literal translation can’t fully convey the original cultural information and readers have difficulty perceiving the meaning, the translator can add some annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the literal translation. Annotations can be used to supplement background information, cultural traditions and other information for readers to understand (Wang 2014, 98). <br />
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For example, the translator translates “工人文化宫” as “the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park” and add annotation in the sentence “Some went to the Worker’s Cultural Palace Park, a recreation center built for the proletariat during the heyday of communism”. By adding the supplementary information, readers will know the meaning of this sentence clearly. Hence, for one thing, the translation preserves the original culture and promotes the communication between different cultures as well; for another, the readers of target language can better understand the cultural connotation and broaden their knowledge (Fang 2011, 104).<br />
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Transliteration is a good and common way to translate culturally-loaded expressions. It uses letter symbols to represent letter symbols in another language system. When there is a big difference between the source language and the target language and there is a semantic gap, it is impossible to translate the semantic meaning. In this case, transliteration is the main translation method. The objects of transliteration are the names of people, places and newly generated terms (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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For instance, a city of America “Mount Pleasant” is translated as “芒特普莱森特” in Chinese. The Chinese Taoist thought “阴”and “阳” are translated as “Yin” and “Yang.” Through transliteration, readers of the target language can not only gain some understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language, but also introduce new cultural concepts into the culture of the target language (Wang 2014, 97 ).<br />
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Transliteration plus annotation is also often used in the translation of specific cultural words. The translator can add some annotation that can be in-text annotation or extra-text annotation to explain the meaning of the culturally-loaded words on the basis of the transliteration, so as to achieve the purpose of cultural information transmission (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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For example, the sentence “诸如此类，其实只是一种社交上的客套，和‘顿首’‘百拜’同是仪式的虚伪” is translated as “All these are, in fact, nothing but civilities of social life, as hypocritical as the polite formula dunshou (Kowtow) or Baibai (a hundred greetings) used after the signature in old-fashioned Chinese lettering writing” by Zhang Peiji. The annotation gives a clear explanation of the connotation of culturally-loaded words (Fang 2011, 105). <br />
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Cultural borrowing refers to some words in the source language, which can only be transferred into the target language word by word according to the literal meaning because no appropriate corresponding language can be found in the target language. The borrowed words may be unchanged or slightly altered, but their meaning must be clear and unmistakable in the target language text (Fang 2011, 304). <br />
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For example, “as timid as a rabbit” can be translated as “胆小如兔”in Chinese. By cultural borrowing, this translation preserves the emotional image and cultural connotation of source language and the readers of target language can figure out the meaning of this expression. Therefore, when using cultural borrowing, the translator should not only keep the cultural image in source text but also let the reader of target language understand the image with exotic connotation.<br />
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On the basis of preserving the culture and keeping the flavor of the original text, these five translation methods try their best to make readers understand the culture of the source language so as to let readers perceive the beauty of foreign culture and to introduce new expressions into target language.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion=== <br />
Translation is an activity of communication between different languages and cultures. Different nations and countries have different ways of language expression because of their different cultures. In cross-cultural translation, translators should not only take on the responsibility of transmitting the source language culture and promoting the communication between different cultures, but also take the responsibility of making the target readers understand the connotation of the text, so as to make the translation readable and acceptable. This requires the translator to master the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and grasp the balance between them.<br />
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Domestication is helpful for the target language readers to understand the original text and avoid the obstacles caused by cultural differences; however, the translation approach to the readers’ language and culture will inevitably lose language features and cultural customs of the original text. <br />
<br />
Foreignization translation retains the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the source language, but is easy to increase the understanding difficulty of the target language readers, and may even cause misreading of the target language readers. With the frequent cultural exchanges, to some degree, people around the world are relatively familiar with each other’s cultural customs; therefore, on the premise that the target readers have no misunderstanding of the original text, the foreignization translation strategy can be appropriately adopted, which can enrich the target language culture and broaden the horizon of the target readers. <br />
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Hence, in cross-cultural translation, translators had to deal with the problems of domestication and foreignization. Translators should consider some factors that influence the choice and choose appropriate translation methods to make domestication and foreignization complement each other, and retain the original flavor of the original text while ensuring the understanding of the target readers.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011)中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Jiang Tong蒋童.(2016).韦努蒂翻译理论的谱系学研究[Genealogical study on Lawrence Venuti’s translation theory].商务印书馆The Commercial Press.<br />
*Lu Xiaojun 陆晓君. (2018) 归化和异化与直译和意译的比较[A Comparison between domestication and foreignization and literal translation and free translation]. 齐齐哈尔师范高等专科学校学报[Journal of Qiqihar Junior Teachers’ College](05) 55-57.<br />
*He Limin何丽敏.(2019). 浅析翻译中归化和异化策略的选择 [An analysis of the choice of domestication and foreignization in Translation].辽宁经济 Liaoning Economy (10):70-71.<br />
*Newmark, P. (2011) A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Nida, E.A. & Taber C.R. (2004) The Theory and Practice of Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
*Shuttleworth, M. & Moira, C. (2005) Dictionary of Translation Studies.谭载喜译Translated by Tan Zaixi. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Venuti, L. (2009) The Translator’s Invisibility. 张景华译Translated by Zhang Jinghua. 外语教育与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
*Wang Chan王婵.(2008). 纽马克翻译理论在不同文本类型中的体现[The Embodiment of Newmark’s translation in different text types].湖北师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）Journal of Hubei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) (02) 138-140.<br />
*Wang Zhenqi王溱琪.(2014).文化负载词翻译方法浅议[A brief discussion on culturally-loaded word translation method ].长江大学学报(社科版)Journal of Yangtze University (Social Science) (01) 97-98.<br />
*Zhang Siyong &Wang Huimin张思永,王慧敏. (2007). 归化还是异化——谈影响翻译策略选择的若干因素 [Domestication or foreignization-an analysis of factors influencing the choice of translation strategy].广西社会科学 Guangxi Social Science (10):145-148.<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br />
<center> 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian,202020080601.</center> <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===Abstract===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is a kind of cross-cultural communication, which spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. The depth study of the connotation and translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, and to explore their translation strategies. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===摘要===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，为人们所耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流。深入学习和研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br />
<br />
===Key words===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
Chinese Xiehouyu; domestication and foreignization; translation strategy --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===关键词===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略 --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotation and has a special structural form. It has the characteristics of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spread and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. <br />
<br />
The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation methods of Chinese Xiehouyu with many examples.<br />
<br />
===Introduction===--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu is a unique language form in Chinese idioms, which is full of cultural connotations and has a special structural form. It is a kind of vivid and humorous language, rich in philosophy and enlightenment, which is widely spreaded and loved by the Chinese people. Chinese Xiehouyu is not only widely used in spoken language of all social strata, but also can be seen everywhere in classical and modern literary works and articles. However, as a unique language form in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese idioms, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to translators. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The strategies of domestication and foreignization play an important role in translation. Besides, the correct application of domestication and foreignization in translating Chinese Xiehouyu will appropriately and vividly introduce China's history and culture to foreign people to promote cultural exchanges. Therefore, this chapter attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese Xiehouyu, analyze the connotations of domestication and foreignization, and explore the translation strageties of Chinese Xiehouyu with examples.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
====1.1 The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
====1.1. The Origin of Chinese Xiehouyu====--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese people are familiar with it, because it is a form of expression that Chinese people have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.<br />
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Chinese Xiehouyu is also called allegorical saying, witticism, abbreviation, quotation and so on. When it comes to Xiehouyu, Chinese are familiar with it, for it is a form of expression that Chinese have learned since childhood. When studying the origin of Chinese Xiehouyu, some linguists and linguistic works also mentioned other related names. For example, Chen Wangdao (1932) included Xiehouyu in the section of "Cutting and Shortening Words" in his ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the name "Xiehouyu".<br />
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Guo Shaoyu (1925) pointed out that Xiehouyu originated from "shefu" (a form similar to guessing riddles) in his book ''A Study of Proverbs''; and names such as "riddle", "proverb", "abbreviation", "idiom", "witticism" were listed in other books. By comparison, most of them reveal some similarities and differences. Let's briefly review the origin of the term "Xiehouyu". --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said refers to the ppoetry or a word game about Xiehouyu. The Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
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The word "xiehou" was first found in the biography of Zheng fan in Tang Dynasty, and it is mentioned in the book that "the style of Zheng Wu Xiehou" (a kind of poem with the style of "xiehou"). The word "Xiehouyu" has appeared for a long time, but what the ancients said just refers to the poetry or a word game. Xiehouyu, which we are talking about today, was called "Qiaoyu", "Fangyu" and "Shiyu" by the ancients and were more commonly known as "Yaoyan". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article "''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs'' ". He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.<br />
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At the beginning of the 20th century, Bai Qiming took Xiehouyu as a kind of folk literature and art after the publication of his article ''Xiehouyu Which Should Be Included in The Collection of Songs''. He pointed out that Xiehouyu, also known as "argot", was called " wind typeface " in Tang Dynasty and "Kaner" or "Kanzi" in custom. However, he did not explain why he called it "Xiehouyu" in his article.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book " ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric''" that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words of Xiehouyu"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, the Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.<br />
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In the 1930s, Chen Wangdao pointed out in his book ''The Main Ideas of The Rhetoric'' that Xiehouyu has two meanings: one is "Xiehouyu" used by the ancients, also known as "cutting and shortening words"; the other is "Xiehouyu" that people use today, also referred as “Pijieyu”, that is, Xiehouyu composed of interpretation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to the Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things referred to, agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that the Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu. <br />
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In the 1950s, Mao Dun pointed out that in order to distinguish it from the "original or formal xiehouyu", a different name should be given to Xiehouyu that people use today, but he did not specify what name to use instead. In the 1980s, from the perspective of academic research, Wen Duanzheng thought that the academic name should reflect the essential characteristics of the things it referred to. He agreed with Mao Dun's opinion, and concluded that Xiehouyu did not express the meaning of "xiehou" in Chinese through a large number of examples. Therefore, he suggested that Xiehouyu should be renamed as "quotations" according to the relationship between the former and latter parts of the Xiehouyu.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, most scholars believe that the name of Xiehouyu has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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However, most scholars believe that the name "Xiehouyu" has been accepted by people and it is difficult to change it. Therefore, they advocate that the name "Xiehouyu" should still be used without any change. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 The Structure of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated the Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. <br />
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Chinese Xiehouyu can be literally translated into "rest ending sayings" or "post-pause expressions". According to its structure, it is also translated as "example-explanation-sayings". In 1986, Professor Luo Shenghao, a linguistic professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, translated Chinese Xiehouyu into "enigmatic folk similes" in his book ''A Dictionary of Chinese Xiehouyu''. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to the Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle are figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that the Xiehouyu is originated from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) <br />
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According to professor Luo, "Similes" refers to Chinese Xiehouyu which is generally composed of vehicle and tenor. The vehicle is figurative metaphors. The tenor is the explanation of the vehicle to show its essential significance. For example, “粪坑里的石头——又臭又硬” (The stone in the cesspit —— smelly and hard.). "Folk" indicates that Xiehouyu originates from the folk and is used more frequently in daily spoken language. "Enigmatic" indicates that this kind of expression has the nature and characteristics of riddles which also have two parts: the tenor and the vehicle. Therefore, "enigmatic Folk Similes" basically reflects the special structure and essential characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 110) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.3 The Definition of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which tells a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of witty and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang, 2000, 64)<br />
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Xiehouyu has very distinct characteristics, and its external structure is composed of two parts. The former part is the image and descriptive language, which says a thing, a modality, an object, a scene and so on, while the latter part is a summary and abstract language, which is the explanation of the former part. The combination of the former part and the latter part produces a sense of wit and humor to express meaning. Therefore, the fixed phrase is called Xiehouyu. (Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 2000, 64)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”(like a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself(let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 5）<br />
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In the dictionary, the explanation of Xiehouyu is that a sentence composed of two parts: the former part is like the riddle, the latter part is like the answer of the riddle, and the original meaning is from the latter part. For example, “泥菩萨过江——自身难保”( a clay idol fording a river, hardly able to save oneself (let alone anyone else)). Therefore, Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom with relatively fixed structure and oral characteristics, which is composed of two parts with the relationship of citation and annotation. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 5）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary''defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentences that are familiar to the masses. When used, it can omit the latter part, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
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''An Unabridged, Comprehensive Dictionary'' defines Xiehouyu as follows: Xiehouyu is a kind of idiom, which is humorous and vivid sentence that are familiar to the masses. When used, the latter part can be omitted, and the former part can show the meaning, such as "丢了西瓜捡芝麻" (lose the watermelon and pick up the sesame) can mean "因小失大" (keep the tail from wagging the dog); the former and latter part can also be juxtaposed, such as "芝麻开花—节节高" (A sesame stalk puts forth blossoms notch by notch, higher and higher – rising steadily). (Liu Na 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis on this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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The definition points out the nature and components of Xiehouyu. In the branches of linguistics, Xiehouyu belongs to the National Cultural Connotation (NCC), which is composed of the former part and the latter part. The former part often explains and describes a kind of life phenomenon, and the latter part makes comments and analysis of this phenomenon. （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kind of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 6）<br />
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In the section of language and characters in the ''Chinese Encyclopedia'', Xiehouyu refers to the humorous utterance formed by deliberately missing one word or half sentence of a commonly used word when speaking. There are usually two kinds of Xiehouyu. The first one is the original meaning of Xiehouyu, referred to the omission of the last word of an idiom, which is also called "abbreviation". （Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 6）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that are expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水（Ladling water with a wicker backet）" omits the latter part "一场空（all is empty）". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧（舅）(Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin，2006，93)<br />
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The second one is allegorical sayings that have expanded its meaning. The two-part allegorical sayings in Beijing are called witticism, which means that the last half of a sentence can be omitted. For example, "竹篮打水 (Ladling water with a wicker basket)" omits the latter part "一场空 (all is empty)". Sometimes homonyms are used. Such as "外甥打灯笼一一照旧 (舅) (Things seemed to be the same as before)". In this sentence, “旧” and “舅” are homophones in China. (Yang Peigen & Li Yanlin 2006，93)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti, 2014, 7）<br />
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In short, Xiehouyu is a special language form created by the Chinese people in their daily life. It is a short, funny and vivid sentence and composed of two parts: the former part plays the role of introduction, like a riddle, and the latter part plays the role of supplement, like the answer of the riddle, which is very natural and appropriate. In a certain language environment, one usually says the former part and omit the latter part, the other can understand and guess its original meaning, so this language form is called Xiehouyu.（Miregu Aimaiti 2014, 7）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.4 The Importance of Chinese Xiehouyu Translation====<br />
Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience in life. It has rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in Chinese, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Xiehouyu is a kind of Chinese idioms, which reflects people's daily life and experience, and is a concise summary and warning of people's experience of life. It has the rich ideological connotation and unique cultural characteristics. However, from the perspective of translation, as a unique language phenomenon in China, it is difficult to find the corresponding expression in other languages. Therefore, it has become a difficulty in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, which is undoubtedly a great challenge to the translator. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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There are similar forms of Chinese Xiehouyu in English, but so far, there is no official definition corresponding to Chinese Xiehouyu. How to reproduce the language style of Xiehouyu and convey its rich cultural connotation is a subject worthy of discussion and research. At the same time, the translation of Xiehouyu helps the world to understand China and Chinese culture, which is conducive to the wide spread of Chinese culture. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most differences are that Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language; Chinese is a parataxis language while English hypotaxis. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In Chinese, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng, 1993，48-49)<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the most difference is that Chinese is a paradoxis language while English hypotaxis. Chinese belongs to the Chinese-Tibet language, while English belongs to the Indo-European language. In English, the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them, for example, the rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. In English, the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come. (Lian Shuneng 1993，48-49)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, being familiar with and understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)<br />
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Therefore, interlingual conversion occurs in the process of translation, which it is of great value in translation. In the process of translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English, it is necessary to faithfully reproduce the meaning of the source language by integrating language, cognition, culture, communication and other factors. The form and meaning of Chinese idioms are not completely coincident, which is fully reflected in the literal meaning and implied meaning of Xiehouyu. For foreigners, understanding Xiehouyu can strengthen their mastery of Chinese and deepen their understanding of Chinese culture and civilization. (Liu Na, 2016, 18)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Types of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
According to the connection between the two parts of the Chinese Xiehouyu, it can be roughly divided into two types: metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu. (Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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====2.1 Metaphorical Xiehouyu====<br />
There are numerous metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.<br />
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There are numerous examples of metaphorical Xiehouyu. The former part implies a metaphorical meaning and the latter part original meaning. Their internal connections are very clear and logical.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on it-self. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)<br />
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For example, <br />
（1）那个宝玉是个丈八的灯台——照见人家，照不见自己的，只知嫌人家脏。这是他的房子，由着你们糟蹋。 (As for Baoyu, he is like a ten-foot lamp-stand that sheds light on others but none on itself. He complains that other people are dirty, yet leaves you to turn his own rooms topsy-turvy.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers.(Qi Dehui,2011,110)<br />
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It can be seen that in the first example, the vehicle is literally translated, while the tenor is translated with interpretation, explaining the former part. Literal translation with interpretation not only retains the figurative image of the original language, but also effectively conveys its cultural connotation, which is clear to the target readers. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Paronomasia Xiehouyu====<br />
The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang, 2004, 132)<br />
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The paronomasia Xiehouyu has a great proportion in Chinese Xiehouyu. The latter part of the paronomasia Xiehouyu is a pun, which has both the surface meaning of the vehicle and other deep meaning. In other words, the literal meaning is to explain the former part, but its deep meaning expresses a completely different meaning from the whole context. (Jin Huikang 2004, 132) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick.(Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心（动了心）(A mid-winter turnip（in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice）—— the heart is frozen（affected in heart）.)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui,2011,111)<br />
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For example,<br />
(2)一根筷子吃藕——挑眼(Eating lily root with only one chopstick——picking it up by the holes.) <br />
In the second example, “pick holes” means to find one’s faults, while the meaning of its vehicle is to pick the whole in lotus root slices with a chopstick. (Ling Li, 2004, 452)<br />
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(3) 三九天的萝卜——冻了心 (动了心) (A midwinter turnip (in the third period of nine days after the winter solstice) —— the heart is frozen (affected with heart).)<br />
In the third example, the surface meaning of “the heart is frozen” is that the turnip in a mind winter is completely frozen from the root, and the root is a symbol of the heart. Moreover, “冻了心”and“动了心”in Chinese are homophones, which becomes a pun.(Qi Dehui 2011,111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
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====3.1 Definition Of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation which “leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first method proposed by Schleiermacher as "domestication", and the second method as "foreignization". In a word, domestication is s term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. （Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 43-44）<br />
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Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59)Eugene A. Nida, the advocate of the theory, put forward in his linguistic theory of functional equivalence that "cultural equivalence can be achieved by excluding linguistic differences."<br />
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The terms of domestication and foreignization were first put forward by German philosopher Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. He proposed his famous notion of the translation, which “leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him(这个只是归化的概念吧？）” (Venuti, 1995,19-20). Later, this term was introduced into the field of translation by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist. He referred to the first strategy proposed by Schleiermacher as "domesticationg transaltion", and the second strategy as "foreignizing transaltion". <br />
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In a word, domestication is the term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (这个是异化的概念吧，你和下面的异化写成一样的了）(Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 43-44) Then, foreignization is a term used by Venuti (1995) to designate the type of translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie, 2004, 59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Linshu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehensive the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., and then translators should translate selectively. <br />
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Qian Zhongshu, a famous writer and translator in China, once put forward the theory of "sublimation" in ''The Translation of Lin Shu'', which means that the translation should not only accord with the language expression custom of the target language, but also keep the style of the original work. Substantially, the theory of sublimation requires translators to comprehend the meaning of the original work and to consider the factors of semantic relation, style, cultural differences and information transfer effect etc., then the translators should translate selectively. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translator to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation method of "domestication", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen, 2017, 99)<br />
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On the contrary, "foreignization" requires the translators to approach the author and express the meaning of the original text with the expressions commonly used by people. During the period of the New Culture Movement in China, Lu Xun, the advocator of the theory, once put forward the translation strategy of "foreignization", which brought a western style to the works. (Liu Xiaocen 2017, 99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language or the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that the target language readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers, and the translator must speak like the native author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domestication translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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In conclusion, domestication is to localize the source language, take the target language readers as the destination, and adopt the expression methods that are familiar to the target language readers to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translators to approach the target language readers, and the translators must speak like the author. If the original author wants to have a direct dialogue with the readers, the translated text must become a native language. Domesticating translation helps readers understand the translation better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, Foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua, 2002, 3)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization means that the translator should try his best not to disturb the author and let the readers approach the author. In translation, it is to accommodate the language characteristics of foreign culture, absorb foreign language expression, and require the translator to approach the author and adopt the source language expression corresponding to the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the target culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization strategy is to consider the differences of national culture, preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign nationality and language style, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Nie Xiaohua 2002, 3)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Dialectical Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo, 2020, 249)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have a great difference which is the former requires that the text is close to the reader, while the latter requires that the text is close to the author. Some scholars believe that domestication and foreignization, no matter which one is adopted, must be applied in the whole translation text, and cannot be confused. However, in the actual practice of translation, we can't really do that. (Xu Yanan & Zeng Xianmo 2020, 249)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, at the same time, the translation should also take into account the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is necessary to adopt the method domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，65)<br />
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Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the thoughts and styles of the author of the original text, which are full of strong foreign style, so it is necessary to adopt the method of foreignization. However, at the same time, the translation should also consider the readers' understanding and the fluency of the original text, so it is also necessary to adopt the strategy of domestication. It is not advisable to choose one strategy and completely exclude the other. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages, so it cannot achieve the ultimate goal of translation with only one of them. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，65)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua, 2011，66)<br />
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In translation, we are always faced with the choice of foreignization and domestication, so that the translation can find a middle point between being close to the reader and being close to the author, but the "middle point" is not fixed. Sometimes the translated text is closer to the author and sometimes closer to the reader. However, no matter which side it is close to, it should follow a principle: when being close to the author, the translation should not be too far away from the reader; when being close to the reader, it should not be too far away from the author. (Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua 2011，66)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can achieve common development. Therefore, during the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and the more appropriate translated text can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen，2017，99)<br />
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In other words, foreignization should not hinder the smoothness and understandability of the translated text, and domestication does not lose the style of the original text. At the same time, we should adhere to the domestication strategy for the language form, while foreignization for cultural factors in the original text. In this way, the translated text can combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid their disadvantages, so that they can have common development. Therefore, during the practical translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other so that appropriate translated texts can be produced. (Liu Xiaocen 2017，99)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 06:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 4 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu===<br />
There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language.（Qi Dehui,2011,110）<br />
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There are always contradictions and disputes between foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu. There is a great deal of debate in the field of translation about whether to use foreignization to take the culture of the source language as the destination and retain the characteristics of the foreign text, or to use domestication to take the culture of the target language as the destination and conform to the characteristics of the target language. (Qi Dehui 2011,110)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation is obviously to adopt a domesticated strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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For example, “ 三 个 臭 皮 匠 —— 顶一 个 诸 葛 亮 ”. Some translate it into “Two heads are better than one.” Others translate it into “Three cobblers with their wits combined together equal Zhuge Liang， the master mind.” The first translation obviously adopts a domesticating translation strategy, which conforms to the English expression. It is easy for native English speakers to understand and accept, and it is easy to read. However, the disadvantage is that one (head) in the sentence is not exactly referred as Zhuge Liang in the Chinese Xiehouyu. In Chinese culture, Zhuge Liang was an intelligent man, while one (head) was just an ordinary person. （Qi Dehui 2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? how can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the Chinese source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）<br />
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The second translation version adopts foreignization strategy, which retains the characteristics of Chinese, so that readers from English-speaking countries can understand the connotation of Chinese culture from the translation and promote cultural exchanges. But how do readers in English speaking countries feel when they read such articles? How can cultural exchanges be promoted if it is difficult for readers to understand and lose interest in reading? And when readers see the translation, they can't understand that it is an idiom in Chinese which is humorous, catchy and well-known, and the meaning of the source language is lost. （Qi Dehui,2011,111）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui, 2004, 118).<br />
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For example, （4）那胡正卿心头 “十五个吊桶打水——七上八下” Hu Chengching was very much upset by this and his heart was beating like fifteen buckets being hurriedly lowered into a well for water——eight going down while seven coming up. （5）他这一阵，心头如同十五个吊桶打水——七上八下，老是宁静不下来。His mind was in turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.<br />
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The fourth example uses foreignization to retain the two images of "fifteen buckets" and "seven up and eight down"; the fifth example uses domestication, abandons the image of the original text, and directly translates it into a more native phrase "in turmoil". Should foreignization or domestication be adopted in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu? When do translators use foreignization and when do they use domestication? It depends on the purpose of translation, the characteristics of the translated works and the readers the works are facing with. "If the purpose is to convey culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted" (Huan Yahui 2004, 118). --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese English Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui, 2004, 119).<br />
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For example, the C-E Dictionary of Xiehouyu compiled by Guo Zhuzhang and Luo Shenghao, and 100 Xiehouyu translated by Jia Cen are designed to let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, so they mostly adopt the strategy of foreignization. Foreignization can also be used if the features and images of the source language are retained in translation, which will not affect the communication of information and conform to the language usage of the target language (Huan Yahui 2004, 119).--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, （6）咱们俩的事，一条绳上拴着两只蚂蚱——谁也跑不了！We're like two grasshoppers tied to one cord，neither can get away! （7）去设埋伏我们都没有信心，想必他一定在昨天晚上就早溜了，今天去也是瞎子点灯——白费蜡。We had no confidence in today's ambush because we were sure he had escaped last night. It seemed as useless as a blind man lighting a candle.<br />
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In the process of translation, the translator retains the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of human common thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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In the process of translation, the translators retain the unique language form of the original text, which not only will not affect the communication of information, but also can promote the exchange of culture and thought, giving the target readers a similar aesthetic enjoyment. Because those vivid metaphors in the original text are the products of common human thinking and they can be understood and accepted by readers in other countries. (Zhou Ningqi 2008, 152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
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However, if a literary work is translated and the readers of the translated text are only for the sake of appreciating the work or even for entertainment, domestication should be adopted. (Zhou Ningqi 2008，152)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: （8）你别狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心。我是好心好意劝你，倒粘到我身上来了。Don't snarp and snarl at me when I’m trying to do my best for you. I give you my advice with the best will in the world and you turn round and lay the blame on me.<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
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This example refers to a character in Chinese mythology. If it is translated literally for the purpose of preserving the cultural information of the original text, it is necessary not only to annotate who Lu Dongbin is, but also to explain to foreign readers the allusion that Lu Dongbin is willing to do good deeds. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan,2004,84)<br />
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In fact, the origin of the Chinese Xiehouyu is not important here. It is better to discard its cultural background knowledge and translate it directly into "don't snarp and snarl at me", which ensures the effective transmission of key information and makes the translation concise and fluent. Although the cultural reference of "狗咬吕洞宾" is not reflected in the translation of this saying, the translator uses the verbs "snarp" and "snarl" to vividly depict the dog biting and barking, which, to some extent, reproduces the vivid and the figurative rhetorical effect achieved by the use of Xiehouyu in the original text. (Yang Hongwei & Li Yadan 2004,84)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），Long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.<br />
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（9）我们有些同志喜欢写文章但是没有什么内容，真是“懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭”。 Some comrades love to write long articles，but such articles are exactly like the foot-bandages of a slut（the cloth used for women’s foot in ancient China），It's long and smelly（implies the articles are long and dull）.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
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A translation is full of long, boring words and obscure annotations that can be daunting to the reader. It can be better to translate the sentence into “these articles are dull and overelaborate”. Through a lot of translation practice, the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can be summarized as follows. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
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====4.1.1 Literal Translation====<br />
Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred as general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the target language readers, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 111)<br />
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Most Xiehouyu use vivid metaphors, whose metaphorical meaning is referred to general things or common sense. When the metaphorical relationship is clear, literal translation is generally adopted as long as it does not affect the understanding of the original text, that is to say, literal translation is adopted without too much extension and explanation, so as to retain both the content and the form of the source language. It is not only faithful to the original text, but also vivid and easy for the target language readers to read and appreciate. (Qi Dehui 2011, 111)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（Even if a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）<br />
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For example,<br />
（10）瘫子掉在井里——捞起也是坐。（If a paralytic falls into a well，he can be no worse off than before.）(Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie,1986)<br />
（11）竹篮打水——一场空。（Drawing water from a bamboo basket——all in vain. ）<br />
（12）哑巴梦见妈——说不出来的苦。（Like a dumb man dreaming of his mother，he could not express his despair! ）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
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The above three cases are translated by Yang Xianyi. The translator adopts literal translation to keep the original style of the source language and strive to meet the expectations of the target language readers for heterogeneity. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:20, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.1.2 Literal Translation with Notes====<br />
In Chinese, idioms with a dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺、狗腿子、狗仗人势、狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not be misunderstood. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)<br />
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In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
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In Chinese, idioms about dog are generally derogatory, such as "狼心狗肺"、"狗腿子"、"狗仗人势"、"狗头军师", and so on. However, in English, the words and sentences about dog are often positive, such as "every dog has its day." Western readers may not understand the differences between the two languages and cultures. Therefore, in the translation with foreignization, literal translation with notes should be adopted to fully express the original meaning and metaphorical meaning of the Chinese Xiehouyu. For example, "狗戴帽子——装人" is a taunt. It can be translated as " A dog is wearing a cap —— pretending to be a human being （an insult）." In this way, the English reader would not misunderstand its meaning. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，153)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, some Xiehouyu with allusions are often literally translated with notes, so as not to make English readers feel puzzled.<br />
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For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by a Chou Yu and gladly taken by a Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）<br />
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For example,<br />
（13）周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打，一个愿挨。 <br />
Box on the ear was skillfully given by Chou Yu and gladly taken by Huang Kai.（A fourteenth century novel based on events which took place in the third century A.D. Chou Yu of the Kingdom Wu had Huang Kai，another of Wu general，cruelly beaten，and then sent him to the enemy camp in order to deceive the enemy.）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Domestication in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu====<br />
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====4.2.1 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning in translation, combining with the context, and flexibly conveying the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
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For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly and to the point.)<br />
<br />
（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue to begin with.)<br />
<br />
（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
<br />
（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)<br />
<br />
Free translation mainly refers to grasping the content and metaphorical meaning when transalating by combining with the context, which flexibly conveys the meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 1996, 13)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（14）我这个人你也知道。说话向来是袖筒里入槌——直出直入。(You know me——I speak frankly to the point.)<br />
<br />
（15）他必审问我，我给他个“徐庶入曹营”——一言不发。(He is sure to ask questions but I'll hold my tongue.)<br />
<br />
（16）穷棒子闹翻身，是八仙过海，各显神通。(When we pass from the old society to the new one，each of us shows his true worth.)<br />
<br />
（17）我们校队近年来可是“孔夫子搬家——净是（输）书。”(Our school team has kept losing in the recent years.)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 08:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.2 Combination of literal and free translation====<br />
While literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie, 2004, 126)<br />
<br />
While the literal translation is adopted to retain the metaphorical image of the original text, free translation is also used, sometimes with some appropriate supplement, so that the translation can convey the meaning of the original text more clearly. The Chinese Xiehouyu often carries a deep historical and cultural implication. It is very difficult to transfer the loaded cultural information in Chinese Xiehouyu into English. (Gao Yun & Yu Jie 2004, 126)<br />
<br />
Some Xiehouyu with strong national cultural features lie in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by free translation to show its metaphorical meaning ". The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some Xiehouyu has strong national cultural features in the image and style, and the translation should be based on the premise of being faithful to the meaning expressed in the original text. Literal translation should be followed by a free translation to show its metaphorical meaning. The combination of literal translation and free translation is undoubtedly one of the effective means of cultural compensation, which not only keeps the metaphorical image of the source language, but also maintains the integrity of the cultural content. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing in straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了（Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）(The tail of a rabbit can't be long——won't last long.)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（18）我说二三百两银子，你就说二三十两，戴着斗笠亲嘴——差着一帽子。 (When I say two or three hundred taels，you say twenty or thirty! It's like kissing with straw helmets——the lips are far apart!)<br />
（19）兔子的尾巴——长不了(The tail of a rabbit can't be long—— something won't last long.) （Guo Jiangzhong, 1996, 12）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.3 Equivalent Translation====<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings, in this case, may as well borrow English synonym idioms to translate them. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui, 2011, 112)<br />
<br />
Some English idioms and some Chinese Xiehouyu use the same or similar metaphors to express the same or similar metaphorical meanings. In this case, borrowing English synonym idioms to translate them is proper as well. That is to change the original image of the vehicle in translation and translate it with a metaphor familiar to English readers. That is to say, the target text and the original text adopt different vehicles to create the same image, convey the same spirit and achieve the same effect. (Qi Dehui 2011, 112)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（20）冰冻三尺——非一日之寒。 (Rome was not built in a day.)<br />
（21）肉包子打狗——一去不回头。（A dog given a bone that doesn't come back for more.）<br />
（22）脱裤子放屁——多此一举。(To carry coals to Newcastle.)<br />
<br />
When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical feature of two languages is different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, because the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li,2004,59）<br />
<br />
When using English idioms to translate Chinese Xiehouyu, we should pay attention to the rhetorical features. If the rhetorical features of two languages are different, we cannot apply it. For example, "老王卖瓜——自卖自夸" must be translated into “No man cries stinky Fish”, for the former has a positive meaning, while the latter does not. （Ling Li 2004,59）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:18, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2.4 Omission====<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text, not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This method is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
Omission refers to the deletion of certain words from the original text. It is not to delete the original text, but to leave out the words that are self-evident in the translation, or to leave out words that are too cumbersome or not suitable for English expression. This strategy is especially suitable for the translation of some Chinese Xiehouyu. (Zhou Ningqi, 2008，152)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
（23）癞蛤蟆想吃天鹅肉——痴心妄想。 (You are like a toad trying to swallow a swan.)<br />
（24）赔了夫人又折兵——双重损失。 (You’ve lost the campaign and your wife into the bargain.)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai,1986)<br />
<br />
The metaphorical meanings of the above two examples are quite obvious. The target language readers can infer the figurative meaning directly from the image of the vehicle or from the context of Chinese Xiehouyu, so only the metaphorical part can be translated.(Yang & Dai 1986)--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the methods of straightness and explanation (free translation and annotation) to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning of as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Xiehouyu. (Liu Na, 2016,19)<br />
<br />
To sum up, in the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu, attention should be paid to the similarity of form and spirit, so that the surface and deep meanings can be expressed accurately, clearly and vividly. Therefore, we should flexibly adopt the strategies of free translation andliteral translation to truly show the stylistic and pragmatic characteristics of the Chinese Xiehouyu. Moreover, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to translating Xiehouyu well. (Liu Na 2016,19) --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn from the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be openminded and inclusive. <br />
<br />
In the cultural perspective translation is a communicating process, in which the choosing of translation strategies is of vitality. In the communication of western and Chinese culture, we should absorb the quintessence and abolish what is old and establish in its place the new order of things. When we learn about the languages and cultures of different nationalities, we should also be open-minded and inclusive. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is the most active and developed at all times and in all countries. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. Starting from the two languages, we should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can be easier to translate Chinese Xiehouyu into English by narrowing cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language.<br />
<br />
In the translation field, literary translation has always occupied an important position, and the research on literary translation is active at all times and in all countries. The translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu can lay a theoretical foundation for better learning other languages. The translation of Chinese Xiehouyu is not only the conversion between two languages, but also the interlingual activity of cultural exchange between the two nations. We should not only learn our own language, but also have a deep and profound understanding of our own culture. Thus, we can narrow the cultural gap and eliminate the obstacles of language by translating Chinese Xiehouyu into English.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible，which needs surmount double barriers to language and culture and adopt different translation methods according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form, and foreignization can also be adopted for literal translation. <br />
<br />
The translation of Xiehouyu is flexible, which needs surmount double barriers of language and culture and adopt different translation strategies according to different situations. In order to convey Chinese culture and let English readers understand and learn Chinese culture, foreignization should be adopted. Moreover, those which is vivid and easy to understand should retain their original content and form.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; for metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal and free translation can be used with the strategy of foreignization.<br />
<br />
However, domestication should be adopted when translating literary works. For example, due to the cultural and linguistic differences, some Xiehouyu can be translated with the strategy of domestication, which is easier to be accepted by the target language readers; For metaphorical Xiehouyu and paronomasia Xiehouyu with strong national characteristics, literal translation and free translation can be used.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation. <br />
<br />
In a word, as far as the structure of the target language are concerned, the phrases and sentences are all in line with the translation standards. Chinese Xiehouyu not only carries the wisdom of Chinese predecessors, but also reflects the profound culture, history and thinking mode of the Chinese nation from a different perspective. In the process of translation, the translator should try to keep the style of the original work, focus on the target language readers, and translate the Chinese Xiehouyu appropriately to avoid wrong translation, overtranslation or undertranslation.--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translation of the Chinese Xiehouyu must take into account its unique language form and distinct cultural background, and try to translate its metaphorical meaning as accurately and appropriately as possible, which is the key to the good translation of Chinese Xiehouyu.(与上文重复）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Reference'''===<br />
<br />
1.Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 43-59.<br />
<br />
2. Venuti, L. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London and New York: Routledge. 19-20.<br />
<br />
3.Yan Xiaohua 晏小花.(2002). 翻译中的异化和归化. [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation]. 湖南医科大学学报[Journal of Social Science of Human Medical University]25-27.<br />
<br />
4.Wang Yijun 王义军.(2009). 从归化和异化看文化与翻译.[ Culture and Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization] 安徽文学 [Anhui Literature] 216-217.<br />
<br />
5.Miregu.Aimaiti米热姑·艾买提.(2014). 汉语歇后语在维吾尔语中的翻译研究[Studying on Translating Chinese Two-Part Allegorical Sayings into Uyghur].甘肃：西北民族大学[Gansu：Northwest Minzu University] 5-8.<br />
<br />
6.Wen Duanzheng 温端政. (2002).中国歇后语大词典.[''Chinese Xiehouyu dictionary'']. 上海：上海辞书出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographic Publishing House] 20-21.<br />
<br />
7.Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (1993). 英汉对比研究.[''Contrastive Studies of English And Chinese'']. 北京：高等教育出版社[Beijing:Higher Education Press]<br />
<br />
8. Bao Huinan & Bao Ang 包惠南，包昂. (2000). 实用文化翻译学[''Studies of Practical Cultural Translation''] . 上海：上海科学普及出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Science Popularization Press] 64-65.<br />
<br />
9. John S.Rohsenow. (1991). ''A Chinese-English Dictionary of Enigmatic Folk Similes''. The University of Arizona Press.<br />
<br />
10.Jin Huikang 金惠康.(2004). 跨文化交际翻译续编.[''Translation in Intercultural Communication, Book 2'']. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation] 452-453.<br />
<br />
11.Ling Li 凌利.(2004). 歇后语词典.[''A Dictionary of Chinese Allegorical Sayings'']. 呼和浩特：内蒙古人民出版社[Huhehaote: Neimenggu People's Publishing House] 59-452.<br />
<br />
12.Huang Yahui 黄亚慧.(2006). 论汉语歇后语的汉译英的异化问题.[ Journal of Neijiang Normal University]. 内江师范学院学报[Journal of Neijiang Normal University].118-119.<br />
<br />
13. Chen Hongwei & Li Yadan 陈宏微，李亚丹. (2004). 新编汉英翻译教程.[''A New Coursebook On Chinese-English Translation'']. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].84-86.<br />
<br />
14.Yang Xianyi & Dai Naidie. 杨宪益，戴乃迭. (1986). 《儒林外史》英译本.[''The Scholars'']. 长沙：湖南出版社 [Changahs: Hunan Publishing House]<br />
<br />
15.Guo Jiangzhong. 郭建中.(1996). 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践.[Theory and Practice of Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings]. 中国翻译 [China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House].12-13.<br />
<br />
16.Gao Yun & Yu Jie. 高芸, 于洁.(2004). 汉语歇后语英译研究.[On English Versions for Chinese Enigmatic Folk Similes] 怀化学院学报 [Journal of Huaihua University].124-126.<br />
<br />
17. Qi Dehui. 戚德慧. (2011). 归化与异化在汉语歇后语英译中的运用.[ The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of Chinese Xiehouyu]. 现代语文(语言研究版).[Modern Chinese].110-112.<br />
<br />
18.Xiao Luan & Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾, 冯学华. (2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践. [Domestication and Foreignization and Their Application in Tourism Translation]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报 [Journal of Yunyang Teachers College].65-66.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Idioms Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨 202070080633, majored in English Translation==<br />
<br />
<center> 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu, No.202070080633.</center>--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 13:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Chinese idioms has something to do with cultural differences of English and Chinese. To appositely adjust cultural differences between English and Chinese, a large number of translators use two translation strategies: domestication and foreignization, when translating Chinese idioms. <br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two kinds of translation strategies which are culture-oriented. This paper will make an introduction of domestication and foreignization in the first part, and then will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms. Then, it will discuss the application of these two translation strategies to Chinese idioms by taking some examples so that the author of this paper can make a brief analysis of the relativity of these two translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, and learn how to select proper translation strategies to translate Chinese idioms. <br />
<br />
The study of the translation of Chinese idioms is conducive to the development of language, which will promote international exchanges and cooperation as well as the innovation of translation methods, thus deepening the organic integration of two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the translation of idioms and promoting the research and development of translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Domestication; Foreignization; Chinese Idioms; Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
浅析汉语习语翻译的归化异化<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
汉语习语的翻译涉及到英汉文化差异。为了适当地调和英汉文化之间的差异，许多译者采用了归化和异化的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
归化和异化是两种以文化为导向的翻译策略，本文第一部分先介绍归化异化两种策略，紧接着在第二部分从含义、文化内涵方面对汉语习语进行了介绍，然后通过举例来探讨这两种翻译策略在汉语习语翻译中的运用，从而分析出这两种翻译策略的相关性以及如何选取合适的翻译策略来翻译汉语习语。<br />
<br />
对汉语习语翻译的研究有利于语言的发展，促进国际间的交流与合作，推进翻译方法的革新，加深归化异化两种翻译策略在习语翻译中的有机融合，推动翻译的研究与发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
归化；异化；汉语习语；翻译<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Domestication and Foreignization===<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies, they are commonly used in the translation of Chinese idioms. In this chapter, the author will introduce the definition of domestication and foreignization, and then will present the debates on these two translation strategies.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication is a term used by Lawrence Venuti, American translation theorist, to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for readers of target language (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti believes domestication originated from Friedrich Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation which "leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74). <br />
<br />
From Venuti's perspective, domestication has negative connotations as it's regarded as a policy common in dominant cultures which are "aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign", and which he describes as being "accustomed to fluent translation that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with values of target language and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a culture order" (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is the predominant translation strategy in Anglo-American culture, and he argues that this is consistent with the unbalanced relation between Anglo-American culture and other cultures. He further points out that domestication has widely served domestic affairs, therefore it's necessary to adopt other translation strategies to challenge the domination of domestication (Venuti 1995, 15). <br />
<br />
Foreignization is a term used by Lawrence Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the origin text (Venuti 1995, 19-20). Venuti asserts foreignization is derived from the translation type, stated by Schleiermacher, in which "the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him" (Schleiermacher 1838/1963, 47; 1838/1977, 74).<br />
<br />
As far as Venuti is concerned, he describes foreignization as an "ethnodeviant pressure" (Venuti 1995, 20), and thus considers it can "register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad" (Venuti 1995, 20). In specific terms foreignization means not only the freedom from the absolute restriction of target language and texts, but the selection of an non-fluent, opaque style in some appropriate situations and the deliberate accumulation of "Realia" of source language or "Archaisms" of target language, which would provide readers of target language with an "alien reading experience" (Venuti 1995, 20).<br />
<br />
====The Debates on Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
There has been a long-standing debate about how to deal with cultural differences in translation. There are many scholars, such as John Dryden, Alexander Tytler, Denham, Lefevere, Frere, who approved of domestication. Domestication has been in the dominant position for a long time. To begin with, translation theorists like Cicero, Saint Jeromi and Quintilian raised some ideas about word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Considered from the theories they put forward, they favored free translation (Schulte & Biguenet 1992, 13).<br />
<br />
As is well-known, Eugene A. Nida proposed the concept of functional equivalence. From his perspectives, translation is communication, in which what really matters is what people get when they listen, speak and read the translated text. Translation shouldn't be judged by the comparison of the corresponding lexical meanings, grammatical categories and rhetorical devices, but by the extent to which the recipient correctly understands and appreciates the translated text. The purpose of Nida's functional equivalence theory is that the expression of the translated text should be completely natural, so that the readers can better understand the original text through domestication translation, thus avoiding cultural conflicts, eliminating the gap, and finally achieving the purpose of cultural exchange (Nida 1993, 118). <br />
<br />
The supporters of domestication hold the view that the translator should take readers into consideration, and if the content of the translation is not within the reader's understanding, the effect of translation and communication will not be achieved, and secondly the translator should try to avoid cultural conflicts, and in the process of translation, the translator should constantly get closer to the target reader, so that the target reader can read the translation with the same effect as the reader of the original text. Thirdly, each language has its own cultural connotation, so if there is a cultural gap between the two languages, foreignization will not only result in a non-fluent translation, but also in the reader's unacceptability of the translation. Last but not least, it cannot be realized to find the completely equivalent word in another language, so to avoid producing opaque translations, it's no doubt that domestication is a better choice (Chan 2004, 171).<br />
<br />
Foreignization started later than domestication, and gained much popularity in the 20th century. Many scholars' translations embody this translation strategy, including many of Ezra Pound's translations and Nabokov's famous literal translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin (Mark Shuttleworth & Moira Cowie 2004, 59).<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti firstly defined foreignization and was a representative of foreignization. Venuti described foreignization in his book ''The Translator's Invisibility'' as "a form of resistance, which is against ethnocentrism, racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism, in the interests of democratic geopolitical relations" (Venuti 1995, 20). He proposed a translation theory and practice that opposes translation fluency and aims not to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in translation, but to express such linguistic and cultural differences in translation. This is also one of the basic ideas of deconstructionist translation thought. It's said by Venuti that "the aim of opposing domestication and advocating foreignization is to develop a translation theory and practice that resists the predominance of cultural values of the target language, thus expressing the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign texts" (Venuti 1995, 20). Foreignization is premised on the belief that cultures differ from each other and that communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignization is to recognize and tolerate the differences and to express the cultural differences in the target language. <br />
<br />
People who favor of foreignization hold the following reasons. Firstly, the translator should make every effort to be faithful to the original work in the translation, and the content of the original work should be reproduced to the maximum extent. If the translator fails to reach this, then the translation will be considered as faithful. Secondly, adding the expression of source language into target language will enrich the target language. Thirdly, the purpose of readers' reading translations is to learn about foreign cultures, which foreignization can help to realize. Foreignization attempts to keep the characteristics of the source language (孙致礼 2002, 40-44). The debate between domestication and foreignization has still continued until the 21st century.<br />
<br />
===Chapter2 The Definition and Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms=== <br />
It is of great importance to have an understanding of Chinese idioms before analyzing domestication and foreignization in the translation of Chinese idioms. Chinese idioms are closely related to various Chinese cultures. Domestication and foreignization are commonly used by translators in dealing with cultural factors in translation. Therefore, in this chapter, the author will introduce the definition and cultural connotations of Chinese idioms.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Chinese Idioms====<br />
According to ''Modern Chinese Dictionary'', Chinese idioms are "concise and meaningful phrases or short sentences that have been in long public usage" (Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2002, 248). <br />
<br />
In ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English'', idiom is "a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words; a form of expression natural to a language, a person, or group of people" (Hanks 2001, 908). <br />
<br />
As is defined in ''Webster's New World Dictionary of the American'' (1972), idiom means "an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the usual patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the literal". <br />
<br />
These definitions all mention that idioms are formed in the long process that people use languages, and they cannot be understood from their literal words because they are closely related to the culture. Thus, the cultural characteristics must be taken into consideration.<br />
<br />
====The Cultural Connotations of Chinese Idioms====<br />
In this section, the author will divide the cultural connotation of Chinese idioms into four groups: geographical culture, conventional culture, historical culture and religious culture. <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting geographical culture, they are created in China's particular geographical environment. China has been a big country dominated by agriculture since ancient times, and the agricultural population accounts for a large proportion. Therefore, a large part of Chinese idioms is related to agriculture. They are the crystallization of the extremely rich wisdom accumulated by the working people in the productive labor for generations. For example, those who engage in agriculture will say: "靠山吃山，靠水吃水" (One has to make use of whatever resources available.), "种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆" (What goes around comes around.), "一日之计在于晨" (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening.) (Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 2019, 52). <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting conventional culture, they derive from Chinese national customs in the social life. Chinese people are made of fifty-six ethnic groups, and each group has its own customs. Just in Han, there are many types of customs such as marriage customs, drinking customs, funeral customs, etc. Among these different aspects of customs, people create abundant Chinese idioms. For an instance, "红运当头" which means one has a good fortune, "开门红" which means to make a good start (Qiu Jixin 2002, 45).<br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture, they originate from Chinese long-run national history and culture. An important element of Chinese idioms reflecting historical culture is the historical allusions and fables. They are treasures of Chinese national history and culture, with strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, containing rich historical and cultural information, and reflecting the characteristics of historical cultures. Many idioms of this type come from historical allusions and fables. For an instance, "万事俱备，只欠东风" comes from the Battle of the Red Cliff, "八仙过海，各显神通" reflects the content of Chinese traditional myths and legends (Zhang Ning 1999, 24). <br />
<br />
For Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture, they mainly come from Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius and Mencius are considered as saints by Chinese people. Many Chinese idioms reflecting religious culture contain "佛" (Buddha), "庙" (temple) and "和尚" (monk or bonze). For example, "临时抱佛脚" (embrace Buddha's feet in one's hour of need) which means seeking help at the last moment, "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha) which means achieving salvation as soon as one give up evil (Wang Fang 2001, 35).<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms' Translation===<br />
In the translation of Chinese idioms, Foreignization and domestication are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, they can work together to help to produce better translations. In this chapter, the author will present specific examples of the application of these two translation strategies in Chinese idioms’ translation.<br />
<br />
====The Application of Domestication in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
我要有个[三长两短]，你给玉山捎个话！(杜鹏程《保卫延安》)<br />
<br />
Translation: If [anything should happen] to me, let Yushan know!<br />
<br />
The meaning of "三长两短" cannot be understood from its literal words. If the idiom is translated into "three long and two short things", the target readers will feel confused. Therefore, it's more appropriate to use domestication in the translation. Though the national feature may not be expressed in the translation, domestication makes the translation more fluent and comprehensive. <br />
<br />
她怕[碰一鼻子灰]，话到嘴边，她又把它吞了下去。(茅盾《子夜》)<br />
<br />
Translation: She was afraid of [being snubbed], so she swallowed the words that came to her lips.<br />
<br />
The image of "碰一鼻子灰" is to have one's nose rubbed in the dirt, which is difficult for the target reader to understand what it means, so it's necessary to abandon the original image and to express its meaning to the target reader. <br />
<br />
运涛好久不来信了，一家子[盼了星星盼月亮]。(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
<br />
Translation: For many months no letter came from Yuntao till his whole family [worried over him day and night].<br />
<br />
The translation gives up seeking a consistent form with the original text, instead it chooses to find a functionally similar expression to convey the emotion of the original sentence, giving the target reader the same feeling as the readers of the original text have.<br />
<br />
等他们赶来营救时，已是[正月十五贴门神——晚了半月]啦。<br />
<br />
Translation: But they were too late for a rescue.<br />
<br />
Two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu) are unique to the Chinese language, and are in the unique structural form with strong national characteristics. Because of the double barriers of language form and culture, translators sometimes have to abandon the unique structural form and national characteristics of two-part allegorical sayings and adopt the translation strategy of domestication, which is to only translate its meaning, and abandon the metaphor and metonymy of it.<br />
<br />
一剑剁去随手而倒。霎时觉来，乃[南柯一梦]，口中犹骂，操贼不止。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Dong Cheng cried to Cao, chopping at him with his blade. Cao crumbled in the wake of the blow, as Cheng repeated the words "traitor, traitor" until he had awoken from [the empty dream].<br />
<br />
This idiom mainly talks about that Chun Yufen had a dream of becoming a sheriff of Nanke County and living a wealthy life. However, when he woke up, he found out that it was just a dream. Later, people use "南柯一梦" to refer to a dream, or a metaphor for a happy air. The target reader who has no knowledge of the background of this idiom will have difficulty acquiring the meaning. Under this circumstance, it's a better choice to adopt domestication. <br />
<br />
The translation strategy of domestication is to grasp the important aspect of the content and metaphor of idioms. When using domestication, the translator sometimes has to sacrifice the image and needs to combine the context to convey metaphors flexibly. One of the responsibilities of the translator is to avoid cultural conflicts leading to misunderstanding of the translation. When translating a text into another culture, the translator must carefully weigh the connotation of ideology in the culture. If the content and form expressed in the translation are within the knowledge range of the target reader's understanding of the real world, it will be easier for the reader to understand them (许建平 2004, 8).<br />
<br />
English and Chinese idioms belong to different languages and are produced under different cultural backgrounds. If the foreignization translation method is overemphasized, it will increase the reader's unfamiliarity with the translation, increase the difficulty of readers' acceptance, and hinder the mutual communication and penetration between different countries and nations. Therefore, according to the national psychology of the target language, if the foreignization cannot be expressed clearly, the domestication translation strategy can be adopted so that the reader can appreciate and grasp the meaning of the original text (Chan 2004, 104).<br />
<br />
====The Application of Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
“他一家子在这，他的房子、地在这儿，他跑？[跑了和尚跑不了庙]。”(周立波《暴风骤雨》)<br />
<br />
Translation: "Escape? But his home and property can't escape. The monk may run away, but the temple can't run with him".<br />
<br />
咳，这一来，[竹篮子打水一场空了]！(梁斌《红旗谱》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Ah! We were drawing water in a baboo basket.<br />
<br />
特别是她那时的“密司林佩瑶”，禀受了父亲的名士气质，曾经[架起了多少的空中楼阁]…… (茅盾《子夜》) <br />
<br />
Translation: She herself, Miss Lin Pei-yao, endowed with her scholarly father's idealistic temperament, was especially fond of [building castles in the air]...<br />
<br />
Because people's feelings, perceptions of objective things and social experiences have many similarities, there are a small number of idioms that are identical or similar in English and Chinese idioms. These idioms have the same or similar figurative meaning, and the same implied meaning, which means that the literal and figurative meanings of these idioms convey the same cultural information and can be translated into each other. The translation of "跑了和尚跑不了庙", "竹篮子打水一场空" and "架起了多少的空中楼阁" convey the same meaning as their Chinese meaning, and the it's not difficult for foreign readers to get the information. Therefore, foreignization which is used in these three translations not only expresses the the meaning, but preserves the national and cultural characteristics of the idioms. <br />
<br />
匡超人听了这话，慌忙作揖，磕下头去，说道：“晚生真乃‘[有眼不识泰山]’。”(吴敬梓《儒林外史》)<br />
<br />
Translation: When Kuang Chao-jen heard this, he made haste to bow. "Although I have eyes," he exclaimed, "I [have failed to see Mount Tai]!" (Translated by Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
In this translation, the translator preserves the image and national characteristics, directly expressing the literal meaning of "有眼不识泰山". As China has developed rapidly, Mount Tai has been known by more and more foreigners as a famous scenic spot of China. Foreigners who get the knowledge of the mountain will not misunderstand the idiom. Thus, using foreignization makes the translation both understandable and vivid. <br />
<br />
主公仰慕将军，欲求令爱为儿妇，永结[秦晋之好]。(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: My master, long your admirer, seeks your treasured daughter's hand in behalf of his son to [band the two houses in marriage as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times].<br />
<br />
For idioms with strong national color or allusive nature, the translator can translate them with foreignization on the basis of context, and some explanations can be added in the translation to express the original meaning more clearly. The Chinese historical idiom "秦晋之好" comes from a historical allusion. When this idiom first appeared in the novel, the translator translated the names of the two vassal states by transliteration, thus retaining the differences of cultures. In order to make readers better understand the idiom, the translator also interpreted the idioms so that the meaning hidden behind the Chinese characters was much clear. Now that the English translation of the sentence is an experiment, the result of deleting "band the two houses in marriage" can be called a faithful translation, but at most it is only the faithfulness of the language form. If the former part is deleted, it will be "as the states of Qin and Jin did in ancient times". The translation seems to convey the main meaning of the idiom, but at least in form, the extraordinary meaning of the original idiom is gone. It is a pity that "秦晋之好" lost its own meaning. On this basis we should add some annotations. <br />
<br />
Foreignization conveys information from one culture and language to another in a way that maintains its original nature, bringing not only a new component to the target language, but also an influx of such a component that will lead to various aggregation and fission reactions within the target language, which will eventually lead to its fundamental transformation. As a result, the integration of nations and peoples are greatly facilitated. The use of heterogeneous translations of idioms is conducive to the mutual exchange and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, and promotes the integration between them. Therefore, the metaphors, images and national and local colors of the original idioms are preserved in the translation as much as possible without violating the linguistic norms of the translation and without causing false associations (Liao Qiyi 2001, 58).<br />
<br />
====The Application of the Combination of Domestication and Foreignization in Chinese Idioms Translation====<br />
(张飞) 瞠目大叱曰: “我哥哥是[金枝玉叶]，你是何等人 ……”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
<br />
Translation: The moment Zhang Fei heard this, his eyes widened and he shouted, "Our brother is a prince of the blood, [a jade leaf on a golden branch]. Who are you to …"<br />
<br />
梁虔等曰: “夏侯驸马乃[金枝玉叶]，倘有疏虞，难逃坐视之罪。”(罗贯中《三国演义》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Liang Qian, as well as others argued, "Imperial Son－in－Law Xiahou Mao is [part of the royal family], the slightest negligence will be punished as willful indifference to his fate".<br />
<br />
耀骂曰: “曹都督乃[金枝玉叶]，安肯与反贼相见耶! ”(罗贯中《三国演义》) <br />
<br />
Translation: Fei Yao taunted him:" Field Marshal Cao [belongs to the royal family]. He would not lower himself to meet a traitor". <br />
<br />
The interpretation of "金枝玉叶" in the Chinese dictionary is: The golden jade metaphor the royal family and the noble people. It can be seen from the translation of this idiom in ''The Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' that the translator uses the combination of foreignization and domestication. If you completely use the method of foreignization, readers will think that Chinese people are the same in their thinking mode. If the method of foreignization is completely adopted, the reader will understand each word. But they do not understand the overall meaning, because there is no relationship between the two images of "金枝" and "玉叶". They may speculate on the linguistic expression of these two images, because they are suppressed by the difference in the strange world, and this kind of speculation may hinder the understanding of the whole sentence. On the other hand, the more important the difference in the language culture of the original language is, the more it should be reproduced. In order to highlight the Chinese emphasis on "Gold" and "Jade", the idiom should be completely alienated, which resulted in different translations of the three sentences of this idiom.<br />
<br />
蒙曰: “兵有利钝，战无必胜。如猝然遇敌，步骑相促，人尚不暇及水，何能入船乎?”权曰: “[人无远虑，必有近忧]。子明之见深远。”(《论语》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Lu Meng responded:" The fortunes of war are never constant; victory is never sure. In an abrupt confrontation, with infantry and cavalry jostling together, our men may not have time to reach the water much less board the boats". Sun Quan commented, "[Improvidence invites danger]. Lu Meng wisely looks ahead".<br />
<br />
子邓忠劝曰: “[小不忍则乱大谋]，父亲若与他不睦，必误国家大事。” (《论语》)<br />
<br />
Translation: Ai's son, Deng Zhong, urged him to forbear, saying, "[Intolerance for trifles ruins great plans]. Father, if you fall out with him, you will fail the dynasty".<br />
<br />
The above two famous idioms are all from the ''Analects of Confucius''. In the different translations versions, the translations of "人无远虑，必有近忧" and "小不忍则乱大谋" are also different. The word-by-word interpretation conveys the literal meaning of the idioms and is used in dialogue. The author's situation is always like this, he cannot express all aspects of the original text, and choosing one side means giving up other aspects. Observing the translations, the number of words is originally quite a lot, and the meaning is also expressed clearly enough, and there is no longer a need for domestication interpretation. To be fair, both translations are consistent with the language style of the translated text. The foreignization and domestication are balanced in the translation.<br />
<br />
In translation, even if every word in the original text can be translated with its "equivalence" in the translation, it is not always guaranteed that the translation will have the same or similar effect on the readers of the translated text as the original text, because readers often use their own cultural concepts to understand the content of the translated text. In some idioms, the cultural color of the original language is preserved by foreignization, but it causes linguistic errors and difficulties for readers to understand, and if we adopt domestication, we will lose the cultural color of the original language and cannot let the readers fully understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, we can adopt a combination of domestication and foreignization to translate the literal meaning and then point out the implied meaning, so that the translation can be imaginative and vivid, reflecting the style and flavor of the original language and being fully accepted by the readers (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In the translation of idioms, domestication and foreignization are not mutually exclusive translation strategies. Instead, these two strategies can work together to make the translation better. If the expressive habits of the target language are taken into account, the cultural connotation in the source language is inevitably affected, and vice versa. From the perspective of cultural differences, excessive domestication or foreignization is not conducive to the transmission of idioms' meaning, and these two translation strategies need to be used interactively according to the actual situation (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 18). <br />
<br />
Firstly, the choice of domestication and foreignization is in accordance with the purpose of translation. In order to ease cultural contradictions and to make the translation both fluent and easy to understand, it is recommended to use the domestication strategy. At the same time, there are also many Chinese idioms that introduce English vocabulary through foreignization translation strategy. For example, "lose one's face" comes from "丢面子". Many idioms can be translated using two strategies. The key depends on the translator's attitude and choice, and what needs to be achieved. The translation of Chinese idioms in the famous book ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' such as "巧妇难为无米之炊", which the famous Chinese translator Yang Xianyi translated like this:" Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice". And the British sinologist David Hawkes translated it as "Even the cleverest housewife can't make bread without flour". Yang uses a foreignization strategy to introduce eastern culture to the west while Hawkes uses domestication strategy to enhance western readers' comprehension. <br />
<br />
Secondly, the choice of using domesticaton and foreignization can be made on the basis of the Chinese idiom's content. Translation is a cultural exchange. Translators need to be culturally conscious, that is, to introduce the language and culture of one nation to another. If you can find the equivalent expression or the similar expression that you can directly apply, choose the foreignization translation. For example, "熟能生巧" can be directly translated as "Practice makes perfect". When the original text and the translation cannot be translated according to cultural differences, it is necessary to replace the "culture of source language" with the "culture of target language", and to transform the meaning to be conveyed in the source language into the cultural image familiar to the target language, such as "吃不了兜着走". Its corresponding expression in English cannot be found, so it has to be translated as "be in serious trouble" according to its original meaning. <br />
<br />
Last but not least, the combination of domestication and foreignization is necessary in translating Chinese idioms. It is not enough to use just one translation strategy to retain the cultural characteristics of the idioms, but also to convey the meaning. If the translation also wants to be accepted by readers of the target language, it is not enough to use a certain translation strategy. The translator needs to combine two strategies to do the translation. For example, "三十六计，走为上策". If the translator only uses the foreignization translation strategy to translate it, the translation of this idiom will be like "Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is running away". Although the culture in the original text is retained and the literal meaning is also expressed, its implicit meaning is not reflected. At this time, it is indispensable to supplement the domestication translation like "as you have no better choice". Only in this way can the translation be more complete.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Venuti, Lawrence. (1995). ''The Translator's Invisibility''. London: Routledge.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1963). "Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersezens", in Hans Joachim Störig (1963) ''Das Problem des Übersetzens'', Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft [Wege der Forschuung Band VIII], 38-70.<br />
<br />
*Schleiermacher, Fredrich. (1838/1977). "On the Different Methods of Translating", in André Lefevere (ed. & trans.) (1977) ''Translating Literature: The German Tradition from Luther to Rosenzweig'', Assen & Amsterdam: Van Gorcum, 66-89. [Translation of Schleiermacher 1838/1963].<br />
<br />
*Schulte, Rainer & Biguenet, John. (1992). ''Theories of Translation''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translaing''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Chan, Leo Tak-hung. (2004). ''Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory''. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.<br />
<br />
*Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. (2004). ''Dictionary of Translation Studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (2002). 中国的文学翻译：从归化趋向异化 [Literary Translation in China: From Domestication to Foreignization]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (01) 40-44.<br />
<br />
*Hanks, Patrick.(ed.). (2001). ''The New Oxford Dictionary of English''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Dictionary Editorial Office, Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室. (2002). ''现代汉语词典'' [Modern Chinese Dictionary]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng, Qiu Xiaoqin 邱能生, 邱晓琴. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization vs. Domestication in Cross-cultural Idiom Translation]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators (01) 51-56.<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Idioms]. ''语言与翻译'' Language and Translation (02) 42-45.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Ning 张宁. (1999). 英汉习语的文化差异及翻译 [Cultural differences and Translations between English and Chinese idioms]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal (03) 03-05.<br />
<br />
*Wang Fang 王芳. (2001). 中英习语翻译文化特色的处理 [The Treatment of Cultural Features in Chinese-English Idiomatic Translations]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal (01) 34-36.<br />
<br />
*Xu Jianping 许建平. (2004). ''英汉互译实践与技巧'' [A Practical Course of English-Chinese and Chinese-English Translation]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
*Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2001). ''当代英国翻译理论'' [Contemporary Translation Studies in UK]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.<br />
<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭健中. (1998). 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化 [Cultural Factors in Translation: Foreignization and Domestication]. ''外国语（上海外国语大学学报）'' Journal of Foreign Languages (02) 12-18.<br />
<br />
= '''Title Translation''' =<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br />
陈惠 Chen Hui No.202020080592 专业：英美文学--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 03:52, 15 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. The title is an important factor in a movie's appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. <br />
<br />
This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the features and functions of film title translation, put forward the criteria and principles of film title translation, and briefly discuss the strategies of film title translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Features of film titles. Translation criteria, translation principles, translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
电影是一门集视觉和听觉为一体的综合性艺术，为文化的跨国传播和融合做出了巨大的贡献。电影标题正是电影吸引大众眼球的重要因素。因此电影标题的翻译就显得至关重要。其译文既需贴合电影内容又要跨越文化差异，并且有严格的字数控制，难以像文学作品翻译那样相对自由，要求极高。本文将分析目前电影名翻译的现状，试图总结电影片名的特点和功能，提出电影片名翻译的标准及原则并浅谈电影标题翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
电影片名特点，翻译标准，翻译原则，翻译策略。<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
As one of the eight major arts, film is an important carrier of world cultural exchange, bearing specific cultural symbols. The translated names of films reflect different ways of dealing with foreign cultures and convey different cultural values. This paper released in mainland China and Hong Kong and Taiwan area's English movie, for example, from the political system, economic environment and language habits, this paper analyzes the reasons of different film title translation, points out that the different cultural values, dubbing staff of different translation strategies.<br />
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And in order to meet the requirement of the local culture market, cross-cultural differences should be important factors should be taken into consideration when the translation practice.<br />
With the increasingly close cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, English films, as an important cultural form, have gradually entered the Stage of Chinese films, which inevitably involves English-Chinese translation. In English-Chinese film translation, film title translation plays a very important role.<br />
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Han Su said that “A good title translation can not only add to the film, but also help Chinese and Western films to go out and bring in better, and promote cultural exchanges and communication.” (Han,2018,P95).In order to translate high-quality film titles into Chinese, it is necessary to have an accurate understanding of the characteristics, translation principles and translation strategies of film titles.<br />
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===Chapter2 Movie: A kind of Art===<br />
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====2.1 The Introduction of Movie====<br />
Film is a comprehensive art integrating vision and hearing, which has made great contributions to the transnational communication and integration of culture. Yang Shu said that :“Different from other art categories, film is an emerging art form formed with modern technology and has its own ontological characteristics.”(Yang Shu, 2017, P78)).The title of the film is an important factor in its appeal to the public. Therefore, the translation of movie titles is of vital importance. The translation should not only fit the film content but also cross cultural differences. <br />
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Moreover, it has strict word count control, which makes it difficult to translate literary works with relative freedom and high requirements. This paper will analyze the current situation of film title translation, try to summarize the characteristics of film title translation and the principle of film title translation, and to talk about the strategies of film title translation. Film, a continuous image developed by the combination of mobile photography and slide show, is a visual and auditory modern art, but also a complex of modern technology and art that can accommodate drama, photography, painting, music, dance, writing, sculpture, architecture and other arts.<br />
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Cinema is a visual art that simulates the experience of communicating ideas, stories, perceptions, sensations, beauty, or atmosphere through recorded or programmed moving images and other sensory stimuli. The term cinematography is short for cinematography, usually used to refer to filmmaking and the film industry, as well as the art form that emerges from it. Films are cultural relics created by a particular culture. They reflect these cultures and influence them. Film is regarded as an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful medium for educating citizens. <br />
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The visual basis of a film gives it universal power of transmission. The film has its own characteristics. In terms of artistic expression, it not only has the characteristics of all kinds of other arts, but also has the means of expression beyond all other arts because it can use the artistic montage of the film grouping skills. With the development of modern society, movies have penetrated into every aspect of human social life and become an indispensable part of People's Daily life. Film is an art whose time and course of growth are known by human beings. <br />
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It is a media with rapid development and great influence since the 20th century. It is also a creative industry integrating politics, economy and culture. Since the end of the 19th century, France, the United States and other parts of the film inventors have invented can mimic a person's eyes and ears of photoacoustic records and reduction technology and machine, the film technology, from the birth, were entrepreneurs become film business, by politicians become ideology, by artists become film art, researchers developed into film theory. <br />
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The history of a film is also the history of filmmakers exploring the laws of film. Film is a kind of modern art which uses modern scientific and technological achievements as tools and materials, and uses the means of expression to create visual images and the combination of shots. In the space and time of the screen, it shapes the specific images that are moving, sound and painting combined, and lifelike, to reflect social life.<br />
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The film can accurately "restore" the real world, "show" the virtual world, giving people a sense of authenticity, a sense of intimacy, just like being on the scene. This feature of film can satisfy people's desire to experience life in a broader and more real way. Movies can be divided into action movies, fantasy movies, comedy movies, horror movies, science fiction movies and so on.<br />
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====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
On the one hand, a film title is an art form, reflecting the literary value of a film; on the other hand, it is linked with the box office, reflecting the commercial value of a film. Therefore, a film title directly affects the success of a film. English movie titles have the following characteristics.<br />
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(1) The title is easy to understand and arouses the audience's interest. This is contrary to the characteristics of Chinese movie titles. Some Chinese movie names are not introduced by media, which makes it difficult for the audience to have a clear understanding of the movie in advance, such as The Promise and Infernal Affairs. Movie titles in English are often simple, but they have a profound effect on the audience's enthusiasm. For example, True Lies, the movie's title tells you that the movie is about a lie, but what kind of a lie is a "True lie"? When the audience sees the name of the movie, they will first have such doubts in their minds, and then watch the movie with doubts and curiosity. There are plenty of similar movies, such as Back to the Future.<br />
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(2) The title contains slang to enhance the appeal of the film.The title of the film incorporates slang, on the one hand, to make the audience feel friendly, on the other hand, to achieve the desired ironic effect of the film. One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest, and at that very moment, the Cuckoo's Nest Flew very slowly. "Slumdog," for example, is a slur for someone who lives in a Slumdog. The other way around is to be sarcastic. The other way around is to be sarcastic.<br />
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(3)The title of the film is named after the name, which is clear at a glance.Names of people, places, objects and places often appear in the titles of European and American films, such as Pearl Harbor. As long as you have some historical knowledge, it is not difficult to know the content of the film, which is obviously related to the Pearl Harbor incident during the Second World War. In addition, there are also Casablanca, Roman Holiday, Waterloo Bridge(Waterloo Bridge) and other famous films with place names as film titles.<br />
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People like Forrest Gump, which is clearly the main story in the film, but also Emma, Jane Eyre, etc. It's about a Perfume genius who's obsessed with Perfume and becomes a psychopath. It's also about The Piano and The Net. In addition, there are one case, is to add in the title of the character (place or items) characteristics. For example, Edward Scissorhands, Schindler's List, The Mask of Zorro, etc.<br />
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(4) The title contains numbers to indicate the plot.Numbers appear frequently in English movies, and they are real rather than imaginary. In this kind of naming, the numbers in the title will appear in the play, either directly spoken by the characters, or the numbers-almand-or explained gradually through the plot. This may be related to the fact that westerners pay more attention to objectivity and practicality, and think more straight lines. The famous film with numbers included in the title has Seven Deadly Sins(" Seven Sins "). <br />
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According to the title, it can be associated with the Seven Deadly Sins of the Bishop. The mysterious serial murders in the film are one of these Seven Sins, so the title gives a good hint to the audience. Eleven tells the story of Eleven skilled dodgers.Heart completes a breathtaking mission story; Six Days and Seven Nights a man crashes in a plane and lands on a desert island for Six Days and Seven Nights. In addition, there are also Twelve Angry Men, The Six Sense, Eight LeggedFreaks and so on.<br />
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These are the characteristics of British and American film titles, we can see that they value simplicity. Due to cultural differences, most Chinese film titles have deep meanings and reveal rich cultural heritage, such as Farewell My Concubine, A Thousand Miles Away, Curse of the Golden Flower and so on. Therefore, foreign films should attach importance to the translation of film titles in order to enter the Chinese market. How to arouse the resonance of Chinese audience's aesthetic appreciation requires the translator to pay attention to aesthetic factors in the translation of movie names.(Lin Wen, 2015)<br />
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====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
The British translation theorist Newmark believes that language has six functions: the function of expression, the function of information, the function of demanding, the function of beauty, the function of responding, and the function of meta-language. Among them, the first four are the main ones. The title of a film is a proper noun, which is the product of the screenwriter's careful conception. It can not only highly summarize the theme or content of the film, but also strongly stimulate the reader's desire to watch it. Therefore, it mainly has information function, imperative function and aesthetic function. <br />
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In film title translation, BaoHui south thinks "should not only conform to the language specification, but also full of artistic charm, as well as the content of the faithful to the original title, and to reflect the language characteristics of formerly, strive to achieve the art to create", wants be particular about "mass, popularization, colloquial and artistic quality", "to be able to have very good guide depending on and promotion effect". The author believes that the film title has five functions: 1) Suit the content of the original film, reflect the theme of the original film, help the audience better understand the original film, highlight the style of the original film.<br />
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2) Concise and comprehensive, easy to remember.<br />
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3) Set the emotional tone of the film, and infect the audience with strong lyric, thrilling or dramatic atmosphere.<br />
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4) It conforms to the language norms of Chinese and is suitable for the appreciation habits of Chinese audiences.<br />
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5) Attract audience and increase box office income. Therefore, the theoretical support for film title translation is not the traditional translation theory centered on "faithfulness to the original author or the original text", but the unified equivalence with the original title in language, cultural information and functional characteristics.(Newmark,1958).<br />
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===Chapter3 Analysis on Movie Title Translation===<br />
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====3.1 Current Study of Movie Title Translation====<br />
With the rapid development of China's society and the improvement of the openness of the country at all levels, more and more foreign films have entered China, giving Chinese audiences different visual and spiritual cultural feast. At times, however, the translation of movie titles has left audiences baffled. Due to the vast territory of China, the same English movies are sometimes translated differently under the cultural background of the mainland, Taiwan and the three places, making it difficult for people to judge the same movie from the name of the translated movie. <br />
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For example, Gone with the Wind is translated in Mainland China, while Gone with the Wind is translated in Hong Kong and Taiwan. For example, in Cantonese, "slam-dunk" is called "Thun", while in Mandarin it is "slam-dunk". Therefore, the movie Space Jam has been translated into "Thun in Space" and "Slam-Dunk in the Air". Due to different pronunciations, the translation of movie names will also be different. For example, the classic film Titanic was translated into the Hong Kong version of "Titanic" and "Titanic", but the latter is better known.<br />
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Influence of commercial interests More and more films are driven by commercial investment. In order to win high box office, eye-catching words are often added to the title of the film in translation to make the audience shine. For example, in the film Leon, merchants translate it into Leon in order to pursue a better box office. In fact, it is also possible to translate it into Leon, but it lacks the thriller of the former, so it cannot better attract the audience. There's another movie, The Mask, for example. The Mainland version is The Mask, while The Taiwan version is The Modern Saint.<br />
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The former is more convincing and mysterious, and The translation is better.Random translation is quite common in Hong Kong. The so-called random translation refers to the translation of the name without the content of the film, imaginary, unrestrained, full of exaggerations, suspense, with only one purpose, is to attract audiences. For example, "Fair Came" was translated into Chinese by Hong Kong and translated into Chinese as "Fair game". The film tells the story of Kitty, who was originally a lawyer in miami-famous family firm, who woke up and suddenly became a target of Soviet spies, facing death threats all the time. It was hard to see how Kitty could be called a witch from beginning to end. <br />
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Hong Kong translations (1995) and mainland Chinese translations of "Shawshank Redemption". The story takes place at the beginning of 1947, banker Andy is wronged and imprisoned. Facing the unfair fate, Andy can show not pleased by external gains, not saddened by personal losses and silently construct his own future. It is not clear where 1995 came from in the Hong Kong translation, and the word "stimulus" does not match the content of the film. From the perspective of translation, translation has made big fear of translation standards, even the most basic of faithful to the original works and "letter" to the cause for the current more than a translation, the chaotic translation for the current situation.<br />
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In addition to our regional factors mentioned above, a local translation characteristics, the mass media have unshirkable responsibility. As a mass media, newspapers, magazines, films, radio and television do not pay attention to the use of standardized translation of the name, which leads to the further deterioration of the phenomenon of film translation one translation. In addition, in order to pursue business profits, translator and even from The film content, subjective themselves, exaggerated exaggerated, use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no bridge ", and "candle" two characters.<br />
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The tragic fate of The film, The heroine, consider translation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", such as Hong Kong and Taiwan to Hemingway's masterpiece The Sun Also Rises "The Sun Also Rises" translation "concubine is chaoyang and zhao jun, and formerly known as and simply goes and The original content.(Song Yanlan, 2017)<br />
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====3.2 Standarding Movie Title Translation====<br />
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=====3.2.1 Ways to Standard=====<br />
Facing the current situation of film title translation, how should we regulate the translation of film title? I think there are several ways to look at it. From the perspective of the translator, the translator should accurately grasp the original content, want to reaction and its creation and works reflect the major theme of background, this can help the translator vividly grasp accurately the original content, understand the formerly known as connotation, translation with the original content, to maximize the reappearance of formerly known as information, make the translation really play a guide role. <br />
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Such as film, A Walk in the Clouds, title literally "go" in the cloud, which describes A youth couple of vine flowers in the loving touching love story, also the garden it is translated into "to Walk through the Clouds,", reflects both the original meaning, and full of poetic, leave the audience with fragrant vineyard, fascinating intoxicating refreshing romantic breath. The translator should also be in accordance with the original, pay attention to the using a variety of translation method is flexible, should not only respect the formerly known as film, also considering the cultural differences, adopt the appropriate expression, proper free translation of some of the titles, appropriately express the original information, should not only to retain the original western style.<br />
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And to consider domestic audience's comprehension and language habits, considering the cultural differences. Some titles can be translated literally, simply and clearly to convey the information of original titles, such as Sindler's List translated into Schindler's List,Back to the Future translated into Back to the Future, etc. Some titles require free translation. For example, the novel Cone Wih the Wind is translated as "Gone with the Wind" with literal translation, but the film's translation of "Gone with the Wind" is more attractive.<br />
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"Troubled times" tells the background of the story, "Beautiful Woman" points out the heroine of the film, which -- the translated title vividly shows the heroine Scarlett's rough experience in the war years, which can fully attract the audience's attention. Waterloo Bridge, literal translation is "Waterloo Bridge", see the translation, the audience will first think of the battle of Waterloo, napoleon, but the film describes not smoke of the battlefield, but sad love story, the symbol of the combination of Chinese folk story "the blue Bridge", the translator skillfully as a "blue use some stimulus, poignant words to attract audience attention, no Bridge", and "candle" two characters, the film highlighted the tragic fate of the heroine.(Yao Dongyu, 2016)<br />
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=====3.2.2 The Criteria for Movie Title Translation=====<br />
As for the criteria of translation,Yan Fu, a famous modern translator, put forward the criteria of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". Letter “is for the original text, requires the translator to correctly understand the original text, faithful expression of the original thought, style, inside” is for the translation, and requires to use fluent and easy to understand the speech, but on the elegant ", but there is no consensus. King explained the concept from three aspects: receiver concept, effect concept and equivalence concept. <br />
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As for the concept of effect, he pointed out that, after clarifying the effect of information on the receiver, it should be emphasized that it should include the full effect of information, namely the thorough understanding and feeling obtained by the receiver. Includes main spirit, concrete fact, artistic conception atmosphere three main elements. In the translation practice of the film title, Jin Ti said that because of different language changes are bound to cause changes in the language effect, so only from the effect of the translation, to determine whether the language is appropriate. <br />
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Taking this as the standard, the translated name should try to achieve the equivalence of spirit, fact and artistic conception in sound, shape and meaning, that is, the relationship between the recipient and the translated message should be basically the same as that between the recipient and the original message "(Nida, CF King: 1998).<br />
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====3.3 The Principles of Movie Title Translation====<br />
Although the translation of film titles has its particularity, it is not distinct from the translation of other genres, but has something in common. In terms of its translation process and results, the author believes that it should be mainly reflected in the following two principles :1. Principle of Economic Benefit Liu Miqing (1999,P49) pointed out that since the content contained in the original language is worthy of translation (i.e., it has social benefits), the conversion should be realized by the target language that is acceptable to the society, instead of being restricted by the readability of the original language. <br />
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It is also said that social benefits are the yardstick by which the meaning of translation, the quality of translation and the value of translation are tested "(1999,P48). He puts forward three principles, among which the readability principle of the target language plays a guiding role in title translation. When the readability of the source language is very good, it can convert all the formal meaning and stylistic meaning of the source language into the target language correspondingly...". In Hong Kong, for example, Saund ofMusic has been translated as "floating in the sky" and in Taiwan as "truth, goodness and beauty", which leaves the audience puzzled.<br />
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Since then, the film has been widely accepted as "the sound of music" by Chinese mainland translators. 2. Principles of Cultural Characteristics Translation with cultural characteristics is considered to be one of the most difficult to translate. "As for culture-specific", translation theorist Baker(2000, p64) said that the words of the target language may express a concept that is completely unknown to the culture of the target language, which may be abstract or concrete and may be related to religious beliefs, social customs or even certain things.<br />
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This shows the difficulty of cultural translation. The film is the director's reflection of the real or virtual life, and the title that reflects the content of the film also naturally contains many cultural factors, making it difficult to translate. There are various ways to embody cultural connotation, such as cultural words and idioms. "First Blood” for example, is an idiom meaning "first to win a battle", but always translated as "the first drop of blood".<br />
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===Chapter4 Ways of Movie Title Translation===<br />
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====4.1 Literal Translation====<br />
literal translation - simple and clear, to the literal translation is carried out in accordance with the literal meaning to translation, translation is not to add or increase or decrease, achieve unity, so as to convey sincerity buy primitive thoughts, reflects the primitive expression of the style of work, even done very well, otherwise the translation will lose the essence of the original. Nowadays, more and more audiences like original films. Excellent film translations retain their own unique labels while promoting films. Although there is no gorgeous translation of words, they are insipid yet mysterious. <br />
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For example, a film about psychology, Beautiful Mind, which the translator translated directly into "A Beautiful Mind", without adding any other elements, makes people have a calm and mysterious feeling towards this film. There is also a film about the Sniper in Iraq war, American Sniper, which the translator directly translated into American Sniper. When people see the title, they can clearly know what subject this film is about. There is no gorgeous language, but it goes straight to the theme without losing the original meaning.(Zhou Baoxue, 2013)<br />
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====4.2 Free Translation====<br />
Free translation -- in a similar situation, free translation with cultural characteristics is translated in accordance with the general idea of the original text, instead of word for word translation, which can be applied in the context of huge cultural differences between the original language and the target language. There is a classic work by Nicolas Cage called "Face Off". Some translators have translated it into "Face Off" or "Face Off". Both translations are free translation, not literal translation. The advantage of this is that it not only expresses the meaning of the English title, but also conveys the content of the film. <br />
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When English films encounter Chinese culture, they need to be adjusted appropriately, so that the film name can quickly enter people's lives and let people quickly understand the general content of the film on the basis of highlighting the theme and with local cultural characteristics. Such as a movie starring Tom Hanks was called Catch Me If You Can, translation version did not directly translated into "If You Can Catch Me, but according to the four words idioms in Chinese habit and common cultural features translated into" cat and mouse game "or" free ", the two translation versions are make good use of the four words idioms, injected with Chinese cultural characteristics, and highlight the theme, let the people You'll never forget.(Yang Huhong, 2006)<br />
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====4.3 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration means to translate according to the English pronunciation and find the corresponding Chinese words, which is more intuitive and lets people remember the name of the movie. Even if English is not well spoken, foreigners can still understand it through the corresponding Chinese translation, which promotes cultural exchange. Milk, for example, translates directly into Milk. There are Avatars, Juno and so on, which keep the original flavor of the original films.(He Ying, 2001)<br />
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====4.4 Amplification and Omission====<br />
Amplification and provincial translation -- to highlight the features of the film and keep close to the theme, amplification or provincial translation refers to adding or reducing the corresponding information on the original basis to achieve the function of better information transmission, so as to make the name of the film more representative and play the role of advertising.<br />
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So for example, the movie, instead of making it literally Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, you make it into Interstellar, so that you have a better way of talking about what the movie is about. -Two. There's also How to Train Your Dragon. Instead of being translated into how to tame your dragon, the translator reduced it to How to Train Your Dragon.(Jin Ti, 1997)<br />
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====4.5 Naturalization====<br />
Domestication method is adopted in the translation of English film titles to avoid literal translation, which would make the Chinese translation of film titles impossible for Chinese audiences to understand the theme and cultural connotation of the film. This translation strategy aims to make the translated title conform to the cultural psychology and aesthetic standards of Chinese audiences, adapt to the difficulty of public understanding, give the audience an intuitive and preliminary understanding of the film content, and stimulate their interest in watching the film. <br />
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Cleopatra Cleopatra was the last queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty of Egypt, one of the first sovereigns of Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt. Legend has it that Cleopatra was beautiful and intelligent. She was close to Caesar and Antony, politically adept, involved in the politics of the end of the Roman Republic, ambitious, and a legendary Egyptian queen. There is no doubt that Cleopatra was a central figure in ancient Egypt, and her anecdotes about Her relationships with Caesar and Antony made her a famous figure in literature and art. This is the story of Cleopatra, the 52-year-old Caesar who came to Egypt as a Roman governor to settle a royal contest between Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic dynasty, and her half brother Ptolemy XIII.<br />
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Cleopatra quickly conquered Caesar with her charm of courage and political skill, gaining control not only of the Ptolemies in Egypt, but of Rome as well. The son of Cleopatra and Caesar was made heir, but Antony and Octavian were not satisfied. After Caesar's assassination, Antony took over the REINS of Rome and was also conquered by Cleopatra. If the title of the English movie is literally translated into Chinese as Cleopatra, Chinese audiences who are not familiar with Egyptian history will lose interest in watching it. Compared with the literal translation of Cleopatra, the domestication strategy can be used to translate Cleopatra to achieve the commercial purpose of attracting audiences' interest, and at the same time, the audience can understand the theme of the film more intuitively, so as to achieve the purpose of promoting the cultural transmission.(Wu Shuang, 2005)<br />
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====4.6 Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of English film titles, foreignization should try to keep the expression habits and cultural characteristics of the original titles, bring the audience into the English language and culture, let the audience experience an unprecedented exotic amorous feelings, and maximize the dissemination of English language and culture. Zeng Qinyu thought domestication and foreignization can be regarded as the extension of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to literal translation and free translation.<br />
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The Hollywood film Titanic tells the touching love story between rose, a rich girl, and Jack, a poor boy painter, when the luxury liner Titanic collided with an iceberg and sank. On April 15, 1912,Titanic set sail from Southampton, England, carrying more than 1,000 passengers and more than 800 crew members, bound for New York. But unfortunately it collided with an iceberg and sank. When the wreck was found on the bottom of the sea in 1985, there was a portrait of a teenage girl on the cabin wall, and Rose, who was 102 at the time, claimed to be the girl. The original Rose because her fiance Carl is a snob and do not want to marry him, when ready to throw himself into the sea, was Bohemian poor painter Jack save. <br />
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Rose fell in love with jack, a cheerful character. As a witness of love, Jack drew a portrait for Rose. Not long after that, the ship hit an iceberg and began to sink. In the critical moment of life and death, Jack left the chance of life to Rose, he was frozen to death in the cold sea. In the translation of the film title, alienation strategy was adopted, literally translated as Titanic. This translation strategy was consistent with the understanding and acceptance level of Chinese audiences, loyal to the social and cultural life of English-speaking countries, and retained the form and content of the original English title to the greatest extent.(Zeng Qinyu，2020)<br />
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===Chapter5 Conclusion===<br />
Film is a comprehensive art. The translation of film titles should not only follow certain principles and methods of translation, but also have rich cultural knowledge and solid language skills. The title translation is not a simple and mechanical arrangement. It needs to consider the similarities and differences between Eastern and Western cultures and the acceptability of translation according to the content of the film, so that it not only conveys the message of the film, but also is full of beauty.<br />
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Therefore, translators should not only be familiar with the ways of language expression and conversion, but also have a profound cultural awareness. On the basis of in-depth understanding of the cultural information conveyed by the title, translators should understand the content and style of the film, try to understand the wording and try to accurately grasp the surface meaning and associative meaning of the source language and the target language. "I was a standup, I was at the tenth month of October", I translated the title of the film with a rigorous attitude, and only by carving and chiselling can I achieve a classic translation that enjoys universal popularity.(Yang Shu, 2017)<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Eugene A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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[2]Jin Ti. Equivalent Translation Exploration. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1997.<br />
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[3]Han Su. Comparison between English and Chinese Version in Film Title Translation. Journal of Chifeng University.2019(03):101-103<br />
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[4]He Ying. Theory and method of Film Title Translation. Foreign language Teaching, 2001 ,(01):56-60.<br />
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[5]Lin Wen. Cultural Identity and Translation of English Film Titles. Guizhou Normal University,2016.<br />
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[6]Liu Miqing. Contemporary Translation Theory. Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Company, 1999.<br />
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[7]Lu Hui. Brief analysis of English Film Title Translation. Huashang. 2008(06):68.<br />
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[8]Song Yanlan. Common Chinese Cultural Factors in English Film Title Translation -- Take 50 films for example. Liberal arts navigation. 2017(04):22-24.<br />
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[9]Yao Dongyu. Journal of Liao Ning Institute of Science and Technology,2016.<br />
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[10]Yang Hu Hong. On several Translation Methods of Film Title Translation. Anhui Literature, 2006.<br />
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[11]Yang Shu. Narrative Studies of Mainland Chinese Films Since the New Era. Shandong Normal University. 2017.<br />
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[12]Zen Qingyu. A Brief analysis of domestication and Foreignization of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Guide. 2020(05):25-26.<br />
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[13]Zhou Baoxue. A Brief Analysis of the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation. Science and Education Literature Review. 2013(08):149-150.<br />
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== A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing Student No.202070080601 英语笔译 ==<br />
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<center>罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing No.202070080601</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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With the continuous advancement of globalization, more and more foreign films are introduced into China continuously. China's film market is huge and Watching films has become a popular way of entertainment for Chinese. Various kinds of films emerge in endlessly so that film titles are particularly important. The film title is the eye of the film, the highlight and essence of a film. A good film title can successfully attract people's attention, stimulate the desire to watch, and bring them into the cinema, which is the purpose of English film title translation. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this paper will analyze the characteristics and functions of film titles, all kinds of existing translations, and puts forward some translation methods of English film titles, hoping to be helpful to the translation of film title translation.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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English film title translation; Skopos Theory; translation methods<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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随着全球化进程的不断推进，越来越多的外国电影源源不断地涌入中国，中国电影市场巨大，看电影已成为一种广受欢迎的娱乐消遣方式，各种电影层出不穷，因此电影片名就显得尤为的重要。电影片名是电影的眼睛，是一部电影的亮点与精华所在。一个好的电影名可以成功吸引人的眼球，激发大众观看欲望，将大众带入电影院。而英语电影片名的翻译目的就在此。本文主要将从目的论的视角出发，分析电影片名的特点与作用，对各种现有译名的进行分析，就此提出一些英文电影片名的翻译方法，希望能对电影片名的翻译工作有所帮助。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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英语电影片名翻译； 目的论; 翻译方法<br />
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==='''Chapter1 Introduction'''===<br />
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A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxed way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges between different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It not good enough to accurately summarizes the contents of the film, to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan，2010,1-5）<br />
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A film is like a book with pictures and sound. When reading books, we will imagine the scenes described in the books, while words in book will be presented in the form of images and sound in film. Most of films last about two hours. In these two hours, we can get in touch with something we are not familiar with in a relaxing way. Film brings us a variety of visual, auditory and other sensory pleasure. It is not only a way of entertainment, but also an important medium to spread culture. With the rapid development of economy, people pay more and more attention to the quality of life and cultural exchanges because different countries are closer than before. A large number of foreign films are pouring into China, trying to get a share of the Chinese market. Although there are close cultural exchanges, there are still cultural differences between China and the West. Therefore, the translation of film titles after the introduction of foreign films into China is very important. Although the translation of film titles seems to be a small project, it is not so easy to translate them well and to the point to let people can't wait to see the whole film. It is self-evident that the film title is the essence of a film. It is not good enough to accurately summarize the contents of the film to attract the audience. The quality of the film title directly affects its dissemination in China, and its importance is self-evident. （Ma Yuanyuan 2010,1-5）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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This paper proposes a Skopos Theory approach to the translation of film titles. The ultimate goal of film title translation is to attract attention as much as possible on the premise of accurately conveying the content of the film. The Skopos Theory can provide a reasonable explanation for those film titles that are not translated according to the traditional translation theory. The Skopos Theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is the core theory of functional translation theory. Compared with some previous translation theories, this theory has some breakthroughs. The purpose of translation carries through the whole process of translation, and the purpose determining method is its biggest feature, which gives the translator a lot of space to adopt the translation method that he thinks is suitable.（Baidu Encyclopedia:翻译目的论）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title translation, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis.Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres and features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principle. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.<br />
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This thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter one serves as an introduction, presenting the importance of the translation of English film title, the adaptability of the Skopos Theory and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two is a general analysis of English film title translation, including film genres, features and functions of English film title translation. Chapter three is a general introduction of Skopos Theory, consisting of its development, concept and three basic principles. Chapter four analyzes the existing film title translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, and comes to the methods of film title translation. Chapter five draws a conclusion finally.(!!!quotation is missing)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter2 A General Introduction of English Film Title'''===<br />
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====2.1 Film Genres ====<br />
According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film, and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses image and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genre of action and war，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks,2003,3.19)<br />
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According to He Ying in her article "Theory and Method Guiding Film Title Translation", films are normally divided into three categories: science and educational film, documentary film and feature film. Educational film spread scientific and technological knowledge. (He Ying 2001, 57)Documentary film is a kind of film or TV art form that takes real life as the creation material, takes real-life people as the object of expression, and processes and displays it artistically. It takes showing the truth as the essence and arouses people's thinking with reality. Feature film is a kind of film work which uses images and sound as means to narrate. Any film which is played by actors, has a certain plot and expresses a certain theme can be called a feature film. Feature films are often more easily accepted by all and have a large audience,so that this thesis confines its tentative study to the titles and the corresponding translations of English feature films. As for feature films, Tim Dirks categorized the main genres such as action films, adventure films comedy films, crime&gangster films, drama films, epics or historical films, horror films, musical (dance）films, science fiction films, war (anti-war) films, and Westerns. Actually, a genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries and the referred types may overlap each other. Genres can be combined to form hybrid genres, such as ''Inglourious Basterds'' 《无耻混蛋》 which melts the genres of action and war together，so does ''Saving Private Ryan''《拯救大兵瑞恩》. (Tim Dirks 2003,3.19)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Features of English Film Title====<br />
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===== 2.2.1 Linguistic Features===== <br />
Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and The translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, and the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）<br />
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Foreign film titles are usually translated into Chinese with four characters and the translated titles are usually concise. It is not convenient for the audience to grasp the key points when they meet with long title and a short title can also contain many meanings. With the fierce competition in the film market, most of the audience just want to relax so that they prefer to watch films with accurate and concise expression of film titles. In addition, the use of four characters may be related to Chinese language habits that there are four-character idioms in China. For example, ''Transformers'' 《变形金刚》, ''Captain America''《美国队长》, ''Escape Plan'' 《金蝉脱壳》, ''The Hunger Games'' 《饥饿游戏》, ''Once Upon a Time in America''《美国往事》.The translated titles of these foreign films are very concise and to the point, the emphasis is on simplicity. They use vivid words to arouse the audience's interest. For example, the film Escape Plan is literally translated into Chinese as《金蝉脱壳》. The translator combines a Chinese idiom, golden cicada out of shell, which comes from the Xie Tianxiang written by Guan Hanqing. This idiom means when a cicada turns into an adult, one should take off a layer of shell, which draws an metaphor between people and cicada. And the film is about a prison designer who is locked into a high-pressure prison designed by himself and is ready to escape with other accomplices. The meaning the film and the idiom want to express is just the same, and the translated title is more vivid. (Baidu Encyclopaedia, golden cicada out of shell）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Aesthetic Features ===== <br />
In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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In fact, the translation of film titles is also a kind of literature. When foreign films are introduced into China, the translation of translated titles is equivalent to giving the film a life again. Film titles can also be appreciated as the paintings do. The aesthetic translation of film titles will create a kind of artistic conception with a strong artistic quality. The translator will use a lot of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, contrast, repetition, contradiction, exaggeration, parody, symbol and so on. Take film ''Hilary and Jackie''《她比烟花寂寞》 for example, the film mainly shows us a cello genius Jacqueline Dupley's brilliant and extremely short life like fireworks, which reflects the extreme gorgeous beauty, the loneliness behind the streamer. The word "fireworks" is used symbolically. At first, some people may think this translation is kind of affected, but in fact it is quite consistent with this film’s content and touching. There are other wonderful examples, such as ''The Hours''《时时刻刻》, ''Sommersby''《似是故人来》, ''The Shape of Water''《水形物语》, ''Flipped''《怦然心动》, ''The Bridges of Madison County''《廊桥遗梦》, which are fabulous. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Commercial Features=====<br />
Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aim to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public has already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Whether the translation of the film is concise or aesthetic, it is aimed to attract the public to buy tickets. Film is the combination of art and commerce. A cinema film will not only express art or just for commercial purposes, It better to say that commercial films may pay more attention to box office, while literary and artistic films will pay more attention to artistic expression. A film is the painstaking efforts of all the workers. If no one appreciates it, it would be a pity. Therefore, attraction is indispensable in the translation of film titles. For example, there are some animated feature films made by Pixar. ''Finding Nemo''《海底总动员》,''Toy Story''《玩具总动员》,''The Incredibles''《超人总动员》,''Cars''《汽车总动员》. They all used the form《XX总动员》,which is a manifestation of business characteristics. Toy Story, as an animated film, created a box office miracle and had a wide influence in China. Naturally, the audience was deeply impressed by this translation. Therefore, considering its popularity and attractiveness, the distributor will try to translate similar cartoons in this way. However, with more and more such translated titles, the public have already experienced aesthetic fatigue. This kind of translation may lose its original function, so it will be replaced by other translations later. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Functions of English Film Title====<br />
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=====2.3.1 Informative Function ===== <br />
The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess.It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. to enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories.In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) <br />
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The informative function is the basic function that any film title should possess. It is agreed that the film title should be of high-information value. A title without any informative value can be said meaningless. To enable the audience to get a thorough understanding of the film content. According to Newmark, the core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. In this thesis, the interpretation of the informative function is two-fold. (Newmark 2001, 40) --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same end point, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film titile and its translaion, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A film tile should highly summarize the content of a film, which conveys a lot of information, such as the genre of film. Many film viewers tend to watch a certain type of film. When she chooses which film to watch in the cinema, the translation title of the film plays a very important role, such as ''Triangle'' 《恐怖游轮》,a psychological suspense film. The heroine experiences repeated asmsaras interacted with each other. The film shows the same people appearing in the same place and even chasing each other, which provides a variety of understanding for the play. The director said that the film has three endings, but they all lead to the same terminus, that is, the final scene of the car accident, leaving Melissa in this endless cycle. The original translation is triangle in Chinese, which is actually about the closed reincarnation of a triangle. It can be said that the translation does not fully grasp the inner essence of the film. By contrast, 《迷失三角洲》 expresses this film’s theme more accurately, but the title 《恐怖游轮》 is more attractive. It makes the genre of the film more easy to get to. People will know that it is a thriller and suspense film at the sight of the title. (Film title and its translation, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are ware of that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Film title can not only let the audience know the type of the film, but also let the audience quickly know the relevant information of the film, such as time, place, character, what’s going on with characters. For example, Rise of the Planet of ''the Apes''《猩球崛起》，from the title , we can know that the film is telling stories about orangutans. ''12 Angry Men''《十二怒汉》, this title tells us that the main characters of the story are twelve men. ''Homeless to Harvard: the Liz Murray story'' 《风雨哈佛路》，this title let us know know that it tells the story of the protagonist's struggle at Harvard. ''Sleepless in Seattle''《西雅图夜未眠》, and from this title, we are aware that the location of the story is mainly in Seattle. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.2 Aesthetic Function===== <br />
Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation.Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience.如''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》 This film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created a melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound, in addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese pays attention to refining words, which is very consistent with the requirements of film title translation. Word refining pays attention to vivid, using language to render an atmosphere or artistic conception, and transmit this feeling to the Chinese audience. Take ''The Remains of the Day''《长日将尽》for examle, this film is adapted from the novel of the same title British novelist of Japanese origin Kazuo Ishiguro, and the film is an elegy about the decline of the aristocracy in the British Empire. The protagonist of the story recalls his life in the form of a diary. The most important thing is the relationship between him and his former colleague, the housekeeper Miss Ken Dunn. He was a loyal housekeeper in the noble family. He saw the vicissitudes of prosperity and tried to perfect his work. However, he always suppressed his feelings and saw Miss Kendeng, who was waiting for no result, to marry away from home. This translation has successfully created melancholy atmosphere. What’s more, a carefully designed film title can well perform the aesthetic function, creating such beauty as phonetic beauty and imaginational beauty. For example, ''Breathe''《一呼一吸》, this translation sounds rhythmic, if we just translate it into 《呼吸》，then it will lose the beauty of sound. In addition, four characters looks more neat visually. And there are other wonderful examples, such as ''Like Sunday, Like Rain''《如晴天，似雨天》, The Words《妙笔生花》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.3.3 Vocative Function ===== <br />
A film title can show the audience with the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41).<br />
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A film title can show the audience the relevant information about the film, and it can create an imaginative atmosphere for the audience and entertain them aesthetically. However, its vocative function is more important. That is to call upon the audience to buy tickets. According to Newmark, "the core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the addressee" (Newmark 2001, 41). --[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function, since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)<br />
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According to Wei Jianhua, when the definition is applied to film titles, the addressees here refer to audiences. The vocative function of film titles is to draw the attention of audiences, make them psychologically interested and buy tickets. Both informative and aesthetic functions serve the vocative function since the prime and ultimate aim of film production is to win the hearts of audiences and be financially rewarded. Few titles are purely informative aesthetic or vocative. The three major functions are often integrated, with emphasis on one of them. Some translations of film titles are very eye-catching, such as ''Frozen''《冰雪奇缘》, if it is translated literally, it will become 《冰冻》, which is not vivid at all. However, 《冰雪奇缘》is full of sense of fairy tale, which gives people a lively and wonderful feeling, that is, realizes the value of information transmission, and also improves the publicity effect of the film. There are far more examples, such as ''Man on Fire''《怒火救援》, ''The Bourne Identity''《谍影重重》, ''The Matrix'' 《黑客帝国》, ''V for Vendetta''《V字仇杀队》. (Wei Jianhua2008, 121-122)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''Chapter3 A General Introduction of Skopos Theory'''===<br />
====3.1 The Development of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means “ purpose ”or “ goal ” in Greek. “The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation .” The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one.The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73) <br />
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Skopos Theory, originally written as Skopostheorie in German, is a major translation approach of German Functionalist School. "Skopos" means " purpose "or " goal " in Greek. "The 1970s and 1980s saw a move away from the static linguistic typologies of translation shifts and the emergence and flourishing in Germany of a functionalist and communicative to the analysis of translation ." The Skopos Theory is one of the achievements of its development and the most important one. The development of the Skopos Theory experienced following four stages. (Munday 2016, 73)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Firstly,in the book “ Possibility and Limitations in Translation Criticism” , Katherine Rice first proposed functional translation theory. She believes that translators should put functional features first rather than information equivalence. (Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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Secondly, Hans Vermeer, a student of Reiss, broke away from the equivalence-based theories and set up the theoretical framework for "Functional School": Skopos Theory. situation". In the framework of Vermeer's theory, every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “ to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer 1987, 29). <br />
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Thirdly, On the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed thefunctional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place".Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose. (Nord1991, 12-13).<br />
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Thirdly, on the basic of Vermeer's research, Justa Holz Manttari further developed the functional theory. “ Manttari's theory is based on the principles of action theory and is cover all forms of intercultural transfer ”“ Manttari places special emphasis on the action aspect of the translation process, analyzing the roles of the participants (initiator, translator, user and message receiver) and the situational conditions (time, place and medium) in which their activities take place". Skopos Theory views translation as a complex activity intended to realize a specific purpose(Nord1991, 12-13).--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourthly，Christina Nord summed up and perfected the theory of functionalism. She systematically expounds in English the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation and how to formulate translation strategies suitable for translation purposes on the basis of the functions of the original text. Christina Nord sorts out the functionalist theories and proposes that translators should follow the guiding principle of “ Function Plus Loyalty ” , thus perfecting the theory.（Baidu Encyclopaedia:翻译目的论）<br />
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=====3.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “ skopos rule”, what Reiss and Vermeer described as “ the end justifies the means ” (Reiss &Vermeer1984, 101). There are three possible kinds of purposes in the field of translation: (1) the translator's general purpose in the translation process (perhaps to earn a living); (2) the communicative purpose aimed at by the target text in the target situation (perhaps to instruct the reader); (3) the purpose aimed at by a particular translation strategy or procedure (for example, to translate literally in order to show the structural particularities of the source language). (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced.for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to. function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)<br />
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The skopos rule is summed up by Vermeer as “ the end justifies the means ”. He explains the skopos rule in the following way: Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The rule thus reads as follows: translate/ interpret/ speak/ write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. (Nord 2001, 29)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another important rule of Skopos Theory is the coherence rule, which means that "a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers situation". Focusing on the target readership and target culture, functionalists regard intra-textual coherence than inter-textual coherence, just as Nord put it, "inter-textual coherence is considered subordinate to intra-textual coherence, and both are subordinated to the skopos rule. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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The third rule of Skopos Theory is fidelity rule. Fidelity rule means that there should be inter -textual coherence between the original text and the target text. This is equivalent to the so-called faithfulness to the original text in other translation theories, but the degree and form of faithfulness to the original text depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator's understanding of the original text. (Baidu Encyclopaedia , Skopos Theory)<br />
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=====3.3 Function Plus Loyalty=====<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction for the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why. (Nord 2001, 125)".<br />
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As mentioned above, the primary rule in Skopos Theory is the skopos rule, which defines that the translators can make changes of the word, style or form of the source text in the accordance with translation purpose. While the inter-textual coherence rule holds that the translated version should be loya1 to the source text. However, when the aim of the author is contrary to the aim of the translator, the inter-textual coherence rule should be abide by the skopos rule. As a result, there may appear the situation that there is no restriction to the change of source text. In order to improve the functionalism studies, Nord proposes the loyalty rule, which insists that the translator should be loyal to the author and audience: “ The audiences have the right to know what the translator has done for the original text and what kind of work produced by the translator. Translators cannot simply translate in a non-literal way without telling the target audience what they have done and why."(Nord 2001, 125)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients.<br />
All in all, This theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)<br />
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Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. Loyalty limits the range of justifiable target-text functions for one particular source text and raises the need for a negotiation of the translation assignment between translators and their clients. All in all, this theory enriched Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, avoids soure-text sovereign and perfects radical functionalist. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,Skopos Theory)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Chapter4 The Application of Skopos Theory in Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.1 Skopos Theory's Guiding Role in English Film Title Translation=====<br />
A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena.Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation, of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）<br />
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A careful look at theory may show that it is significant in that it is different from traditional theories. It helps to free translators from the bondage of traditional theories by providing them a new way of thinking, broadens the scope of translation studies by increasing the range of possible translation strategies, and establishes a profound foundation, helping people to penetrate deeper into cultural and translation phenomena. Traditional translation theories tend to classify the translation of film titles into general literature translation. Equivalence theory plays an important role in traditional translation theories. However, the author believes that it is difficult to achieve the commercial effect required by the film title simply by emphasizing the equivalence between the original text and the translation. Therefore, it will be more appropriate to regard it as an advertisement translation. Since it is an advertisement translation. Of course, the first thing to emphasize is the publicity effect. （Zheng Yuqi & Wang Xiaodong，2006）--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film.If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)<br />
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For example, the Chinese translation of film titles is to make the Chinese translation attract the interest of Chinese readers in the Chinese market. In this way, Skopos Theory naturally plays a guiding role. Therefore, the first rule of Skopos Theory is skopos rule. The translation of film titles emphasizes the commercial nature, that is to say, it should be attractive enough. Therefore, we should not stay in the translation itself when translating film titles. The traditional equivalent translation theory can not be fully applied to the translation of film titles, so more effective translation theories are needed to guide it. Therefore, it has to be associated with the German functionalist translation theory with Skopos as its core. The most direct purpose of film title translation is the transmission of information. A good translation can highlight the content of the original film and make the audience better understand the theme information expressed and transmitted by the original film. If the translator could not produce a satisfactory version only on the base of the original title, he should consult the plot of the film. (Baidu Encyclopaedia,翻译目的论)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film Thelma and Louise,Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Let's look at an example in order to make this point clear. The film ''Thelma and Louise'', Louise is a waitress in a cafe. She is busy all day and wants to travel. Her good friend Selma has been unhappy since she married a car salesman Daryl. She stayed at home all day, lonely and bored. One weekend, Persuaded by Louise again and again, she agreed to go on a pleasant trip with her. They parked their car in a bar in Arkansas for the night. The bar is full of young customers. The drunken Harun took a fancy to Selma and asked her to dance. Selma didn't listen to Louise's advice. She danced and drank with Harlan, and was taken outside to the parking lot. Harlan tried to harass her. After being rejected, Harun becomes violent and tries to force Selma to submit to him with violence. Louise came to the parking lot, found Selma in a critical condition, took out the pistol that Selma had brought in the luggage bag, and forced Harlem to let Selma go. Harlan began to curse and insult them. In his anger, Louis shot and killed him. In a flash, the two female partners on a vacation journey, embarked on a journey of despair that can not be turned back.In the Grand Canyon, Selma and Louise are determined to fight to the end and never give in. They smile and clasp hands,driving towards the cliff. Actually, this film mainly describe what happened to this two women and their growth process.''Thelma and Louise'', When translated into《末路狂花》, the audience can predict the stimulating effect that the film wants to express and convey the message of the film. If translated literally into 《塞尔玛与露易斯》, it will inevitably make people confused, unable to grasp the main meaning of the film, only two names can be known. Therefore, Skopos Theory plays an important role in the translation of film titles. (The plot of film, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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There are many examples, ''Erin Brockovich'' 《永不妥协》, ''Fast & Furious''《速度与激情》 ''Blade Runner''《银翼杀手》, ''Lord of Ring'' 《魔戒》, ''Inception''《盗梦空间》,''Top Gun''《壮志凌云》, These titles are not only translated from the source language into the target language, but also for the purpose of film sales, taking into account the information, aesthetic and other factors to form an attractive translation. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Methods for Film Title Translation====<br />
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=====4.2.1Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration means to seek phonetic correspondence in terms of the translation to describe the English syllables through the corresponding Chinese characters carrying similar sounds. It relates to the conversion of different alphabets in different language system. Transliteration is usually applied this situations, when they are the name of persons and places and historical events. This method is often adopted in the film title translation because it has the obviously features in keeping the phonetic fluency of original film titles which express its strong exoticism, which can arouse the audience's curiosity to see the film. With the development of global communication, people become more and more interested in knowing other country’s culture, this method is becoming increasingly popular. (Wei Jianhua,2008,121-122)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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For example，''Jane Eyre'' 《简爱》，''Dunkirk''《敦刻尔克》，''Hamlet''《哈姆雷特》, ''Emma''《爱玛》, ''Mulan''《木兰花》, ''Brooklyn''《布鲁克林》,''Manhattan''《曼哈顿》.Transliteration can enable the target audience to know more about the original history and culture. On the contrary, if they are translated in other ways, the viewers may take it as an ordinary film and may feel no interest in it, which will in turn do great harm to the box-office value of the film. However, this does not mean that transliteration should be adopted for any title which can be transliterated. If the original title can only provide little information and the audience can only contact with a foreign word, then transliteration can not achieve the effect that translation of film title should have. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.2 Literal Translation =====<br />
Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text.The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original.The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)<br />
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Functionalism does not exclude equivalence so long as it is adequate to a Skopos that requires that the target text serve the same communicative function or functions as the source text. The merits of this method lie in its fidelity to the original meaning and cultural flavor of the original. The original title of many films is a high generalization of the content of the film, which can better realize its information function, aesthetic function and market function. It is necessary to be faithful to the theoretical basis of the original text. At this time, the literal translation of the title often inherits the simplicity and clarity of the original title, with large amount of information and easy to arouse the audience's curiosity. （Nord 2004, 36)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation.For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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In the process of actual translation, the degree of overlap between Chinese and English in many film titles is astonishing, which can almost achieve word-for-word translation. For example, ''Blue Valentine''《蓝色情人节》,''Eat Pray Love''《美食、祈祷和恋爱》,''Darkest Hour''《至暗时刻》,''Hideen Figures''《隐藏人物》, ''Primal Fear''《一级恐惧》, ''Four Wedding and a Funeral''《四个婚礼和一个葬礼》, ''Pearl Harbor''《珍珠港》, ''Atonement''《赎罪》, ''Leap Year''《闰年》, ''Detachment''《超脱》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》,to make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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Besides, there are other way to use this method by changing the parts of the speech or adjusting the word order, for example, ''10 Things I Hate About You''《我恨你的十件事》''12 Years a Slave''《为奴十二年》, ''Life as We Know It''《我们所知道的生活》. To make it more specific, I will use this example ''A Star Is Born''《一个明星的诞生》，in the original title, the “born” is a verb, but when it is translated in to the Chinese title, the verb is changed into a noun to make this title look more balance. And in this example,''The Boy in the Striped Pajamas''《穿条纹睡衣的男孩》, the translator changed the original order to cater to the grammar of Chinese. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like a or the will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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What’s more, sometimes, the article like "a, or, the" will be deleted when translated into Chinese because it is not so important to viewer to catch the information about a certain film in some circumstances and by doing this, the title will look more concise, such as ''The Imitation Game''《模仿游戏》, ''A Beautiful Mind'' 《美丽心灵》, ''A Perfect World''《完美的世界》, ''The Social Network'' 《社交网络》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.3 Liberal Translation=====<br />
Any translator with common sense of translation will not expect to find equivalent expressions in the target language all the time. Given this, translators may often adopt free translation. Free translation is an alternative approach that is used mainly to convey the meaning and the spirit of the original title without sticking to the form. (Feng qinhua2000, 36-44) <br />
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Liberal translation preserve the content of the original title as much as possible at the cost of changing the form of the film title. In the specific operation, translators often use some techniques, such as addition, conversion and extension in particular so as to deeply convey the content of the original film and enhance the appeal of the title.（He Ying 2001, 57）<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
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A List of examples belong to this group, such as ''Coherence''《彗星来的那一夜》, ''The Secret Life of Walter Mitty''《白日梦想家》, ''Welcome''《非法入境》, ''Agro''《逃离德黑兰》, ''Silver Linings Playbook''《乌云背后的幸福线》, ''A Lot Like Love''《相见恨早》, ''If Only''《爱再来一次》, ''Temple Grandin''《自闭历程》, ''La La Land'' 《爱乐之城》,''Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind''《暖暖内含光》,''Hacksaw Ridge''《血战钢锯岭》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.4 Combination of Transliteration and Literal Translation=====<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
In addition to literal translation and transliteration, there is another way, that is, to combine literal translation and transliteration. This method is usually applicable to the original title containing the name of a person or place. Of course, this is not a perfunctory translation method, the title can still summarize the information of the whole film after being translated. For example, ''Becoming Jane''《成为简奥斯丁》, ''The Life of David Gale''《大卫·戈尔的一生》, ''Manchester by the Sea''《海边的曼彻斯特》, ''Notting Hill'' 《诺丁山》, ''A Rainy Day in New York''《纽约的一个雨天》, ''Maid in Manhattan''《曼哈顿女佣》,''Citizen Kane''《公民凯恩》, ''The Shawshank Redemption'' 《肖申克的救赎》, ''Schindler’List''《辛德勒的名单》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.5 Combination of Literal Translation and Liberal Translation=====<br />
The combination of literal translation and liberal translation can be faithful to the original text to the greatest extent and attract the audience. Due to various reasons, the original titles of some English films only realize the information function of translated titles. In order to realize the various functions of translation, the translator sometimes retains the reasonable part of the original name, and then combines the need of the audience to complete the relevant information as far as possible. (He Aixiang2020, 103-107) <br />
<br />
There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
There are some examples, such as ''Wonder''《奇迹男孩》, ''Whiplash''《爆裂鼓手》, ''Sully''《萨利机长》, ''I, Tonya''《我，花样女王》, ''Love Actually''《真爱至上》, ''Changeling''《换子疑云》, ''The Bucket List''《遗愿清单》, ''Before Sunrise''《爱在黎明破晓前》, ''Before Sunset''《爱在日落黄昏时》, ''Before Midnight''《爱在午夜降临前》, ''The Martian'' 《火星救援》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.2.6 Re-creative Translation=====<br />
As mentioned above, re-creative translation is the last resort so far as the translation of English film titles is concerned. Sometimes, some titles are obscure and neither nor fowl after translation while others are very ordinary without attraction and this method aims not only transferring the informative value, but also reproducing the aesthetic and appellative value of the film. (Ma Yuanyuan 2010, 28-29)<br />
<br />
The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titiles and their translaions, Douban Movie website)<br />
<br />
The following are good examples, such as ''North Country''《永不让步》, ''Rudy''《追梦赤子心》, ''Definitely，Maybe''《爱情三选一》, ''Up''《飞屋环游记》, ''Coco''《寻梦环游记》. (All film titles and their translations, Douban Movie website)--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Chapter5 Conclusion'''===<br />
This paper studies the translation of film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory. Firstly, it analyzes the genres of films, the characteristics and functions of film titles translation. Secondly, it mainly introduces the development and rules of Skopos Theory. Finally, it analyzes the translation of film names under the Skopos Theory and puts forward some translation methods of film titles. Skopos Theory holds that the skopos rule is the primary rule, therefore, when translating film titles, translators have more initiative and they can use more diversified methods, which makes the film titles more commercial. However, there are still many shortcomings in this paper. For example, when analyzing the characteristics and functions of film titles, the aspect of cultural exchange is not taken into account. In the final translation method part, the summary is not in place, and the proposed method is not novel enough. I hope that in the further study, I can put forward a more applicable model of film title translation, and the last point is the lack of film data, the main purpose of film title translation is to attract more audience to buy tickets. If I can analyze the data of box office well, I can further evaluate whether the purpose of film title translation has been achieved. This paper is only limited to the author's understanding of the translation, thus some conclusions and analysis are still not profound enough. The author hopes that there will be more research results in the future, which can provide more abundant theories and methods to guide the translation of film titles.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''=== <br />
He Yuan贺莺. (2001) 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Theories and Methods of Film Title Translation].外语教学Foreign Language Education (01) 56-60.<br />
<br />
Tim, Dirks.(2003) [Main Film Genres]. https://www.filmsite.org/genres.html<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 金蝉脱壳 https://baike.baidu.com/item/金蝉脱壳/83303?fr=aladdin<br />
<br />
Newmark, Peter. (2001). [A Textbook of Translation]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 41-44.<br />
<br />
Wei Jianhua韦建华. (2008). 英语电影片名翻译原则与方法探讨[On the Principles and Methods of English Film Title Translation].电影文学Movie Literature (03) 121-122.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy .(2016). [Introducing Translation Studies:Theories and Application]. London and New York: Routledge 73.<br />
<br />
Vermeer, H. J.(1987). [What Does It Mean to Translate?]. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13 (2) 25-33. <br />
<br />
Nord, C. (1991). [Translation as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained] .Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 12-36&129.<br />
<br />
Baidu Encyclopaedia 百度百科 翻译目的论https://baike.baidu.com/item/翻译目的论<br />
<br />
Reiss, K. & Hans J. Vermeer, H. (1984). [Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation].Tubingen: Niemeyer 101.<br />
<br />
Zheng Yunqi & WangXiaodong. 郑玉琪,王晓冬. (2006) 小议电影片名的英汉翻译原则[On the English-Chinese Translation of Movie Titles].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 27(02) 66-68.<br />
<br />
Feng Qinghua冯庆华. (2000). 实用翻译教程[A Practical Course Book on Translation].上海译文出版社Shanghai Translation Press.<br />
<br />
He Aixiang何爱香. ( 2020). 中国电影片名的新修辞翻译策略探究[Translation Strategies for Chinese Movie Titles --A Rhetoric Perspective]江南大学学报(人文社会版), Journal of Jiannan University (Humanities&Social Sciences) 19(02) 103-107.<br />
<br />
Ma Yuanyuan马媛媛. (2010). 翻译目的论视角下的英文电影片名的汉译 [Translation of English Film Titles from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. 黑龙江大学Heilongjiang University 28-29.<br />
<br />
Douban Movie website 豆瓣电影网 https://movie.douban.com/<br />
<br />
==The Study of Brand Name Translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br />
<center>谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，202020080641.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products, is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this paper introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of the brand names translation, offers the available and useful methods for the translation of brand names.<br />
<br />
With acceleration of economic globalization, more enterprises have been active in the global market. Brand name translation plays a significant role in the international trade. A successful brand name is the direct element to attract the customers’ attention and evoke their desire to buy the products which is gravely important to the sales volume of commodities. Based on many convincing examples, this chapter introduces the definition and functions of brand names, states the principles of their translation, offers the available and useful methods for their translation.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
Brand name translation; Principle; Methods<br />
<br />
===商标翻译研究===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化进程的加快，越来越多的企业活跃在全球市场中。商标翻译在国际贸易中起着举足轻重的作用。一个好的译名是吸引顾客注意，并唤起他们购买商品欲望的直接因素，对商品的销售量有着极其重要的影响。本文结合许多令人信服的例子，介绍商标的定义和功能，阐述商标翻译的原则，提供有用的商标翻译方法。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
商标翻译；原则；方法<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”, A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity, and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
<br />
In the development of human society, the emergence of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name. The contemporary Chinese dictionary defines the brand name as “it is the mark, sign (words like drawing and patterning) which are printed on the cover of the product or the packaging”. A brand name is the most prominent mark of a commodity and can leave deep impression upon the mind of shoppers and arouse their desires to buy the related commodity. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time, brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. <br />
<br />
The import and export of commodities gives rise to the birth of brand name translation. A good brand name translation may bring an enterprise huge wealth, whereas a bad one may let an enterprise suffer great loss. Therefore, an enterprise's future is closely linked with brand name translation, and it is valuable to have a research on how to translate brand names properly. At the same time brand name translation can widen the linguistic research field, enrich the connotation of linguistics, and accelerate the combination of linguistic theoretic research and its practical application. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 08:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this paper, first part is introduction of this paper. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and brand name translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this paper is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. <br />
<br />
First part is the introduction of this chapter. The value of this research is mainly introduced in first part. Second part introduces the definition and functions of brand name and its translation. Third part gives concrete examples to analyze five principles of brand name translation (the principle of following the target customers' culture, the principle of using concise words, the principle of grasping the characteristics of commodities, the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference, "Three Principles of Beauty"). Fourth part gives examples about brand name to introduce five methods in brand name translation (transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation). The last part of this chapter is conclusion emphasizing the theme of this research. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Brand and Its Name====<br />
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “the brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods. (Jing Yang 2018,1) <br />
<br />
According to the European Community Trademark Regulation, “The brand is a name, symbol, sign, design, number or some combination of these elements used to identify commodities or services of the enterprise.”Brand is a kind of soft power and a part of the core competitiveness of an enterprise. A good brand can not only reflect the value of products, but also represent the corporate image. What’s more, it will attract consumers’ attention and promote the sales of the goods.(Jing Yang 2018,1) --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008: 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)<br />
<br />
Bhimrao M. Ghodeswar(2008 4-12) remarks, “Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company or products from competitors, aimed at creating a lasting impression in the minds of customers. The key components that form a brand's tool box include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty and various branding strategies.” Therefore, a good brand name is especially important to the enterprise. (Lu Wenchan 2018,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Brand Name Translation====<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products to enter the Chinese market and got the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market. <br />
<br />
With the development of the global economy, China has become the most potential markets around world. More and more foreign products enter the Chinese market and <br />
have gotten the attention of the Chinese. At the same time, to compete with foreign products, many Chinese products have entered into the international market.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from Source Language to Target Language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.<br />
<br />
To participate in international competition, a good brand translation is extremely important. However, brand translation is not a simple conversion process from source language to target language, but an interlingual and intercultural communication, and often reflects culture, customs, economy, politics, religions and cultural aesthetics. In order to accurately translate the brand, the translators are required not only to have good language skills, but also to possess comprehensive knowledge of interlanguage and intercultural communication.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Principles of Brand Name Translation===<br />
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language, it should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, In order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
<br />
The purpose of brand name is to give publicity to commodities, stimulate consumption and boost the celebrity of the brand of the goods. Brand name translation is not a simple translation from one language to another language. It should reflect the commodities' information and embody enterprises' intelligence. But the same brand has different cultural connotations in different languages and cultures due to the cultural differences of different countries. Therefore, in order to promote the sales of the products, the translation of brand names should abide by the following principles. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Principle of Following the Target Customers' Culture====<br />
In China people pursues auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)<br />
<br />
In China people pursue auspicious and peaceful culture and like the characters that mean happiness, prosperity and auspiciousness, such as "金", "美", "福" and "佳 ". In order to conform to the aesthetic culture of Chinese consumers, when translating the brand names of products, translators consciously choose characters that Chinese consumers like, such as “Marlboro”(万宝路), “Carrefour”(家乐福), “Ford”(福特). (Liu Haiyan 2013,11)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, Petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouse terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)<br />
<br />
Different countries and areas have great differences in culture. Translators should pay more attention to cultural differences, avoiding misapprehension and antipathy. For example, many brand names in China contain the characters "dragon", "phoenix", "magpie", "petrel" and so on, because in Chinese culture, dragon is the symbol of imperial power and nobility, magpie is a lucky bird, petrel is the symbol of courage and strength. But in English culture dragon is an evil imaginary animal, and it arouses terror and aversion in people’s mind, magpie means "someone who chatters", petrel is the symbol of disaster. (Liu Haiyan 2020,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs, and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)<br />
<br />
People with different cultural backgrounds have different ideas about the same things because of the different moral criteria, religions, beliefs and modes of thinking. For example, a clock brand name “金鸡牌闹钟”, which is originated from the Chinese saying “雄鸡报晓” meaning that cock heralds the break of a day, was once translated as “Golden Cock Alarming Clock”. However,“cock” in English also refers to male reproductive organ and is regarded as a taboo word. (Fade Wang,2012,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Principle of Using Concise Words====<br />
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).<br />
<br />
As commodities are to be sold to consumers, their brand names should be common, popular, concise and easy to understand and remember. Generally, English trademarks are not usually translated into Chinese more than four Chinese characters. (Feng Wang 2012,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders, William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)<br />
<br />
For example, “Budweiser”, an American beer, is not translated as “百德威瑟”, but as “百威”, which makes people feel energetic and powerful after drinking it. “Bausch &Lomb”, an American eyewear brand, is translated into “博士伦”, which combines sound and meaning, as if wearing the glasses can be as knowledgeable as the doctor. “Hewlett-packard” is the world's largest electronic apparatus and notebook computer company, named after its founders William Hewlett and David Packard. "Hewlett-packard" was transliterated as “休利特-帕卡德公司”, but it was finally replaced by other brief translation “惠普”, which is both concise and easy to remember.Other examples are as follows: Marlboro (cigarette) —"马尔波罗"—"万宝路"、Mercedes-Benz (car) —"默赛德斯·本茨"—"奔驰". The Chinese are familiar with “百威”, “万宝路”, “奔驰”, but few know what “百德威瑟”, “马尔波罗”, “默赛德斯·本茨” are referring to. The reason is that the original translation is long and difficult for Chinese. (Chen Yang,Wang Xiufeng 2018,2); (Zhang Lulu 2011,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Principle of Grasping the Characteristics of Commodities====<br />
Brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed. <br />
<br />
A brand is a reflection of commodity and an important advertisement. Therefore, if the translation of brand name can represent the commodity’s characteristics and functions, it will make consumers impressed.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: The toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder, William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain; while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implies regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
<br />
For example: the toothpaste brand “Colgate” was named after the company founder William Colgate. Its Chinese name “高露洁” (Gao Lu Jie) might not sound like a perfect transliteration, but its meaning is unrivalled: “revealing superior cleanliness”. “Jie” indicates the type of the product (cleaning). “五粮液”(literally means the “essence of five grains”) makes people think of the wine that is brewed from grain, while “蒙牛”(literally means “Mongolian cows”) can be associated with the milk from Inner Mongolia. Brand names implie regional flavor. The Chinese famous brand "维维豆奶" is translated as "Soybean", in which "Bean" refers to the soybean, and it reflects the attributes of the product.(Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, the two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).<br />
<br />
Some commodities’ brand names bear the marks of the regions in which they are produced so as to raise the celebrity of the concerned places. For example, two famous beer brand names implying the manufacturing places in China are “青岛啤酒”(Tsing Tao Beer) and “燕京啤酒”(Yangjing Beer)(Fade Wang 2012,2).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 The Principle of Considering the Target Consumers’ Aesthetic Preference====<br />
Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon", On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”, Since ancient times, a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and product characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).<br />
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Chinese translation of the American cosmetic brand “Revlon” is so beautiful (Lu Hua Nong 露华浓). On the one hand, "Lu Hua Nong" serves as a sound transcription of "Revlon". On the other hand, the translation of these three syllables provides an apt meaning for the brand name. These three characters come from the celebrated quatrain by the Tang poet Li Bai "云想衣裳花想容，春风拂槛露华浓", which originally describes the elegant female beauty of Yang Guifei. Translators skillfully combine the aesthetic connotation of Chinese culture with the pronunciation of the original trademark so as to create a trademark translation with Chinese characteristics. Bayerisch Motoren Werke(BMW) is translated into “宝马”, which quotes from an old saying “人中吕布，马中赤兔；宝马予英雄，鲜花赠美人”. Since ancient times a good horse has been a symbol of wealth. Modern people pursue a good car just as ancient people crave a good horse. Therefore, the translated name is perfect in pronunciation, meaning and producting characteristics. There are more examples such as “Make up for ever”- “浮生若梦”(from Li Bai “浮生若梦，为欢几何”), “Innisfree”- “悦诗风吟”(from Ye Zhi “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”), “Lexus”- “凌志”(from Mao Zedong “久有凌云志，重上井冈山”), “IKEA”- “宜家”,(from the Book of Songs: "桃之夭夭，灼灼其华。之子于归，宜其室家", which perfectly implies the good attributes of "home")(Victor Mair 2019);(Ogilvy Ao Mei 2017);(Liu Haiyan 2020,3); (Li Jianzi 2018).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5 “Three Principles of Beauty”====<br />
Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. However, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)<br />
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Professor Xu Yuanchong put forward the "Three Principles of Beauty" for poetry translation: including beauty in sense, that is, the beauty of language use and the beauty of words meaning; beauty in sound, that is, the beauty of rhythm; beauty in form, that is, the beauty of language form. As far as I'm concerned, the standard also applies to brand name translation. (Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru 2018,1)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.1 The Beauty in Sense=====<br />
Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation, the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods, so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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Through the characteristics of the product, as well as the experience and perception it can bring to consumers to translate the brand name of the product, so as to make the translation of the brand closer to its own meaning, the meaning of the brand name easy to understand, and make the translation more vivid and flexible. For example, “NIKE”(耐克) is the goddess of victory in Greek mythology, symbolizing victory and light. It gives people a sence of confidence. In the process of translation the translator should fully grasp the characteristics of the goods so that consumers can understand the goods. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.2 Beauty in Sound=====<br />
The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into an English brand, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)<br />
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The translated brand is loud in pronunciation, clear in rhythm and full of musical sense, giving people the enjoyment of auditory beauty. For example, “Nokia”(诺基亚), “Samsung”(三星), “Nestle”(雀巢), “HP"(惠普), “Della”(戴尔), “SONY”(索尼) and so on . In this way, the translation don’t lose the beauty in sound of the brand and sounds beautiful and concise, thus reflecting the characteristics of the product. When a Chinese brand is translated into English, it is usually translated directly in pinyin. This method not only retains the phonetic beauty of the brand, but also shows the exotic feelings and characteristics of the product. (Zhang Wenfei 2020,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.5.3 Beauty in Form=====<br />
Brand name should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).<br />
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Brand names should be short in shape and easy to remember, which can leave a deep impression on consumers. Non-translation can be used to convey the beauty of the form. The method means to express the meaning of the source language without any equivalent word of the target language, that is to say, without any conversion between the two languages. For example, “SK-II”, “LG”, “IBM” (Wang Hengen, 2009,3).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.The methods of brand name translation===<br />
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====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target language to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is a translation method that transcribes the same or similar pronunciation between the original and target languages to translate the name of the product. Though transliteration is simple, it can not only retain the original rhyme, but also well reflect the brand's cultural connotation. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lack of implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick", is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only conveys the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)<br />
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Transliteration is quite common in the process of translating foreign trademark names into Chinese. Taking some products for example, the Germanic auto “Benz” was translated as “朋驰” or “本茨” in Taiwan, although this version is homophonic to the original name “Benz”, it sounds dull and lacks implied meaning. The present version of it in the mainland is “奔驰”, which is not only similar to the original pronunciation, but also give customers the impression that the car can run very fast, thus impressing the buyers with the excellent performance of such cars. A medicine called "Quick" is translated to "Kuai Ke" in Chinese, which is reminiscent to the fact that the medicine will quickly overcome disease. The brand name of food “Subway” is translated into“Sai Bai Wei”，the last characters “Bai Wei” mean “100 flavours”— a hint on showing what the brand offers to its customers, somewhere that provides everyone with their own favourite flavours. There are also some brand names which only convey the pronunciation and do not have any meaning or function. Such as ,“Kodak”(Keda), “Intel”(Yingteer), "Puma"(Biao Ma), "Parker"(Pai Ke), "Lincoln"（Lin Ken), "Canon" (Jia Neng). Chinese consumers, seeing these transliterated brand names, would probably have the first impression that the merchandise is made in foreign countries. It would arouse the psychological demand of some consumers and encourage them to purchase greatly. (Fade Wang 2012,2); (Jing Yang 2018,4); )(Jing Yang 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 09:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation, transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)<br />
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It is common for Chinese brand names to use “Hanyu Pinyin” for translation. Hanyu means the Chinese language, pin means "spell" and yin means "sound". In Chinese pronunciation transliteration is mainly applicable to our country's names, merchandises with ethnic style. For example, “Haier” is transliterated from “海尔” and is homophonous with “higher”. This translated brand name is easily associated with the advertisement of “Haier”: “Haier, higher and higher”. The well-known drink brand “娃哈哈” is simply translated as “Wahaha”. (Fade Wang 2012,3)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
The literal translation means that using the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and the function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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The literal translation means using that the corresponding target words directly according to the original brand name meaning. When we use the literal translation, it is usually the brand name which has a precise meaning, good cultural implication and its function is equivalent. Excellent literal translation not only keeps the original content, but also keeps the original form, especially the original metaphor, image and national, local characteristics. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China, it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)<br />
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A great number of brand names are translated into another language by using literal translation. Only if there are correspondent words in the target language, literal translation can be applied. Taking a red wine brand "Dynasty" as an example, it is translated into “Wangchao”. In Chinese, “Wangchao”means power and wealth. It gives the customers an illusion that if they drink the red wine “Wangchao”, their status and taste will improve accordingly. It stimulates the customers to buy the product inadvertently. The car brand name “Bluebird” is translated into “Lanniao” (Bluebird). The brand name “Bluebird” originates from the pantomime “Bluebird” which is created by the Belgian author. In the pantomime, the “Bluebird” is the symbol of “the future happiness”. In China it represents the object which can be the bailment of our “lovesickness”. Other examples such as Playboy (men’s wear) “花花公子”, Wild Turkey (whiskey) “野火鸡” , Blue Ribbon beer “蓝带” 啤酒, Redbull (drink) “红牛”, all of these translated brand names are very suitable for their goods. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4); (Zhang Shu 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand is poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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In the above examples, they have the same referential meaning and cultural implication in the target language and source language which can associate the customers with the same feelings of China and western countries. However, there are also some circumstances that we cannot use the literal translation accounting of the different cultural message. For example, “紫罗兰”, a man’s clothing company, is translated into “Pansy”, but the definition of the word in the dictionary: an offensive word for homosexual man. So sales of the brand are poor. Other examples such as “Bianfu”(bat) , “Baixiang”(white elephant) , “Jinji”(Golden Cock), all are failure translation because of the different cultural implication. Therefore, it is important for us to pay more attention to the connotation and association of the brand name in the process of translation to avoid the cultural clashes. Translators should think deeply to find out what these English expressions really mean in authoritative reference books to minimize the mistakes in literal translation. (Zhang Jin 2019,2); (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 Free translation====<br />
When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, it is a best choice to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)<br />
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When both sounds and meaning can’t show the value of the product, the best choice is to use the free translation. The free translation is also called “paraphrasing translation”, namely using similar and related words to translate brand name in the target language pronunciation. Free translation has the features of being vivid and impressive, which retains the original meaning. What's more, free translation is able to deliver the aesthetic and value orientation of the products. (Lu Wenchan 2018,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names named adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)<br />
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Here are some instances such as "Rejoice", its translation is "Piao Rou". Rejoice means joy and happiness, and the brand name translation indicates hair will become smooth after using the shampoo. So translators fully explore its connotations of the brand name. A soap called “Safeguard” is translated into “Shu Fu Jia”, “Shu” gives a refreshing and comfortable feel; “Fu” means “skin”, which shows the commodity's function; “Jia”expresses the using effect. The translation of many brand names adopts free translation method, for instance, “葵花” (Sunflower), “百灵” (Lark), “Pioneer” (先锋), “Skinice”(肤美灵). (Jing Yang 2018,5); (Jing Yang 2018, 4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, owing to the different cultural system, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4).<br />
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However, owing to the different cultural systems, some words have the same referential meaning with different associative meaning, sometimes; even the referential meaning is different. For example, If “芳草” is transliterated as “Fangcao”, it would bring antipathy to target readers, because “fang” in English means venomous tooth of a snake and “cao” sounds like “chaos.”, so “Fragrance Grass” should be a better translation for this brand name.(Fade Wang 2012,4)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.4 Combinative Translation====<br />
Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name.<br />
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Combinative Translation is a combination of transliteration, literal Translation and liberal translation. This method is a bit more difficult for translators to master and challenges their creative ability. It requires that its meaning can indicate the characteristic and function of the product. Consumers can have a nice association from the pronunciation and meaning of the translated brand name--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it sure can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)<br />
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“Coca-Cola” is translated as “可口可乐”. The translator by using free translation method translate it as “可口” which means “very pleasant to people’s taste”, because as for beverage, people would attach importance to the feeling of the taste. The second part is transliterated as “可乐”. The version “可口可乐” sufficiently implies the characteristic and function of the beverage: it surely can give you nice flavor and pleasure. The "Goldlion" is translated into "Jin Li Lai", which is a good translation. As we all know, "lion" means "Shi Zi"" in Chinese, but the pronunciation of "Lion" is similar to the Chinese "Shi", and "Shi" means "Lose" in Chinese, then the businessmen will think "lose" unlucky. When it is translated as "Jin Li Lai", it means wealth and good luck, and the consumers' psychology is met satisfyingly. Other examples of this type are as follows: “Nike”(耐克), “Unilever”(联合利华), “Uniqlo”(优衣库), “Revlon”(露华浓), “Volkswagen”(大众) and so on. (Fade Wang 2012,4); (Jing Yang 2018,5)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.5 Non-translation====<br />
Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand name, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5). <br />
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Due to the differences in Chinese and English, there are also some exceptions, when some brands enter a foreign culture, they choose to remain their original brand names, and this situation is called “non-translation” (Jing Yang,2018,5).--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leave the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)<br />
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On many occasions, some brands are made up of letters, numbers, or combination of the two, after entering a foreign market with their original forms, for eye-catching and they are usually easy to be remembered. For example, we are all familiar with the "999"medicines, "IBM" computers, "TCL" electronic products, "LG" Electronics, “iphone”, “ipad” and so on. Non-translation avoids using the equivalences in the target language and leaves the original ones untranslated. There are some brand names unifying intercultural communications by short forms which have great stability and maintain the original and profound meaning at any time. (Zhang Jin 2019,2)--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:34, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.<br />
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In the age of economic globalization, in order to occupy the international market and attract customers, brand name and its translation are very important. Brand name translation is not only a simple replacement between two languages, but also a cultural combination in two different languages.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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From this thesis, the following conclusions can be reached: <br />
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First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this paper. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.<br />
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First, brand name translation should follow the five principles mentioned in this chapter. If the brand name translation follows the principle of following the target customers' culture, it will be easier for customers to understand the product and buy it. If the brand name translation follows the principle of using concise words and the princple of grasping the characteristic of commodities, it will make consumers impressed. If the brand name translation follows the principle of considering the target consumers’ aesthetic preference and "Three Principles of Beauty", product sales will increase.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, brand name translation can use the five methods: transliteration, literal translation, free translation, combinative translation, non-translation.<br />
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Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. Brand name translation is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.<br />
<br />
<br />
Brand name relates to the image of the enterprise and business opportunities, which is vital for the source countries to further explore the international market. It is one of intercultural translations. Translators need to stand on a level of intercultural translations and have observant awareness of translation cross culture. At the same time, they need to respect every ethnic customs and use correct methods and skills of translation to make brand name into customers hearts. Thereby, manufacturers can promote consumption and improve the interests of enterprises.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Chen Yang, Wang Xiufeng. Translation of Chinese-English Trademark Names and their Cultural Connotations [J]. Comparative Research on Cultural Innovation, 2012,2(17):68-70.<br />
<br />
[2]Duan Wenpo, Guo Ru. Reappearance of "Three Beauty" in Trademark Translation and Analysis of Translation Methods [J]. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory Research and Practice, 2012,1(14):110-112.<br />
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[3]Fade Wang. An Approach to the Translation of Brand Names[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(9). <br />
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[4]Jing Yang. Study on Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Difference[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 International Conference on Arts, Linguistics, Literature and Humanities (ICALLH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[5]Liu Haiyan. Analysis of Chinese Translation Skills of English Trademark Names [J]. English Square (Academic Research),2013(09):8-11.<br />
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[6]Lu Wenchan. Studies on Chinese-English Brand Name Translation from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Communication[A]. Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 2nd International Conference on Social Sciences, Arts and Humanities (SSAH 2018)[C].Research Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:6.<br />
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[7]Wang Hengen. "Three Beauty" theory and Trademark Translation Analysis [J]. Success (Education),2009(03):274-275.<br />
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[8]Xuechuan He. The Study of Chinese-English Trademark Translation[J]. Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2018,8(5).<br />
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[9]Zhang Shu. Study on E-C translation of Brand names from the perspective of Skopos Theory[A]. Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering.Proceedings of 2018 5th International Conference on Education,Management and Computing Technology(ICEMCT 2018)[C].Institute of Management Science and Industrial Engineering: Computer Science and Electronic Technology International Society,2018:5.<br />
<br />
[10]Zhang Jin. Principles and Methods of Translating Chinese and English Trademark Names [J]. Campus English,2019(10):225-226.<br />
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[11]Zhang Wenfei. Further Discussion on Trademark Translation Strategies under Sanmei theory [J]. Campus English,2020(30):249-250.<br />
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[12]Li Jianzi (2018.7.11). Chinese translated names are popular! "Make up for Ever" arouses hot discussion. https://www.cbo.cn/article/id/45823.html<br />
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[13]Ogilvy Ao Mei (2017.5.2). Why should a good copywriter earn $100,000 a month? Look at these awesome translations. https://m.digitaling.com/articles/36896.html<br />
<br />
[14]Victor Mair (2019.10.19). "Revlon" in Chinese. https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=44732<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br />
<center>周思庆 Zhou Siqing, 202020080673 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br />
<br />
===Key word===<br />
culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
从目的论看李清照词中的文化负载词英译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3) Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida, Eugene A, 1993:25) As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of 【Li Qingzhao】, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br />
====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable childhood and received a good education, which paved the way for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talents in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for her.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)<br />
<br />
She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly with endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experiences didn't destroy her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.(Fu Guiying, 2013：3)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party. (Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
Generally, Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works mostly depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅). As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)<br />
<br />
To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.(Fu Guiying, 2013：4)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br />
====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br />
<br />
Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
<br />
In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)<br />
<br />
In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually gets rid of static linguistic typologies.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)<br />
<br />
In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence, a new situation or event or a new thing.(Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34) This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoator can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production”. Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br />
<br />
In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoided using the term “translation” and focused on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation was defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br />
<br />
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)<br />
<br />
In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br />
<br />
The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought to analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)<br />
<br />
Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balances the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.(Li Zhao, 2011:28)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 06:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br />
====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). <br />
<br />
Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. Many scholars have made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gave these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.” This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories. (Baker, 2004:21)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
<br />
Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)<br />
<br />
Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment. (Liao Huihua, 2010:9)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc. (Liao Huihua, 2010:10)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:18)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)<br />
<br />
<br />
Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrates the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflect the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo). (Han Zhouwen, 2014:23)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words=====<br />
<br />
Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.(Han Zhouwen, 2014:24)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br />
<br />
Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)<br />
<br />
Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which are also known as cultural gaps. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.(Fu Guiying, 2013:56)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Translation of ecological culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(1)梨花欲谢恐难禁。(《浣溪沙》）<br />
<br />
I am afraid pear blossoms cannot bear at all<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:25)<br />
<br />
O bright pods/ Of the pepper plant, you do not/ Need to bow and beg pardon./ I know you cannot hold back/ The passing day.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:66)<br />
<br />
Some plants and flowers have certain connotation in Chinese, which leaves the gap of further imagination. Snow is often compared to pear-blossom, which is a common metaphor in Chinese poetry, for example: “忽如一夜春风来，千树万树梨花开” is used to describe the beautiful snow-covered landscape. Here, Xu Yuanchong translated “梨花”into “pear blossoms”directly is to reproduce this often-used metaphor. Both the basic meaning and the cultural content have been well transmitted. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation to realize foreignization. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth adopted demestication and free translation and translate “梨花” as “the pepper plant” to achieve the skopos of translation. Here, “the pepper plant” is used to serve as a substitution because it is a New Year decoration which shows the passion of spring. This passionate image can contrast the depressed mood of Li Qingzhao for the fleeting time.(Liao Huihua, 2010:40)<br />
<br />
(2)试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧？（《如梦令》）<br />
<br />
I ask the maid rolling up the screen./ “The same crab-apple tree,”she says, “is seen”<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:34)<br />
<br />
I asked my maid as she rolled up the curtains,/ “Are the begonias still the same?”<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:44)<br />
<br />
In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounters twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintain the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, , sothe former uses foreignization but the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)<br />
<br />
In Chinese culture, “海棠” usually symbolizes bitter love. When people encounter twists and turns in love, they often use it to express the sad feeling of parting. Xu Yuanchong adopted literal translation and translated “海棠” into “crab-apple tree”, which maintains the traditional Chinese culture by employing foreignization. However, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into”begonias” by demestication, which makes this image more familiar to the target readers. The aim of Xu Yuanchong is to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners whereas the purpose of Kenneth Rexroth is to make the text be accepted by the taget readers, therefore, the former uses foreignization while the latter uses demestication.(Liao Huihua, 2010:41)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Translation of material culture-loaded words====<br />
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(3)常记溪亭日暮 (《如梦令》)<br />
<br />
I oft remember what a happy day/ We passed in creekside arbour when it glooming.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:38)<br />
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I remember in Hsi T’ing/ All the many times/ We got lost in the sunset.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:21)<br />
<br />
The meaning of “溪亭” can be interpreted as the name of a place in Ji’nan, Shandong Province or a pavilion by the river side. Therefore, different versions of this word appears according to the different understanding of this word. Xu Yuanchong translated it as “creekside arbour” by employing literal translation whereas Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “Hsi T’ing” according to its sound by using transliteration. The version “creekside arbour” is more acceptable by Chinese readers because it shows the basic meaning of this word. But the version “Hsi T’ing” is more understandable for foreigners because it’s just a name of a place.(Liao Huihua, 2010:48)<br />
<br />
(4)轻解罗裳，独上兰舟。(《一剪梅》)<br />
<br />
My silk robe doffed, I float/ Alone in orchid boat<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:49)<br />
<br />
I open/ My silk dress and float alone/ On the orchid boat.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,& Chung Ling,1979:56)<br />
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Generally speaking, “兰舟” refers to a small boat which is made of the trunk of a magnolia tree. <br />
However, both Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth translated “兰舟” into “orchid boat” in order to reproduce the poetic language of the original text. If they translate it according to the literal meaning, the beautiful poetic language cannot be reproduced in the target language. So, they associated the boat with orchid, a kind of beautiful flower to achieve “literariness”, making poetry as poetic as possible.(Zheng Yanhong. 2001:129)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Translation of social culture-loaded words====<br />
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(5)海燕未来人斗草。(《浣溪沙》)<br />
<br />
The swallows not yet come, a game of grass we play.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:55)<br />
<br />
People are gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:93)<br />
<br />
Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one need to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
Viewed literally, “斗草” is mostly interpreted as “to fight with grass”. But actually, it refers to a particular custom on the Dragon Boat Festival according to the notes in various anthologies of Li Qingzhao. On the Dragon Boat Festival (the fifth day of May), people usually participate a kind of game in which every one needs to gather flowers and plants to be the winner. Xu Yuanchong knows that “斗草” is a traditional game, so he adopted literal translation as “a game of grass we play”, which is direct and correct. While Kenneth Rexroth adopted amplification and translated it as”gathering wild flowers and herbs in the meadow” in order to create concrete scene for the target reader. Generally speaking, both the two versions realized the skopos of translating the cultural connotation of “斗草” by adopting different translation strategies.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(6)佳节又重阳(《醉花阴》)<br />
<br />
The Double Ninth comes now again.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:54)<br />
<br />
Again it is the Ninth of the Ninth Month.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:47)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival is coming around, the poetess feel sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event is translated, but the connotation of this festival is lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thinks it is not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)<br />
<br />
“重阳” is a traditional Chinese festival on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month. People would always miss their families and relatives on this day every year. Here, when this festival was coming around, the poetess felt sad and lonely because of the separation from her husband, Zhao Mingcheng. In Xu Yuanchong’s version, he translated it literally as The Double Ninth and made a annotation to explain the cultural meaning of this festival to make target readers know the background information about this term. The unique feature of the ST is fully conveyed in the TT through foreignization. The skopos of Xu Yuanchong is to maintain the original feature of Chinese culture as much as possible, so he adopted foreignization to achieve this goal. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it into “the Ninth of the Ninth Month”. Although the time of the event was translated, but the connotation of this festival was lost. Sometimes literal translation for words with rich connotation can cause cultural loss. Here, Rexroth omitted the cultural meaning because he thought it was not necessary to add the burden of understanding the text. In this way, the target reader can easily understand the TT within their own knowledge.(Liao Huihua, 2010:49)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Translation of religious culture-loaded words====<br />
<br />
(7)仿佛梦魂归帝所 (《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
In leaf-like boat my soul to God’s abode would fly.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:62)<br />
<br />
I am rapt away to the place of the Supreme/ And hear the words of Heaven.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:33)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is be the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)<br />
<br />
As we all known, Chinese culture is much influenced by Taoism whereas western culture is much affected by Christianity. Here, “帝所” refers to the place of the Jade Emperor. Because western people are not familiar with the myths of Taoist culture, here “God” is the substitution of “帝” in Xu Yuanchong’s version by literal translation. In contrast, Kenneth Rexroth translated it as “the place of the Supreme”, which means the Sovereign. We can see the religious devotion of the ST is neglected. To conclude, Xu Yuanchong’s version is more faithful to the original text because he aims to introduce Chinese culture to foreigners. Kenneth Rexroth translated it without Taoist culture because he aims to remove cultural barriers and make target readers easier to understand the meaning of the text.(Li Qing, 2005:148)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(8)造化可能偏有意，故叫明月玲珑地。(《渔家傲》)<br />
<br />
You find a special favor in Creator’s eye,<br />
<br />
The moon caresses you with pure beams from on high.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:76)<br />
<br />
Making the bright moon shine splendid on your curving flesh.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” is translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image is deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aims to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target reader.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)<br />
<br />
In Xu Yuanchong’s version, “造化” was translated directly into “Creator” but in Kenneth Rexroth’s version, this image was deleted. In China, “上天”（heaven）is the governor of the universe under the influence of Taoism and Buddhism. “造化” is a unique concept in Taoist culture. Xu Yuanchong aimed to maintain the Taoist culture and introduce it to foreigners. However, in western countries, Christianity is the mainstream of religious belief. Therefore, Kenneth Rexroth neglected this image to make the TT more acceptable to western people who believes in Christianity. In summary, Xu Yuanchong focused more on the culture of the ST whereas Kenneth Rexroth payed more attention on the acceptability of the target readers.(Liao Huihua, 2010:45)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.5 Translation of linguistic culture-loaded words====<br />
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(9) 寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清， 凄凄惨惨戚戚。(《声声慢》)<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss;<br />
<br />
I know not what it is.<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer.<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:81)<br />
<br />
Search. Search. Seek. Seek.<br />
<br />
Cold. Cold. Clear. Clear.<br />
<br />
Sorrow. Sorrow. Pain. Pain.<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth & Chung Ling (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:78)<br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. we can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚” sound quite similar or even the same, really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth use the literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) <br />
<br />
Tune: Slow, Slow, Song is recognized as the representative of reduplication. The use of seven sequential reduplicative words add the powerfulness of the miserable tone. We can find some similarities between these reduplicative words such as “清清”, “凄凄” and “戚戚”. They sound quite similar or even the same, which really strengthen the melodious effect of the language. Xu Yuanchong adopted free translation in order to reproduce the beautiful artistic conception in the ST. The form of reduplication is neglected but the sad atmosphere that the reduplicarive words create is reproduced. Rexroth used literal translation to imitate the original reduplicative words. The repetition of the same word reproduces the sound of reduplication in ST, and words with one syllable are also very similar to Chinese character. But the sense is not well conveyed. The target readers fail to experience the painful atmosphere and the great sadness of the poetess in the TT.(Li Qing, 2005:149) --[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 07:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
(10) 小风疏雨萧萧地 (《孤雁儿》)<br />
<br />
A grizzling wind and drizzling rain<br />
<br />
—translated by Xu Yuanchong (Xu Yuanchong,2003:90)<br />
<br />
Small wind, fine rain, hsiao, Hsiao<br />
<br />
—translated by Kenneth Rexroth (Kenneth Rexroth,1979:56)<br />
<br />
In the ST, “萧萧” is a reduplicative word in order to foil the depressed and sad atmosphere. It is difficult to reproduce this unique structure in the TT. We can see in Xu Yuanchong’s version, he omitted the original form and tried to reproduce the beautiful sound and sense. The rhymes of “grizzling” and “drizzling” are the same. This internal rhyme can make compensation for the loss of reduplication. And the strong sad mood is fully conveyed. Here, foreignization is employed. Kenneth Rexroth focused on the reproduction of the form, so he adopted transliteration to maintain the form of reduplicative word. Although the sound and form are beautiful, in this way, the sad cultural conception may lose at the same time.(Li Qing, 2005:75)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, ti still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded word are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)<br />
<br />
In this paper, the present author studies the translation of cultural-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry from the perspective of Scopos theory. By contrast analysis, we can find that Xu Yuanchong and Kenneth Rexroth adopted different translation strategies: the former adopted foreignization whereas the latter adopted domestication because of their different translation skopos. Xu Yuanchong devoted himself to introduce excellent Chinese culture to foreigners and Kenneth Rexroth aimed to make target reader better understand the TT. This study still has some shortcomings. Although this paper can shed some light on the study of culture-loaded word, it still has some limitations. If more samples of culture-loaded words are taken for the analysis, the study could be more comprehensive and systematic. Thus, the English translation of the culture-loaded words of her Ci poetry based on Skopos theory deserves further study. The author believes that wider cases will be involved in this study.((Liao Huihua, 2010:64)--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 08:00, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nord, Christiane. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Reiss, Katharina. (1971). ''Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations: Categories and Criteria for Translation Quality Assessment''[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
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*Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. (1984). ''Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
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*Rexroth, K. & Chung L. (1979). ''Ching-chao: Complete Poems''[M]. New York: New Directions.<br />
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*Vermeer, Hans J. A. (1996). ''Scopos Theory of Translation''[M]. Heidelberg: TEXT con TEXT-Ver-lag.<br />
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*Fu Guiying 付桂英. (2013). “三美”理论指导下李清照词英译的美感再现[Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Three-Beauty Principle][D].上海:上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
* Han Zhouwen 韩周文. (2014). 《生死疲劳》中文化负载词的英译研究[A Study on the Translation of the Culture-loaded Terms of Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out:A perspective of Skopos Theory]——以目的论为视角[D].福州:福建师范大学.<br />
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*Li Qing 郦青. (2005). 李清照词英译对比研究[Contrast Study on LI Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].上海:华东师范大学.<br />
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*Li Zhao 李照. (2001). 目的论视角下的文化负载词翻译——试评林语堂的《吾国与吾民》[Translation of Culture-loaded Words Based on Scopos Theory -Comments on Lin Yutang's "Our Country and Our People"]. [D].北京:首都师范大学.<br />
<br />
* Liao Huihua 廖慧华. (2010). 从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[A Comparative Study on the Translatioon of Culture-loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory][D].衡阳:南华大学.<br />
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*Wang Zhongwen 王仲闻. (2019). 李清照集校注 [Annotation on the Collection of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2006). 翻译与艺术[Translation and Art]. [M].北京:五洲传播出版社.<br />
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*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 宋词三百首[Three Hundred Ci Poems of the Song Dynasty]. [M].北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br />
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*Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003). 文学与翻译[Literature and Translation]. [M].北京:北京大学出版社.<br />
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*Yang Jian 杨健. (2000). 李清照词英译研究[English Translation Studies on Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [D].南宁:广西大学.<br />
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*Zhang Chenxiang 张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[Scopos Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. [M].长沙:湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
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*Zheng Yanhong 郑燕虹. (2001). 风筝之线——评王公红、钟玲翻译的李清照诗词[The String of the Kite -Comments on Kenneth Rexroth and Chung Ling's Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry]. [J].外语学刊,160(3):125-129.<br />
<br />
==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei 202070080592 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br />
<br />
Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br />
<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br />
<br />
By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br />
<br />
Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
domestication; foreignization; ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br />
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沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br />
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通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br />
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因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br />
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===Chapter One Introduction===<br />
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With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the "going out" of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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===Chapter Two Literature Review===<br />
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====2.1 A Study on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''====<br />
For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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=====2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version=====<br />
Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title "floating life" derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?” (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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The remaining four chapters of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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=====2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang=====<br />
In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence. (Shen Fu 2019)<br />
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====2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====<br />
Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
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=====2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. First, Mona Baker claims that "the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' ". (Mona Baker 2000,21)<br />
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This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language. (Bao Huinan 2001,10)<br />
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In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as "culture-specific items" and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that "Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text". (Zhang Nanfeng 2004,19)<br />
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From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br />
To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words===== <br />
Eugene Nida considers that "if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture". (Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi，2002)<br />
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In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words. This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life=====<br />
Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. (Li Yi 2013,43-44)<br />
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===Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
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====3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication====<br />
Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Free Translation===== <br />
Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====3.1.1.1 Paraphrase===== <br />
When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br />
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3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br />
Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br />
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“未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br />
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====3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization====<br />
Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Transliteration===== <br />
Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br />
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3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation=====<br />
Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br />
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4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br />
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“Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br />
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“挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br />
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====3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies==== <br />
In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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===Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''===<br />
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====4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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======4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br />
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6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br />
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The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br />
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7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br />
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7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br />
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In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br />
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======4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words======<br />
The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br />
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8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br />
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This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br />
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====4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words====<br />
In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br />
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9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br />
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“San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br />
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10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br />
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10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br />
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“篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br />
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=====4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018：13）<br />
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11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br />
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The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br />
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=====4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words=====<br />
The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
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12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。（沈复，2018：12）<br />
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12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br />
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In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br />
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13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br />
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13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br />
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“月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br />
<br />
===Chapter Five Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well. As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent. (Eugene, A. Nida. 2001)<br />
<br />
In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries. (Xiong Bing 2014,82-88)<br />
<br />
In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words. (Li Yi 2013, 43-44)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Lawrence, Venuti. (2004). The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br />
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Eugene, A. Nida. (2001). Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br />
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Eugene, A. Nida. (2004). Toward a Science of Translating [M]. ''Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press''.<br />
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Mona, Baker. (2000). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. ''Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press''.<br />
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Bao Huinan 包惠南. (2001). 文化语境与语言翻译[M] [Cultural Context and Language Translation]. ''北京：中国对外翻译出版公司'' Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company.<br />
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Feng Li 冯丽. (2013). 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J] [A Brief Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Culture]. ''漯河职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Luohe Vocational and Technical College (3) 116-117.<br />
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Hu Zhuanglin, Jiang Wangqi 胡壮麟，姜望琪. (2002). 语言学高级教程[M] [Advanced Course in Linguistics]. ''北京：北京大学出版社'' Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
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Liu Aili 刘艾莉. (2015). 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA] [A Study on the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Fortress Besieged'' from the Perspective of Cognitive Translation]. ''广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies.<br />
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Liang Linxin, Xu Mingwu 梁林歆，许明武. (2017). 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J] [A Study on the Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' at home and abroad: Review and Prospect]. ''外语教育研究'' Research on Foreign Language Education (4) 53-59.<br />
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Li Yi 李懿. (2013). 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J] [Translation of cultural Words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (11) 43-44.<br />
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Shen Fu 沈复. (2019). 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (Biligual Edition)]. ''湖南：湖南文艺出版社'' Hunan: Hunan Literature and Art Publishing House.<br />
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Shen Fu 沈复. (2018). 《浮生六记》[M] [''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''浙江：浙江工商大学出版社'' Zhejiang: Zhejiang Gongshang University Press.<br />
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Wu Hualing 吴华玲. (2010). 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J] [The Aesthetic Representation of Lin Yutang's Doctrine of the Mean in his Translation -- A Case Study of Lin's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'']. ''云梦学刊'' Cloud Dream Journal (3) 113-116.<br />
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Wang Weiwei 王维维. (2012). 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J] [Analysis of Lin Yutang's Translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' from the Perspective of Hypotaxis and Parataxis]. ''英语广场·学术研究'' English Square Academic Research (10) 46-47.<br />
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Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J] [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation (3) 82-88.<br />
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Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2004). 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J] [Review on the Translation Strategies of Cultural Items by Akerasie]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translation.<br />
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Zhu Yitian 朱怡天. (2013). 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA] [Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' by Lin Yutang]. ''上海外国语大学硕士学位论文'' Master's Thesis of Shanghai International Studies University.<br />
<br />
==How to Keep "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 202070080604 Qu Miao 【专业 is missing】==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Idiom is a form of expression natural to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the translation of idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost in the translation, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems so there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
<br />
Idiom is a form of expression naturally to a language, person, or group of people. With rich cultural information, Chinese idioms carry the characteristics of Chinese language and culture. In the process od translating idoms from Chinese to English, "Chineseness" in idioms is often lost, since Chinese and English belong to different language systems,there exist great cultural differences between them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English, it is advisable to translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text is kept in translated text as much as possible. <br />
<br />
This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. And the article ends with the conclusion that in idiom translation from Chinese to English,translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication, so that "Chineseness" in the original text can be kept in translated text as much as possible. --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foregnizing; domestication<br />
<br />
idiom translation; cultural deficiency; cultural differences; foreignization; domestication--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===汉语习语英译如何保持"中国性"===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。（王涛，2018，32）<br />
<br />
本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在中文习语的翻译过程中，译者应该根据特定语境的需要，在异化和归化之间找到一个平衡点，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译；文化缺失；文化差异；异化；归化<br />
<br />
=== Introduction===<br />
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargon and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they are produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are very national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)<br />
<br />
An idiom is a set phrase of two or more words that means something different from the literal meaning of the individual words．Generally speaking, idioms include colloquialisms, allegorical sayings, proverbs, slang, jargons and so on. The composition and semantics of idioms are very conventional, which is inseparable from the social and cultural background of idioms. Language is the carrier of culture, and idioms are an essential part of language. Idioms are deeply rooted in the social and cultural background where they were produced, and fully reflect the geographical environment, customs, religious beliefs and social, political, economic, and cultural systems in this background. Therefore, idioms are national and cultural. (Wang Tao, 2018, 32)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and can enhance communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasing important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied by idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
As an effective means to promote cross-cultural communication, translation is a bridge connecting different languages and thus enhance the communication between different cultures. As the essence of national culture, the translation of idioms plays an increasingly important role in promoting cultural exchanges, and the biggest difficulty in translation is how to deal with the cultural conventions of source idioms. For translators, idiom translation must not only be fluent and express meaning precisly, but also realize the transfer of cultural connotations implied in idioms. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have the characteristics of concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for achieving the most perfect state of communication between China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people of different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
<br />
Idioms in Chinese are the carriers that convey the rich connotations of the Chinese language. They have some characteristics such as, concise language, brilliant meaning, typical connotation, and wide range of uses. Since idioms are the most quintessential and typical part of Chinese culture and the shining pearl in Chinese culture, idiom translation is of great significance for the communication between the China and the West. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there exist cultural deficiencies in the translation of Chinese idioms, which makes it difficult for people in different cultural backgrounds to establish coherent and unobstructed semantics when communicating. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation form four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation method, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.<br />
<br />
The first chapter of this article is an overview of Chinese idiom translation, analyzing the problems of Chinese idioms translation and the importance of keeping "Chineseness" in idiom translation. In the second chapter, this article mainly discusses the reasons for cultural deficiency in Chinese idiom translation from four aspects: different emotional orientation, historical and cultural background, religious beliefs and ways of thinking. The third chapter is a comparative analysis of foreignization and domestication translation in idiom translation. This chapter begins with a brief introduction of foreignization and domestication translation methods, and then compares the application of the two methods in idiom translation. At last, this article ends with the conclusion that translators should, according to the needs of a specific context, find a balance between foreignization and domestication.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter One An Overview of the Idiom Translation form Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulate. From the expression content of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
<br />
Chinese idioms are mainly created by the folk and widely circulated. From the expression of Chinese idioms, it has a large connotation, rich and profound content, hence it is surely informative with a good expression effect. As for language structure, it is usually characterized by popularity and colloquialism. In view of the current situation of the translation of Chinese idioms, the cultural connotation is obviously missing due to the influence of cultural forms. Idiom is a window for foreigners to understand Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of significance to keep Chinese characteristics in the translation of Chinese idioms as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:00, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 The Problems of Idiom Translation form Chinese to English ====<br />
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting common and commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)<br />
<br />
Chinese idioms involve many contents and cover a wide range of knowledge. There is no doubt that this colloquial language has the characteristics of popularity, reflecting commonly used factors in daily life, so that the meaning of Chinese idioms can be fully expressed.Chinese idiom is a kind of inheritance of folk culture. In the process of translation, it is affected by its own cultural form and historical factors, and there is a certain cultural deficiency, or "loss of Chineseness", in the translation of Chinese colloquial language. (Liu Ning, 2016, 81)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The manifestation of cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the interpretation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
<br />
The cultural deficiency in the translation of Chinese idioms is mainly due to the errors in the translation of the inherent meanings conveyed by the Chinese idioms, and the discrepancy in the intrinsic values between the translator and the original Chinese idioms after translation. As a result, the inheritance and development of culture are hindered, and there is a lack of comprehensive understanding in the process of foreign translation. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The emergence of this phenomenon is a manifestation of cultural deficiency, and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators leads to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)<br />
<br />
The emergence of this phenomenon is the manifestation of cultural deficiency and the contradiction of cultural mechanism orientation between readers and translators, which lead to the emergence of cultural deficiency.On the basis of the semantic meaning of the original text, the translation of Chinese colloquial language is in accordance with the linguistic environment and the operational environment of grammar. The translation process emphasizes the cultural inheritance and the expression of intrinsic value.It is precisely the collision between different cultures that causes the phenomenon of culture loss. (Liu Ning, 2016, 82)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 The Importance of Keeping "Chineseness" in Chinese Idiom Translation to English====<br />
Idioms are the condensed and quintessence of human language. As the treasures of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If it is separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)<br />
<br />
Idioms are the quintessence of human language. As the treasure of national culture, they carry the cultural information such as geography, history, religion and living habits of a country or a nation. Translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity, which conveys cultural characteristics. If separated from the culture of a nation, translation would miss its due role. (Wang Tao, 2018, 33)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is a representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese Idiom Translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s and 1990s, translation studies have ushered in a new stage, namely the shift of translation. Susan Bassnett is the representative of the school of "cultural translation". Her view of cultural translation emphasizes the special status of culture in translation -- as language and culture are closely related, culture, rather than text, should be regarded as the basic unit of translation. In short, translation is by no means an act of pure language. It is deeply rooted in the culture in which the language is located. Translation is the communication within and between cultures, and translation equivalence is the cultural function equivalence between the source language and the target language. In a word, it is significant to keep Chinese characteristics in Chinese idiom translation to English as much as possible to spread Chinese culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Chapter Two The Reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English===<br />
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds. The cultural differences between the two are huge, which makes the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to another. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the Loss of "Chineseness" in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)<br />
<br />
Chinese and English have completely different cultural backgrounds so that they have large cultural differences, which make the Chinese and Western people have huge understanding barriers in language exchanges, especially idioms in traditional Chinese culture. Since idioms contains rich and profound cultural background knowledge, translators will inevitably encounter the problem of cultural deficiency in the process of idiom translation, transplanting one culture to the other one. The problem of cultural deficiency in idiom translation occurs frequently. The reasons for the loss of "Chineseness" in idiom translation from Chinese to English are mainly reflected in the following four aspects. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 51)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Different Emotional Orientation====<br />
Although there are many words that refer to the same thing in Chinese and English, the word may mean differently in different language contexts, for the same word may bear different associative meanings. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding to color words. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role.For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes worn by Judas, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
<br />
For example, Chinese people and Westerns often have different understanding words about colors. The semantic associations of the word "yellow" are different in English and Chinese cultures. In Chinese culture, yellow is the symbol of imperial power and status, so it plays an important role in Chinese culture. For example, "黄袍加身"（the yellow robe adds the body） refers to being an emperor.However, in modern Chinese, the word "黄" often has a derogatory meaning, which means lewdness and depravity. It forms many new words with other words and is widely used.For example: "黄色影片", "黄色书籍" and so on, most of them are related to the concept of sex. Nevertheless, yellow represents justice, wisdom and glory in Western culture.In Western art St. Peter is dressed in yellow.Of course, yellow also has a bad symbolic meaning. It reminds people of the color of the clothes Judas dressed, who betrayed Jesus. Therefore, yellow can be used to express "timid, unreliable, jealous, sensationalist, low-level sensationalism" and other derodic meanings. But in English the word "yellow" doesn't have an obscene meaning. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and the Chinese nation called themselves the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, an can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)<br />
<br />
Chinese people has regarded the "dragon" as the symbol of the nation since ancient times, and they call themselves as the "descendant of the dragon". However, in western culture, "dragon" is a lizard with scales, wings and tails, which can breathe fire. It is a symbol of evil and cruelty. Therefore, if the Chinese idiom "望子成龙" was translated into "hope one’s children to become a dragon", it would lead to great misunderstanding. But we translate it into "hope one’s children will have a bright future", foreigners may not get the metaphoric meaning of the word "龙". This is what we said the loss of "Chineseness", namely, cultural deficiency. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 52)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Different Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)<br />
<br />
Chinese culture has a long history and bears a profound and sophisticated cultural nature. As the essence of Chinese culture, Chinese idioms often contain many historical allusions. And idioms originated from literary quotation or historical events should not be conceived literally because they have deeper meanings. Without cultural background knowledge, it is not easy to understand this kind of idioms, not to mention to translate them. (Wang Tao, 2018, 114)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said, zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him conquer the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappy. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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For instance, the Chinese idiom "三顾茅庐", which means repeatedly requesting somebody to take up a responsible post, derives from a historical story of Zhuge Liang. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhuge Liang lived in a thatched cottage in Longzhong. Xu Shu, a counsellor, recommended zhuge Liang to Liu Bei and said that zhuge Liang was a genius. In order to ask Zhuge Liang to help him win the war, Liu Bei went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei to ask him to leave the mountain. However, Zhuge Liang was not at home, so Liu Bei had to leave his name and went back unhappily. A few days later, Liu Bei learned that Zhuge Liang had returned and went with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei against the wind and snow.But Zhuge Liang went out again, and Liu Bei and his men left again. Liu Bei went to Longzhong for the third time and finally met Zhuge Liang.In the conversation, Zhuge Liang made a very incisive analysis of the situation, which impressed Liu Bei. Liu Bei visited the thatched cottage three times, which greatly moved Zhuge Liang and he promised to go out to help him. Zhuge Liang helped Liu Bei win many victories and laid the foundation of the state of the Han dynasty for him. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This idiom comes form this story.If we just translate "三顾茅庐" into "repeatedly to request somebody to take up a responsible post” or "have visited the cottage thrice in succession to call on somebody repeatedly", foreigners would not get the allusion of it, hence the Chinese characteristics is lost somehow. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Likewise, the idioms like "班门弄斧" and "卧薪尝胆" are all relevant to some historical figures, who are known by all Chinese people but unfamiliar to foreigners. Only when they have learned something about Zhuge Liang, Lu Ban, and Gou Jian can they get the meaning of these idioms. And it is the profound historical and cultural backgrounds that make the Chinese idioms hard to translate. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43)<br />
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====2.3 Different religious beliefs====<br />
As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also express language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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As a special form of human culture, religion is produced and developed almost synchronously with human culture, and all ethnic groups have their own religious beliefs and cultures. Religion not only exerts a certain influence on people's values and ways of thinking, but also on language expression. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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In the late Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism was introduced into China, and it has a history of more than one thousand years in China. Accompanied with the introduction of Buddhism came some idioms of Buddhism or related to Buddhism, such as "放下屠刀，立地成佛", "苦海无边，回头是岸", and "醍醐灌顶". Most Chinese people believe in Buddhism and Taoism, while most Westerners believe in Christianity and Catholicism. In the context of two different religious cultures, translators often meet translation difficulties. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife that actually kills. The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds and all delusions, delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who put down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the original Buddhist factors. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)<br />
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Take "放下屠刀，立地成佛" as an example. The idiom "放下屠刀" (lay down the butcher's knife) does not refer to the butcher's knife(lethal weapon). The "butcher's knife" here refers to malice, evil deeds ,all delusions, confusion, differentiation and persistence. The sentence "放下屠刀，立地成佛" (Put down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot) means: the one who puts down delusion, distinction, persistence, is the Buddha! The essence of "butcher knife" is "man's confusion to himself". Many translation versions of this idiom are given, like "A killer becomes a Buddha at the moment he drops the knife to kill." and "A wrongdoer may become a man of virtue once he does good."; however, these versions both neglect the Buddhist factors of original idiom. If the cultural connotation is not expressed in translation, westerners would feel confused while reading. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 Different Ways of Thinking====<br />
As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the role of rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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As for the characteristics of the deep structure of Chinese culture, from Hager to Derrida, the western academic circle has formed a prejudice that China has no rationality and no philosophy. Previous Chinese scholars have found some similarities and differences between Chinese and Western cultures in material, institutional and ideological aspects, but they have neglected the rationality in the Chinese and Western cultures. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reason has different contents and categories. Different categories of reason make up different rational structures. Although the outbreak of rationality is the common characteristic of Chinese and Western civilizations in the axial age, their rational structure is not the same.The rational structure of the ancient West includes logical reason, natural reason, practical reason, and aesthetic reason, but it lacks historical reason. Its rational structure is dominated by pure reason, while logical reason occupies a dominant position. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The rational structure of China includes historical reason, natural reason and moral reason. It has logical thought which has not developed into logical reason. Among which historical reason occupies a dominant position. Logical reason dominates western thinking, while historical reason leads Chinese thinking. This difference in rational structure is the fundamental reason for the difference in Chinese and Western thinking. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 66)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC) sorry,这一段忘记粘贴复制，直接改动了<br />
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The difference between Chinese civilization and Western civilization lies in the difference of rational structure. The difference between the western civilization and the Chinese civilization lies in the difference of dichotomy.Some of the differences between Chinese and Western dichotomies can be traced back to the differences between Chinese and Western languages. Different language features are the source of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. (Jia Yunpeng, 2015, 66)<br />
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===Chapter Three Comparative Analysis of foreignization and domestication Translation in Idiom Translation===<br />
As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite serious. In order to induce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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As a literary form, Chinese idioms have many inherent and connotative meanings. In the process of translation, the phenomenon of loss of Chinese characteristics is quite severe. In order to reduce the loss of Chinese characteristics in translation to minimum, we should choose the appropriate translation method. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated repectively by domestication and foreignization method and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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Domestication and foreignization translation have always been the focus of debate in the field of translation. The essence of the contradiction lies in the proposition that the expression form of the original language introduced into the target language or the idiomatic expression in the target language. This article, from the perspective of domestication and foreignization, compares the different effects of the text translated by domestication and foreignization methods repectively and discusses the way to keep "Chineseness" in idiom translation form Chinese to English. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 A Brief Introduction of foreignization and domestication Translation====<br />
Foreignization and domestication Translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). <br />
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Foreignization and domestication translation are systematically put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication translation is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it reduces the difficulty of the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Domestication is to transform the foreign element in one culture into something familiar in another culture.It puts aside the sentence and image of the original text, but grasps its pragmatic meaning. From the target language and the original text of the pragmatic meaning of the same way of expression.Strictly speaking, domestication is a revision of the culture of the target language. However, it is easier for the readers to accept the translation text at the expense of the large culture contained information as well as the appreciation and understanding of the meaning of heterogeneous culture to some extent. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the contrary, foreignization is to transform the information from one culture and language to another culture and language in a way that remains almost as it is. It endows the target language with new linguistic elements and also novel and unique forms of expression, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of two heterogeneous cultures and languages, so as to promote their mutual integration. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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In his book, Venuti makes a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and reveals that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti puts it bluntly that his purpose writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) <br />
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In his book, Venuti made a critical study of western translation from the early 17th century to the present, and revealed that the strategy of "smooth translation" has always been dominant in the history of Western translation. The fundamental reason is to form a norm of foreign literature in English based on the western ideology. Venuti put it bluntly that his purpose of writing this book was to go against tradition, namely, to advocate the visibility of translators. Venuti opposed domestication and advocated foreignization in tradition. This translation strategy, he says, can be called "resistance". (Venuti, 1995,105) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tamper with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language. "Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)<br />
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Such translation not only avoids smooth translation, but also challenges the culture of the target language, because smooth translation tampers with the foreign text with the ethnocentrism of the culture of the target language.<br />
"Resistance" means resistance to the ethnocentrism of the target language culture, so that the translator is no longer invisible in translation. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 53)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida is the representative of the domestication translation. He put forward the concept of functional equivalence, "The relationship between the target receptor and the target text should be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text", in order to eliminate the differences in language and culture in the translation. (Nida, 1993)<br />
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====3.2 The Application of domestication Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication translation maximizes the dominant position of the target language and makes the target language close to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately interpret the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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The ideal of Nida's domestication translation is the closest natural equivalent. Domestication maximizes the dominant position of the target language and brings the target language closer to readers. It tries to overcome cultural differences to realize the equivalent translation. Due to the cultural differences between different languages, translators are required to have a keen sense of culture and ability to fully and accurately tranlate the national psychology and cognitive mode of the source culture, so that they can reproduce the profound cultural connotations of the source language. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication method will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; another is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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Generally speaking, idioms are words with rich cultural connotations. Undoubtedly, the choice of foreignization and domestication methods will produce different results: whether the culture of the source language can be preserved, and to what extent can be preserved. If we choose domestication method, we should realize that there are two premises to distinguish it: one is the domestication under the principle of fidelity, which is prescriptive and centered on the source language; the other is domestication under the premise of non-faithfulness, which is descriptive and oriented by the translation into Chinese. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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That is to say, domestication translation can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)<br />
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That is to say, domestication method can be divided two way. One is a faithful principle under domestication, we can refer it as equivalent translation. While using this method to translate idioms, translators try to look for expressions from target language which has the same semantic effect as that of the source language, thus to make the translation natural, direct and vivid, improving the readability and acceptability of the translation. For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 42)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the Chinese idiom "时间就是金钱" is translated as "Time is money", and "事实胜于雄辩" as "Facts speak louder than words". The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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The other is a loyal premise of domestication, which is similar to free translation. When the cultural characteristics of source language idioms expressed cannot be transformed through literal translation, translators should adopt free translation, not only to convey the deep meaning of the source language, but also to reflect characteristics of the target language, realizing the harmonious development of the two different languages. For instance, "胆小如鼠" is translated into "as timid as a hare" instead of "as timid as a mouse". (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. (He Fang, 2019, 171)<br />
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Another example of the application of domestication is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by David Hawkes. There are a large number of idioms in the novel, and Hawkes generally translated them by using the method of domestication. For the sentence "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃。"(曹雪芹 165) , Hawkes translated it into " The toad on the ground wanting to eat the goose in the sky" [Hawkes, 2012, 242]. Here, Hawkes replaced "swan"(天鹅) with "goose"(鹅), since the associative meanings of "swan" and "goose" are completely different in western culture. <br />
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====3.3 The Application of foreignization Translation in Idiom Translation====<br />
====3.3 The Application of foreignization translation in Idiom Translation====--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Foreignization translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation, accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) <br />
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Foreignizing translation means that, under the pressure of cultural value deviationism, the reader is brought into the context of the translation and accepts the language and cultural differences of the foreign language text. It takes the source language culture as the destination, adopting the source language expression methods that correspond to the original author, approaching the source language text author, and conveying the original content most truthfully. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 43) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated as "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieve equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)<br />
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For example, if "一箭双雕" is translated into "kill two hawks with one arrow" instead of "kill two birds with one stone", the cultural information of the source language would be preserved to the greatest extent, so that the different cultural connotations can be truly presented to readers. The differences in the culture of the source language are reflected, allowing readers to experience foreign cultures through their own cultural cultivation. The foreignization translation method reflects a trend of cultural integration, allowing the strong culture and the weak culture to develop in the collision, and finally achieves equal dialogue in the continuous exchange. It not only promotes cultural exchanges, but also contributes to the enrichment and development of the target language culture. (Jiang Lei, 2003, 54)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, another example of the application of foreignization is the translation version of the famous Chinese novel 《红楼梦》 by Yang Xianyi(杨宪益). Contrary to Hawkes’s translation, Yang adopted the method of foreignization while confronting with cultural factors in translating. As for "癞蛤蟆想天鹅吃"[曹雪芹, 1791, 165], Yang translated it into "A toad hankering for a tatste of swan"(Yang Xianyi, 1978). Here, Yang keeps the "Chineseness" in source language through literal translation. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
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Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated simply separately. In many cases, the use of the two methods is restricted by the pragmatic environment and must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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Choosing domestication or foreignization is not a question of black and white, but a question of grasping "degree", or finding a balance. Translation involves the pragmatic rules of two different languages and is a cross-linguistic and cross-cultural communicative activity. Foreignization and domestication shouldn’t be treated separately. In many cases, the two methods must be combined. It is impossible for a translator to choose only one method to translate a work and use it to the end. The key to the translation of idioms is to grasp a balance point between domestication and foreignization. If we simply emphasize the readability of the translated version, we may ignore the cultural characteristics of the source language, leading to excessive domestication and loss of the culture of the source language. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection method of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
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However, if we only focus on the transmission of the cultural information of the source language, it may damage the readability of the translated text and lead to excessive foreignization. The loss of readability of the translated text will eventually lead to the failure of the translator's efforts. The selection of foreignization and domestication should be a dynamic mechanism, flexible and changing with the change of corresponding influencing factors. Due to the need of specific context, the same idiom may be translated in different ways. In the process of idiom translation, whether to adopt domestication or foreignization, communicative purpose and pragmatic environment all affect the choice of methods. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of Dream in Red Chamber is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different chooses of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)<br />
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For example, the primary purpose of Yang’s translation of ''Dream in Red Chamber'' is to spread Chinese culture; therefore, he mainly adopted the method of foreignization in idiom translation, so that the "Chineseness" in idioms could be kept as much as possible. And Hawkes mainly used domestication in his translation, because he wanted to reduce the difficulties of reading, making it easier for western readers to accept the novel. So we can see, different communicative purposes lead to different choices of translation methods. (He Fang, 2019, 172)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)<br />
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Fomestication and foreignization have always been the focus of controversy in translation circles. The essence of the contradiction is to advocate the introduction of the original expression in the target language or the authentic expression of the target language. The article believes that the contradiction between the two is not irreconcilable under normal circumstances. In fact, mere foreignization or domestication cannot appear alone in translation. The balance between the two should be sought as much as possible on the premise of loyalty to translation duties. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 65)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignization translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)<br />
<br />
One of the purposes of translation is to spread the source language culture, promoting cultural exchange and integration as well as the diversified development of the world. The foreignizing translation method can reserve enough space for readers to appreciate and analyze foreign cultures. (Qiu Nengsheng, 2019, 56)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignization translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) <br />
<br />
The translator should have enough confidence in readers when adopting foreignization strategies, and believe that readers can give full play to their imagination to understand foreign countries on the basis of comparing their own and foreign culture. The ultimate goal of translation is to promote cross-cultural communication. It is necessary to consciously retain relevant cultural factors in the translation process. Simply using domestication translation will inevitably hide or even distort the cultural connotation of the source language. In order to preserve and spread the source language culture, the use of foreignizing translation methods should be emphasized when translating idioms rich in cultural meaning. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000, 12) --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the foreignization strategy has its limits. Regardless of whether for interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
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However, the foreignization strategy has its limitations. Regardless of interpretation or translation, it does not mean that all idioms containing cultural factors should be preserved. Information transmission and cultural transmission are equally important in the translation process. One cannot lose sight of the other. Idioms convey a country’s culture brilliantly. (这个brilliantly这里的表达不知道怎么改）(Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and must pay attention to the fact that the translation must achieve communication, coordination and docking with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)<br />
<br />
In the process of idiom translation, the expression of cultural factors cannot be ignored. The retention of unique cultural images can attract readers of the target language. The actual acceptance ability of the target language readers cannot be ignored, otherwise it may cause poor communication. In the translation process, the translator must adhere to the principle of the inter-growth of different languages and cultures, and pay attention to the fact that the translation must be helpful to communication, coordination and dock with the world, and at the same time, it must not be inappropriately eliminated in order to comply with the needs of the target country. The source language and the target language are inherent in language and culture. (Qiu Jixin, 2002, 45)--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
*Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略 [Venuti and his deconstructionist translation strategy]. 中国翻译 [Chinese translation]. 【文献中杂志缺页数】<br />
<br />
*He Fang 贺 芳. (2019). 异化翻译与文化传播——以杨宪益《红楼梦》歇后语翻译为个案 [Alienation Translation and Cultural Communication-- A Case Study of Yang Xianyi's Idiom Translation in A Dream of Red Mansions]<br />
<br />
*Jia Yunpeng 贾云鹏. (2015). 汉语四字成语翻译中的文化补偿与缺失 [Cultural Compensation and Deficiency in the Translation of Chinese Four-character Idioms]. 语文建设 [China Academic Journal].<br />
<br />
*Jiang Lei 蒋 磊. (2003). 英汉文化差异与习语翻译的归化和异化 [E -C Cultural Differences and Foreignization &Domestication in Idioms Translation]. 武汉: 武汉大学出版社 [Wuhan: Wuhan University Press].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Jixin 裘姬新. (2002). 论习语翻译中的异化与归化 [On Alienation and Adaptation in Idiom Translation]. 语言与翻译 [Language and Translation].<br />
<br />
*Wang Tao 王 涛. (2018). 英汉习语翻译中的文化缺失与补偿 [Cultural Deficiency and Compensation in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms]. 三峡大学 [China Three Gorges University].<br />
<br />
*Qiu Nengsheng 邱能生. (2019). 文化差异背景下英汉习语翻译的异化和归化处理探微 [Foreignization and Domestication in Translation of English and Chinese Idioms under the Background of Cultural Differences]. 上海翻译 [Shanghai Journal of Translators].<br />
<br />
*Yang Xianyi 杨宪益. (1978). 红楼梦 [A Dream of Red Mansions]. 外文出版社 [Foreign Language Press].<br />
<br />
*David Hawkes. (2012). The Story of The Stone. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Venuti,L.The Translator′s Invisibility [M].London & New York:Routledge,1995:20<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber. (1969). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 202020080602 Han Haiyang==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As close communication between eastern and western countries,nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently than the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase.<br />
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As close communication between eastern and western countries, nowadays cultural influence is increasingly becoming more and more importance than ever before, which is benefited from language exchanging. For translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be seriously considered in order to better understand their meanings and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies are concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are selected in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. Thus, it is said that more and more translators apply foreignization to translate English proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br />
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===从文化视角来看英语谚语的翻译===<br />
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===摘要===<br />
由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br />
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Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br />
<br />
With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is normal to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange has been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 11:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs===<br />
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====1.1 Definition of Proverbs====<br />
As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”.(Honeck 1997,12)<br />
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"A proverbs is a statement which clarifies the unclear, or which indicates intellectual concepts through concrete images, or which makes clear the truth in a furtive fashion."(Honeck 1997,12)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it.(Champion 1966,15)<br />
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"A proverbs is a short and generally known sentence of folks which contains wisdom, truths, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation."--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br />
Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. <br />
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and the amounts and meanings of them do not stay the same eternally.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br />
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In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). <br />
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Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain.(ibid 2003,31)<br />
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It is said that proverbs in China dated back to the period, which words were created.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs====<br />
Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br />
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Taking environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs which are related with sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. <br />
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roadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability to view the world. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export taking place here and there.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. <br />
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What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others.(Li Keshi 2009,35-38)<br />
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1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br />
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As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. <br />
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Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to show its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.(Guo Min 2008,123-127)<br />
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From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning.<br />
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====1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms====<br />
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It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. <br />
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Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)<br />
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In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mentioned that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” (Burton Stevenson 1987,20)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher.(Cordry 1997,26-28)<br />
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It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writers or philosophers.(Cordry 1997,26-28)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description.(Fergusson 1983,28-31) <br />
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In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the meaning which each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others.<br />
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In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespredly social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature.With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researchers to better study and distinguish the differences from others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:30, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation===<br />
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====2.1 Definition of Culture====<br />
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As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” . <br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.(Katan 2004,16)<br />
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While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gave his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community which uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Language and Proverb====<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br />
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Taking English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Value and proverbs====<br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77) <br />
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Value is associated with sorts of people’s lives and is defined by these people who living in a specific area.Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme ideas on how to appraise a person.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br />
As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.(Chen Jinshi 2006,72-77)<br />
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====2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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Even so, Chinese and English proverbs share some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different forms and speeches of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the world, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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They describe the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.(Han Jiaoyang 2009,111-117)<br />
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====2.5 Cultural Differences in Chinese and English Proverbs====<br />
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Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into several parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)<br />
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The grammatical sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language families.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. <br />
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Therefore both of the proverbs are created under the influence surrounding environment. Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family.(Fu Yanli 2016,91-92) <br />
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In different communities, people have different perceptions of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose representing local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, the range of translation, culture is a must during translation<br />
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Different cultural heritages and religious beliefs also play a key role in the formation of proverbs.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs===<br />
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Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. <br />
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The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development.(Chen Daoen 2015,257-258)<br />
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====3.1 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. <br />
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Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s interest. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).<br />
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As communication of culture and technology grow rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by taking into foreign culture.<br />
he found only two methods which can affect the domestic readers' understanding of the foreign authors, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards him; or he leaves the readers in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards them.” (Venuti 2004,19-20).--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun's opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” , while foreign was “translation is like going abroad for traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid 1984,301) Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, when doing the work of translation, translator should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as readers whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.(罗新璋 1984,301)<br />
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====3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation====<br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators. as the exchange of economy and culture, it is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. <br />
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The awareness of culture is not developed, because people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. --[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than ever before<br />
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In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family that most of them are illiterate.It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed.So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. <br />
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Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.(Ding Min 2014,72-76)<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
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Proverbs are culture-loaded words that have been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offers the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. <br />
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Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, has been keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool to assist foreignization in translation. <br />
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Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br />
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In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />
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Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target readers exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 13:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. References===<br />
*Bian Xiaofei, 边晓霏(2013). 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[Exploring proverb translation from a cultural perspective]. ''保定:河北大学''[Baoding:Hebei University] .<br />
*Chen Jinshi,陈金诗(2006). 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[Characteristics and translation of English-Chinese proverbs]. ''武汉:中南民族大学''[uhan: Zhongnan University for Nationalities].<br />
*Dong Jing,董晶,Liu Yalou,刘亚楼(2015).英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[The cultural connotation and translation of English proverbs]. ''河北联合大学学报(社科版)'',(1): p: 100-103.<br />
*Fu Yanli,付艳丽(2016). 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[The Meaning and Characteristics of English Proverbs Translation in Cross-cultural Context]. ''济南职业学院学报''[Journal of Jinan Vocational College],(4): p: 90-91.<br />
*Ding Min,丁敏(2014). 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[Translation of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. 西安:西安外国语大学[Xi'an:Xi'an University of Foreign Languages].<br />
*Guo Min,郭敏(2008). 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[Cultural differences in English and Chinese proverbs and their translation]. 重庆:西南大学[Chongqing: Southwest University].<br />
*Han Jiaoyang,韩娇阳(2009). 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[Cultural default and its compensation strategy in English-Chinese translation of proverbs]. 长春:吉林大学[Changchun: Jilin University],.<br />
*Lu Daoyen,陆道恩(2015).文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[Translation skills of English proverbs from a cultural perspectiv]. ''高教学刊''[Journal of Higher Education],(24): P:257-258.<br />
*Li Keshi,李克时(2009). 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[On the trend of alienation in Chinese translation of English proverbs]. 南京:南京农业大学[Nanjing: Nanjing Agricultural University].<br />
*Liu Weiping,刘卫平(2008). 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[Translation of American Proverbs in Cultural Perspective]. 桂林:广西师范大学[Guilin: Guangxi Normal University].<br />
*Li, H.(2012) A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University.<br />
*Mo, L, H.(2014) A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University.<br />
*Mao, Q.(2017) A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy .<br />
*You, X, J.(2009) A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University.<br />
*Zhao, C, H.(2012) A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].Changchun:Jilin University.<br />
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==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br />
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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory ==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
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On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
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On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
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一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
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Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
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Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br />
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1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br />
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Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br />
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Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br />
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Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br />
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The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br />
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1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br />
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In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br />
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Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br />
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We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br />
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The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br />
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With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
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As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br />
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2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
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Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br />
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2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br />
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The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br />
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2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br />
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Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br />
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2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br />
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2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br />
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Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
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To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br />
The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br />
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Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br />
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Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br />
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Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Transliteration<br />
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Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br />
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Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br />
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For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br />
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3.2 Literal Translation<br />
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Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br />
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Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br />
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In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br />
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3.3 Free Translation<br />
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Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br />
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Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br />
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Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.<br />
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==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory-解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译==<br />
<center>解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637 英语口译</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br />
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On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
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跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br />
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一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br />
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Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br />
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Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote(<span style="color:red">the</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015,79)<br />
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To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.(<span style="color:red">space</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words. (Fu Rong, 2015,80)<br />
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====1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
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Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been (<span style="color:red">delete that have been</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,59)<br />
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With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective(<span style="color:red">inappropriate</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,62)<br />
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Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into (<span style="color:red">add the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three forms. (Liao Yingying 2008,66)<br />
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First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG(<span style="color:red">abbreviations of transliteration of Chinese characteristics"哥哥"</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. (Liao Yingying 2008,67)<br />
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Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of (<span style="color:red">through</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects. (Liao Yingying 2008,68)<br />
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Newly generated words can be roughly divided into (<span style="color:red">the following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. (Ou Yangyin 2000,23)<br />
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With new things coming in(<span style="color:red">springing up</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. (Ou Yangyin 2000,24)<br />
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A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs (<span style="color:red">updating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.(Liu Miqing 2005,45)<br />
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The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening(<span style="color:red">developing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
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In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with "做" and "作". To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one(<span style="color:red">one after another</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. (Li Chunjiang, 2015,63)<br />
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====1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms====<br />
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In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its(<span style="color:red">their</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty. (Kang Shiyong 2003,152)<br />
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Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources(<span style="color:red">various ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word "红色炸弹(red bomb)" is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. (Wang Weidong 2011,347)<br />
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We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this(<span style="color:red">such</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.(Wang Weidong 2011,349)<br />
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The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as (<span style="color:red">For example,</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)“人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.(Wang Weidong 2011,350)<br />
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With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing(<span style="color:red">increasingly strong</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.(Wang Weidong 2011,351)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br />
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As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its (<span style="color:red">them and their</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)significance helps improve the quality of translation.(Fu Rong 2015,80）<br />
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====2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
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Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across (<span style="color:red">transending</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. (Snell Hornby 1995,21)<br />
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In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation(<span style="color:red">construction</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC), sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. (Snell Hornby 1995,24)<br />
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Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation (<span style="color:red">during translating</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Snell Hornby 1995,30)<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed(<span style="color:red">improved</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC).(Jing Huang 2019,433)<br />
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====2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory====<br />
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The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but (<span style="color:red">also</span>)cultural--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.(Snell Hornby 1995,47)<br />
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=====2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression=====<br />
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Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the (<span style="color:red">following</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. (Kang Shiyong 2003,178)<br />
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In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression(<span style="color:red">expressions</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,179)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
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Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. They are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through(<span style="color:red">with</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,181)<br />
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It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above(<span style="color:red">delete above</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms. (Kang Shiyong 2003,182)<br />
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=====2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms=====<br />
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Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed(<span style="color:red">contained</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
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For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to (<span style="color:red">describes</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding. (Kang Shiyong 2003,183)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br />
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To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing (<span style="color:red">employing</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory. The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. (Liu Miqing 2005,77)<br />
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Nowadays, it is common to see(<span style="color:red">observe</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
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Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy(<span style="color:red">long</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC). For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.(Li Chunjiang 2015,63)<br />
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Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)be spread in the process of translation.(Li Chunjiang 2015,64)<br />
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====3.1 Transliteration====<br />
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Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient. Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience(<span style="color:red">readers</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. (Fu Rong 2015,81)<br />
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For example, "大妈" is transliterated into "dama" and (<span style="color:red">has</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: "风水" (fengshui), "八卦" (bagua), "太极" (taichi), "气功" (qigong), and "武术 "(wushu), "功夫" (kungfu), "胡同" (hutong), "麻将" (mahjong), "叩头" (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
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====3.2 Literal Translation====<br />
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Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of "commonness" between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture. Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of(<span style="color:red">delete a process</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) cultural transplantation. (Fu Rong 2015,82)<br />
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The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect way (<span style="color:red">ways</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
<br />
In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural. Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey(<span style="color:red">manifest</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC) its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation. (Fu Rong 2015,83)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Free Translation====<br />
<br />
Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes. Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains(<span style="color:red">conveys</span>) --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)the general idea of Chinese neologisms. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
<br />
For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not (<span style="color:red">add to</span>)--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 09:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese. (Fu Rong 2015,84)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. (Ou Yangyin 2008,88)<br />
<br />
In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. (Ou Yangyin 2008,91)<br />
<br />
In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. (Ou Yangyin 2008,143)<br />
<br />
To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. (Ou Yangyin 2008,155)<br />
<br />
Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. (Liu Miqing 2005,387)<br />
<br />
Plus, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. (Liu Miqing 2005,389)<br />
<br />
In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. In this way, Chinese culture can be spread and the expression of English can be innovated.(Liu Miqing 2005,391)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Baker Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. London/New York: Routledge, 1992.<br />
<br />
*Jing Huang. Study on the Influence of Cultural Construction and Cultural Deficiency on English Translation[A].He Nan: Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Humanities,Cultures,Arts and Design, 2019.<br />
<br />
*Kata. An introduction for translators, interpreters and mediators. [D].Manchester: St Jerome, 2004.<br />
<br />
*Min Deng. Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Color Words and Their Translation[A].Hong Kong: Proceedings of 2019 International Linguistics, Education and Literature Conference, 2019.<br />
<br />
*Newmark Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
*Pym. Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication [A].Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992.<br />
<br />
*Snell Hornby, Mary. Translation studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Fu Rong付蓉.(2015).从跨文化的角度探讨汉语新词新语的英译[A Study of English Translation of Chinese Neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective].语文建设Language Planning<br />
<br />
*Kang Shiyong亢世勇.(2003).《新词语大辞典》的编撰[The Compiling of Dictionary of Chinese Neologisms].辞书研究Lexicographical Studies<br />
<br />
*Li Chunjiang李春江.(2015).汉语网络新词的英译探究[A Study of Chinese Online Neologisms].宁波工程学院学报Journal of Ningbo University of Technology<br />
<br />
*Liao Yingying廖颖颖．(2008).论中国主流英语新闻报刊对中国特色词语的英译策略[Strategies of English Translation of Words with Chinese Characteristics Used by Chinese Mainstream English Newspapers].湖南师范大学学报Journal of Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing刘宓庆.(2005).''新编当代翻译理论''[''A New Edition of Contemporary Translation Theory''].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 Beijing:National Translation and Publishing Company of China<br />
<br />
*Ou Yangyin欧阳因.(2000).''朗文中国流行新词语''[''Langwen Chinese Neologisms''].北京：北京大学出版社 Beijing:Peking University Press<br />
<br />
*Wang Weidong王维东.(2011).网络热词汉译英探究[A Study of the English Translation of Chinese Online Neologisms]. 北京:''中国翻译'' Beijing: ''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
<br />
*Zhang Jian & Tang Jianduan张健,唐见端.(1996).略谈汉语新词新义的英译[A brief Discussion on the English Translation of Chinese Neologisms].北京:''中国翻译''''Chinese Translators Journal''<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names: From a Functional Equivalence Perspective——刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo==<br />
<center>刘洋诺Liu Yangnuo, 202020080621.</center><br />
<br />
=== Abstract ===<br />
<br />
With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)<br />
<br />
With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a medium plays an important role in cultural communication. ''A Bite of China'', a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The chapter discusses the theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some points of view from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. We will discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names combined with translation examples.(Zhangtingli 2015,1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Keywords ===<br />
<br />
Chinese-English Translation; Chinese Dish Names; Functional Equivalence<br />
<br />
=== 题目 ===<br />
从功能对等理论浅析中式菜名的英译<br />
<br />
=== 摘要 ===<br />
<br />
中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
=== 关键词 ===<br />
<br />
中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
<br />
As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of a dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations, and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From a semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structures in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)<br />
<br />
It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the latter part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 3-7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
<br />
The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review the functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)<br />
<br />
And then we summarize what we have discussed before and point out the limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from the cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspects, which is one of the reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
<br />
There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Some scholars have paved the way for further researches. Among these researches, almost all scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on ''A Bite of China'', a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors, and cultural elements.(Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Li Weiwei (Li Weiwei 2017, 1-2) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule, and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2) summarizes three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication, and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (Xue Jingnan 2015, 1-2) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Canadians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which provides a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. (Che Yimo 2019, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)<br />
<br />
Similarly, Lee Yi Yan (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman was published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series ''A Bite of China'' released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli 2018,1-2), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. (Lee Yi Yan 2016, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)<br />
<br />
They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating the method of preparation, taste/aroma, the appearance of the dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we can explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tribute to the great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Zhang Tingli 2015, 1-2)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:41, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Existing Difficulties on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names ===<br />
<br />
(1) Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br />
<br />
Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
<br />
As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍.(Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
<br />
As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) mentioned in their chapter, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into a paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍(yellow steamed bun), 肉夹馍(the marinated meat in a baked bun), 榴莲酥(crispy durian cake) and蒿子粑粑(crown daisy rice cake). Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠 and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.(Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5)<br />
<br />
Likewise, the word “sausage” is insufficient to translate 血肠, 腊肠, and 香肠. For some well-known Chinese food such as tofu, it’s unnecessary to translate it into bean curd as in 油豆腐(fried bean curd puff). It seems to be a nonessential part of translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our translation. But for long-term effects, chaos will lead to a negative impact on the economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication. (Mo Chuanxia & Yue Lin 2020,5) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Judging from a great variety of cooking techniques in many Chinese dish names, they bring a lot difficulties in the rendering of Chinese cuisine. In Chinese, there are a lot of verbs to describe how to cook. I list some common verbs below: 炒, 煮, 炖, 炸, 煎, 煲, 蒸, 烧, 焖 and 拌. But when it comes to C-E translation, we translators seem to ignore these verbs and use the same "with" structure to translate all of them as in 莴笋炒火腿(Stir-fried ham with asparagus lettuce), 莲藕炖排骨(Stewed ribs with lotus root) and 虾子焖茭白(Shrimp roe stewed with cane shoots). On top of these commonly used verbs, some verbs are really difficult to understand for native speakers who are unfamiliar with cooking, let alone for foreigners.(Chu Yiyi 2017,13) <br />
<br />
The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗 and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can applied to a large number of texts, but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)<br />
<br />
The four words list below is a case in point: 煸, 焙, 焗, and 烩. The reason behind this phenomenon lies in lacking language about cooking techniques. The word list in this paragraph is more about the duration and degree of heating while cooking Chinese cuisine. As a translator, we should not only know general translation skills that can be applied to a large number of texts but also should have the inkling of other fields. Without background knowledge on cooking procedures, they will be stumbling blocks for translators striving for concise and accurate renderings. (Chu Yiyi 2017,13)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavor of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣 and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words are not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br />
<br />
After discussing cooking techniques in Chinese dish names, we will turn to the different flavors of Chinese cuisine. When burying myself into oceans of Chinese dishes, I divide all sorts of flavors into two categories. In the first category, the word list includes 酸辣, 三鲜, 川味, 麻辣, 卤味, 家常, 酱香, 五香, 香辣, and 酥. In the second category, 孜然, 铁板, 鼓汁, 姜汁, 泡椒, 糖醋 and 蒜泥 will put in a group because these nouns mainly derived from ingredients and cooking utensils rather than the flavor itself. The main function of these words is not referential but beautifying. The flavor of delicious Chinese cuisine was represented by these beautifying words, thus triggering a mouth-watering effect. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But it's hard for target reader to get the same effect as source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent one in English such as 什锦, 八宝 and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas the translation loss and gain are inevitable, underlying aesthetic effect plays an imporant role in translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹 and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life.(Che Yimo 2019, 6) <br />
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But it's hard for the target reader to get the same effect as the source reader through translation due to lacking equivalent words and expressions. Likewise, some Chinese words that refer to all sorts of food don't have equivalent ones in English such as 什锦, 八宝, and 拼盘. If we translate them into "all sorts of food", the aesthetic effect weaken. Whereas translation loss and gain are inevitable, the underlying aesthetic effect plays an important role in the translation process. On top of this, cuisines with Chinese characteristics lead to translation problems. Below are some Chinese dish names: 红豆沙, 撞奶, 龟苓膏, 木瓜雪耳羹, and 蛋白果糖水. Lexical vacancy leads to losing the adding touch that brings a work of art to life. (Che Yimo 2019, 6) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names.(Che Yimo 2019, 6)<br />
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Many translators tend to use word-for-word rendering to translate these Chinese dish names such as 红豆沙(orange-flavored red bean paste). Since Chinese dish names not only contains basic information of main ingredients and cooking skills but also mirrors culinary identity and wisdom, translators are supposed to pay considerable attention to convey layers of meaning in Chinese dish names. (Che Yimo 2019, 6)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br />
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Diffference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expression become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, signified meaning still remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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The difference between Western culture and Chinese culture leads to problems in culture-loaded Chinese dish names. Chinese dish names are endowed with good omen. 鸳鸯锅(double-flavor hot pot) is a case in point. In Chinese culture, 鸳鸯 is a symbol of beautiful love and perfect marriage. But the beautiful underlying meaning is lost in Western culture. Appropriate ways to deal with culture-loaded words or expressions become an issue in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. Though double-flavor hot pot conveys the basic information of this dish, the signified meaning remains in the darkness. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable) . 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him with a delicious dish made by pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it as "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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Likewise, attention-grabbing Chinese dish names combined with Chinese culture background lead to translation problems such as 刀板香(sliced salted pork) and 片儿川(noodles with preserved vegetable). 刀板香 is a traditional pickled food in Anhui province. Through its dish names, it's difficult to know the main ingredients of this dish. A story lies behind the dish: When a person called Hu Zongxian came by one of his teachers, the wife of his teacher treated him to a delicious dish made of pork slices. Hu Zongxian felt satisfied with the dish and named it "刀板香". (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou).In the Qing Dynasty, there were many examinees rushing to join a ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. In order to attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of test. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 is the most well-known dish in 奎元馆(a famous restaurant in Hangzhou). In the Qing Dynasty, many examinees were rushing to join an ancient test for selecting officials in Hangzhou, Zhejiang. Examinees from all over the country gathered in Hangzhou. To attract them, the shopkeeper supplied noodles made of pour-sweet vegetables, bamboo shoots, and pork slices. Three eggs were added to breakfast noodles, which contained a good omen for examinees. Therefore, a large number of examinees often came to eat noodles because Kuiyuan’s noodles were so cheap. Later, one of the examinees was got number one in a round of tests. When he went to the store to thank the owner, he found that the restaurant didn't have a name. So he named it "Kuiyuan Hall". Since then, 片儿川 in Kuiyuan Hall has become famous and tables in Kuiyuan Hall are in full bloom. All those who come to Hangzhou to take the exam will come here to eat noodles for good luck. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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片儿川 has specially meaning for the person who are going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade into our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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片儿川 has special meaning for the person who is going to test. Similarly, foreign foods invade our daily life with increasing cultural communication. The origin of 罗宋汤(Borscht) is in Ukraine. 罗宋 is the transliteration of Russian and is originated from the early Shanghai Pidgin English. Russian Borscht (Borshch) is another commonly used name. During the October Revolution, a large number of Russians moved to Shanghai. They brought vodka and Russian-style western cuisine. The first western-style cuisine restaurant in Shanghai was opened by the Russians. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed a unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotation. Abstract meaning mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)<br />
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This soup evolved from the Russian-style red cabbage soup. The Russian-style red cabbage soup is spicy and sour but Shanghai people are not used to it. Later, influenced by local taste, it gradually formed unique Shanghai-style borscht. In Shanghai-style borscht, we take beets as the main ingredient with supplements such as potatoes and carrots, spinach and beef, cubes, and butter. From what we discussed before, we can conclude that Chinese dish names often pay considerable attention to good connotations. Abstract meaning is mainly derived from legends, idioms, historical events, and auspicious words. When we start to translate Chinese cuisine, cultural considerations are an indispensable part to consider. It should be noted that translators take the responsibility to fill the gap between Chinese culture and Western culture. (Mo Chuanxia & Yuelin 2020, 7)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our mind. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotation in Chinese culture such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles) and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preference between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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Except for source cultural background, target cultural background is also of great importance. When it comes to cultural taboos, 龙(dragon) is the first symbol coming to our minds. Whereas 龙 are often embedded with good connotations in Chinese cultures such as good fortune and bright future, 龙 often stands for brutal animal or person as in the well-known epic Beowulf. Below are some Chinese dish names with 龙: 龙抄手 (Easter Bunny Wonton), 龙须面(fine noodles), and 乌龙吐珠 (Sea Cucumber with Quail Eggs). Some translators replace dragon with bunny due to different preferences between Chinese culture and Western culture. Others omit word-for-word translation, rather emphasizing the main ingredients of the dish.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former hightlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamilar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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Also, some Chinese dish names with internal organs such as intestines or blood may keep target readers at bay. For example, in 肠粉(Steamed vermicelli roll) and 脑花(brain or brain flower), the former highlights main ingredients rather than being confined to word-for-word translation, but the latter fails to arouse the target reader's appetite. Further explanation and translation skills are involved in these dish names. Other examples include 夫妻肺片(Sliced Beef and Ox Tongue in Chili Sauce) and 撒尿牛丸(juicy beef ball). Word-for-word translation can be confusing or even disgusting for people who are unfamiliar with Chinese dishes. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made by ox tongue, tripe and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humourous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory in order to discuss the application of the theory into C-E translation of Chinese dish names.(Wu Tingting 2017, 4)<br />
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夫妻肺片 is a well-known dish mainly made of ox tongue, tripe, and beef. Guo Chaohua (husband) and Zhang Tianzheng (wife) created the dish. Nowadays, it becomes part of Chuan cuisine. Contrary to the dish name, the lungs of different animals are not the main component of the dish because 肺片 is originated from 废片. 废片 is a humorous name for all sorts of sliced internal organs. Likewise, though juicy beef ball conveys the basic information of the dish, it loses its attraction and refreshing impression. Therefore, target readers will have a totally different feeling from source readers. The equivalence between SL and TL can be broken. In the next part, we will have a brief review of functional equivalence theory to discuss the application of the theory into the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Wu Tingting 2017, 4)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Functional Equivalence Theory ===<br />
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Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene. A. Nida, a renowned American linguist, and translation theorist. Functional equivalence theory focuses on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to offer a new way to produce an equivalent, taking the relationship of the receptor to the text into account. Functional equivalence theory developed from dynamic equivalence. He defined dynamic equivalence as "the quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their own understanding of functional equivalence. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (Nida 1969, 200). In the later works, he thought that the adequacy of a translation depended on “the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, how the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made” (Nida 1993, 127). Under the influence of Eugene. A. Nida, other subsequent scholars also put forward their understanding of functional equivalence.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translator recreates the text in target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations and communicative needs or to such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127) <br />
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The translator recreates the text in the target language by keeping some source-text information or linguistic elements invariant and adapting the rest to the receivers’ background knowledge, expectations, and communicative needs or such factors as medium-restrictions and deixis requirements(Yue Siwei 2013, 61-68). The term the closest natural equivalent implies that the rendering must be readable (related to the language form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target receptors, since different languages have different features of grammar and lexicon.(Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of source text in target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating so as to transfer the flavor of source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)<br />
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Functional-equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity (Zhang Qing & Wang Jiaqi 2010, 880-888). The translation is a reproduction process of the source text in the target language, observing the target culture. The target language features in terms of contents, sentence structure, and lexis should be considered as criteria to adapt the source text before translating. The source text elements that do not fit in target culture should be revised or even neglected in translating to transfer the flavor of the source text while not violating target culture. (Nida 1993, 127)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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In Nida's view, the success of the translation depends above all on achieving an equivalent response. It is one of the four basic requirements of a translation, which are 1. making sense; 2. conveying the spirit and manner of the original; 3. having a natural and easy form of expression; 4. producing a similar response. He pays great attention to equivalence and the reader's response. Nida's functional equivalence theory has gone through three stages of development ranging from formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence. The core of Nida's theoretical framework is mainly functional equivalence.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional equivalence is mainly to enable translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, of lexicon and of cultural references to be essential in order to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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Functional equivalence is mainly to enable the translation and original text to be equivalent in language function, rather than language form correspondence. The reader of the target language should fully understand the customs, social consciousness, and habitual expression mentioned in the original context. This receptor-oriented approach considers adaptations of grammar, lexicon, and cultural references to be essential to achieve naturalness. The target language should not show interference from the source language and the foreignness of the source text setting is minimized.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Except for equivalence, reader's response pays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translations views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists critize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) <br />
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Except for equivalence, the reader's response plays an important role in functional equivalence theory. In contrast with traditional translation views towards the source text and the target text, functional equivalence translation pays considerable attention to the receptor‟s response and the naturalness of the target language rather than language forms as formal equivalence. Though later translation theorists criticize Nida's functional equivalence given the impossibility of achieving functional equivalence in the translation process, his functional equivalence has still paved the road away from traditional translation views by instilling fresh views into translation studies.(Jeremy Munday 2016, 126) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence set the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)<br />
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Functional equivalence theory provides a glimpse into dealing with the relationship between target text and related cultural expectations. For real and practical translation, functional equivalence sets the standard for what good translation is. So in the next part, we will discuss the application of this theory in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. (Jeremy Munday 2016, 126)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine ===<br />
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4.1Princples of C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
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Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included into the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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Principles on C-E translation abound given different original texts. When it comes to the C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine, two principles should be mentioned. What comes first is faithfulness. The translator is supposed to translate the basic information of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, ingredients and cooking procedures should be included in the translation process. The main purpose of our translation is to inform target readers, especially foreigners who know nothing about Chinese. In Chinese, we often use the number three to represent three kinds of ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in translation process. For example, in 扣三丝,some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in translation process in order to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)<br />
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Therefore, we translators should list three ingredients clearly in the translation process. For example, in 扣三丝, some translators render it into Chicken, mushroom, ham threads in consommé. Though this rendering is in great detail, target readers can catch the point quickly. But for other larger numbers such as five and eight, listing all ingredients will lead to clumsiness. 八宝菠菜(Spinach with Eight Delicacies) is a case in point. This is the living proof for precise and clear translation. Faithfulness is not equal to a word-for-word translation. Various translation skills should be involved in the translation process to arrive at the principle of faithfulness. But the principle of faithfulness is not enough for a good translation. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 880)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s noted that distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to delivery cultural connotation in a Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attract towards foreigners. Even though native speakers are able to understand what a Chinese cuisine refers, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant, but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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It’s noted that a distinct cultural difference plays an important role in cultural communication. If a translator fails to deliver cultural connotation in Chinese cuisine, these cultural-loaded dish names lost their attraction towards foreigners. Even though native speakers can understand what Chinese cuisine refers to, the functional equivalence is out of balance. The purpose of our study is not only to provide a glimpse into informing foreigners when they barge into a Chinese restaurant but also to spread Chinese culture behind Chinese cuisine. For example, in 烩南北(Stewed Mushrooms with Winter Bamboo Shoots), target readers fail to get the meaning from original words.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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Literal translation doesn’t fit in this Chinese cuisine because ingredients and cooking procedures are difficult to understand unless we dig more information on the Internet. The origin of the dish name lies in two different ingredients. Bamboo shoots are most in the south of China and mushrooms are most in the north of China. The combination of bamboo and mushroom represents the combination of culture in two parts of China. The precious value of Stewed mushrooms with winter bamboo shoots also lies in the combination of two precious ingredients.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money into the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds in order to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
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The same goes for榆钱饭(Elm Seeds Meal). 榆钱 is originally an ingredient in Shangxi province. But the dish name also bodes well for a well-off or prosperous future. Chinese people attribute their wish of getting more money to the word 钱(money). It sounds vulgar but the true wish is to live a better life. When translating Chinese cuisine, translators should consider the different cultural backgrounds to spare no efforts to broadcast Chinese culture. On top of this, some dish names are complicated to render them. For example, 龙, an image with red and gold color, refers to good wishes for a prosperous future in China but it’s disgusting in Western culture. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The most scary and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, culture taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process.(Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)<br />
<br />
Therefore, when we translate龙抄手, the word 龙 should be replaced by other words. Some translators try to translate it into Easter Bunny Wonton. Also, the same goes for words referring to an internal organ. 肠粉is a case in point. A dish name with intestines will lead to vomiting before eating. What’s more, the main ingredient in肠粉has nothing about intestines. Steamed vermicelli roll is a better translation version. The scariest and well-known Chinese dish name I have heard is 夫妻肺片. But the power of ingenious translation can help foreigners understand this dish and avoid awkwardness ahead of them. While broadcasting Chinese culture, cultural taboos in the culture of target readers also need to be taken into our consideration. After we have put forward two principles for C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, the next part will discuss some strategies available for translators in the translation process. (Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang 2010, 885-888)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2Strategies for C-E translation of Chinese Cuisine<br />
<br />
First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
<br />
First and foremost, a large number of Chinese cuisines can apply literal translation in some way. The main cooking procedures, ingredients, and skills should be very clear in dish names. Lexical equivalence is the main purpose of a literal translation. Also, we can divide the application of literal translation into four parts. The first part is the combination of the main ingredient and other supplementary ingredients. For example, in 羊肚包肉, roasted mutton wrapped in lamb tripe can avoid ambiguity. The most special ingredient in the dish is roasted mutton, which delivers some flavors to target readers. We can also render “番茄牛腩” into tomato and beef brisket.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish, but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
<br />
The spicy beef briskets and sour tomatoes arouse different feelings in the heart of target readers. Sometimes, the flavor of a dish makes itself clear in the name of a dish. When we use the literal translation, the flavor of a dish such as剁椒 and 家常 cannot be ignored. For example, in剁椒鸭肠(Duck Intestines with Chili) and家常烧蹄筋(Home-Style Braised Beef Tendon), Chili and home-style not only inform foreigners of basic information of this dish but also arouse a sense of taste in their mouths. The third part of the application of literal translation is the combination of utensils and ingredients such as 砂锅面(Casserole Noodles). In Chinese, 砂锅 is a utensil for cooking. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
But with increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. Opposed to forks in Western culture, Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But literal translation is not a sliver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too much ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in the case, we will sacrifice simplicity in order to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
<br />
But with the increasing popularity of noodles cooking by casseroles, casserole noodles have become a Chinese dish. The last part of the application of literal translation lies in the combination of cooking methods, eating methods, and ingredients. 手抓饼(Shredded Cake) is a case in point. As opposed to forks in Western culture, the Chinese tend to use chopsticks. Therefore, Shredded Cake is a dish without using chopsticks or any other dinner sets. But the literal translation is not a silver bullet for all C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. Sometimes, a dish includes too many ingredients or cooking procedures. If we apply to literal translation in this case, we will sacrifice simplicity to maintain faithfulness.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Also, some translators applied to literal translation with annotation in order to render dish names clearly. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In the case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In the case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)<br />
<br />
Also, some translators applied literal translation with annotation to render dish names. For instance, let’s take “长寿面”, a cuisine name from A Bite of China as an example. The translation provided in “longevity noodles”, followed by the annotation “the noodles are long and slim, and long is homophonic to ‘chang’ and slim to ‘shou’, ‘changshou’ means longevity”. In this case, not only can the foreigners know the basic meaning of the dish, but they can also understand its cultural meanings (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9). Another example is螺蛳粉. Some translate it into Snail Rice-flour Noodles, a local snack in Liuzhou. Snail Rice-flour Noodles is very faithful to the Chinese dish name. But the translator added some explanations to emphasize local characteristics. The origin of Snail Rice-flour Noodles is in Liuzhou, Yunnan province. In this case, the translator tried to spread local culture in a dish name. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 9)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes in order to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly depend on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
<br />
Secondly, dishes with local names can apply to transliteration such as兰州拉面 Lanzhou Beef Noodles), 金华火腿(Jinhua Ham) and重庆小面(Chongqing Small Noodles). Some local names have become a brand for selling. They emphasize the authentic flavor of these dishes to attract people from other places or countries. As for some culture-loaded dish names, we fail to find the equivalent words in English. That’s the reason why we resort to transliteration. It’s a translation method mainly dependent on Chinese pinyin such as Lanzhou, Jinhua, and Chongqing as we mentioned above.(Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But there are few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)<br />
<br />
One of the perks of transliteration is to emphasize local characteristics and spread local cultures. But transliteration is not confined to this area. Some translators combine transliteration into literal translation. For instance, if we simply translate “东坡肉” literally into“Dongpo’s Pork” without any further explanations, the target readers will get confused if they first see the translation. Thus, the explanation “Dongpo, a famous poet in the Song Dynasty” needs to be added (Chu Yiyi, 2017). Some dish names are from foreign countries such as 生鱼片(Sashimi). Sashimi is the Japanese way of speaking. Transliteration with sounds of foreign languages can apply to these Chinese dish names. Some translators also translate腌制泡菜 into kimchi rather than pickles cabbages, thus emphasizing Korean flavor rather than Chinese flavor. But few dish names originated from foreign languages. (Chu Yiyi 2017, 12)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
<br />
Lastly, some Chinese cultural-loaded dish names fail to fit the framework of literal translation and transliteration. Translators should apply free translation into their translation process. There are four categories of free translation applied to C-E translation of Chinese cuisines: named according to the characteristics of ingredients metaphorically, named after historical allusions, named according to the production process metaphor, and named after the meaning of good. As for the first category, 蚂蚁上树is a good example. The word-for-word translation of蚂蚁上树 is ants on a tree but it does not deliver the essence of the dish.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give a nickname “王八” for turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
<br />
The main ingredients of the dish are minced pork and fine vermicelli. The final dish is similar to ants on the tree, so the Chinese give it a metaphorical dish name. Sauteed Vermicelli with Minced Pork is a better version than the original translation. Some dish names are full of historical allusions such as霸王别姬. The deep-level meaning of the expression霸王别姬 is to reveal the tragic ending of a hero in history. But there is a coincidence for the combination of turtle and chicken in the dish 霸王别姬. Different from mandarin, Chinese people give the nickname “王八” for the turtle. 姬in 霸王别姬 sounds are similar to 鸡(chicken).(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in the northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which looks like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) <br />
<br />
The word-for-word translation of 霸王别姬 is farewell my Concubine, but turtle stewed chicken is easier to understand for target readers. As for the third category——named according to the production process metaphor, 驴打滚 is a case in point. 驴打滚 is one of the traditional snacks in northeast China, especially in Beijing and Tianjin. It is a three-color snack with yellow, white, and red. The final process of making is to sprinkle on the soybean noodles, which look like wild donkeys rolling up of the loess in suburb, so we named it 驴打滚(Donkey Roll). But compared to the donkey doll, fried chop rice cake shows the main ingredients of the dish, thus lowering the hurdles for understanding.(Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68) --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish become popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens.From strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We translators should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)<br />
<br />
As for the last category, 佛跳墙 is a case in point. The literal meaning of 佛跳墙 is that a Buddha jumps over the wall. But actually, 佛跳墙 is a dish cooking all things in one pot. It comes from a story: when we open the jar, the smell of a dish becomes popular in other places as well. That attracts many Buddhas who jump over the wall to have a see. Also, the dish bodes well for longevity and reunion. That’s why we also call it 福寿全, a word full of good omens. From the strategies discussed above, we can find that there is no fixed pattern for C-E translation of Chinese cuisines. We, translators, should bear these principles and strategies in mind and put them into practice in our translation process. The ultimate goal for our translation is to produce a simple but accurate translation to inform target readers, especially foreigners. (Siwei Yue 2013, 65-68)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interests in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory in order to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
With the popularity of Chinese culture, there has been a resurgence of interest in C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. In this chapter, I discussed the previous studies on this topic with functional equivalence theory to emphasize the importance of our research and try to find a research gap among these chapters. After discussing the existing problems on C-E translation of Chinese cuisine, I summarized some principles and strategies that can apply to C- E translation of Chinese cuisine. But what I discussed in the chapter is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names.(Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct differences in dish names considering the region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, the cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. (Yi-Yan Lee, 2016, 10)--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
*Caiqiao Huo, Xiaomei Du & Weichen Gu.(2020). The Metaphor and Translation of the Dish Names in Chinese Food Culture. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics (5) 423-428.<br />
<br />
*Jiangnan Xue. (2015). A Chinese Bite of Translation: A Translational Approach to Chineseness and Culinary Identity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa.<br />
<br />
*Kai-Chee Lam, Man-Ling Ng, Lay-Hoon Ang & Radina Mohamad Deli. (2018). Between concrete and abstract: the Malaysian Chinese way of naming dishes. International Communication of Chinese Culture (3) 247–259.<br />
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*Munday J. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. New York: Routledge.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R. Taber.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene. A.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Nord, C. (2001). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalists Approaches Explained''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Qing Zhang & Jiaqi Wang. (2010). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in English Translation of Chinese Idioms. Journal of Language Teaching and Research (6) 880-888.<br />
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*Siwei Yue. (2016). Functionalism Theory Applied in C-E Translation of Chinese Food Culture Text. Theory and Practice in Language Studies (1) 61-68.<br />
<br />
*Yi-Yan Lee. (2016). Imaging Identity with Food: A Study of Cultural Translation in Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman and Documentary ''A Bite of China''. Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.<br />
<br />
*车宜默[Che Yimer].(2019). 跨文化交际视角下的中餐菜单英译案例研究[A case study of English translation of Chinese menus from a cross-cultural communication perspective].北京：北京外国语大学[Beijing: Beijing Foreign Studies University].<br />
<br />
*李玮玮[Li Weiwei]. (2017). 目的论视角下的中国菜名汉英口译实践报告[A practical report on Chinese-English interpretation of Chinese cuisine names from the perspective of purpose theory].山东：山东大学[Shangdong: Shandong University].<br />
<br />
*莫传霞,岳玲[Mo Chuanxia, Yue Ling].(2020).“再创作”翻译思想下的北海民俗饮食文化英译[The English translation of Beihai folk food culture under the idea of "re-creation" translation]. 广西教育学院学报[Journal of Guangxi Education College] (05) 78-81.<br />
<br />
*屠易义[Tu Yiyi].(2017). 从文化角度谈中式菜名的英译方法[The English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from a Cultural Perspective].上海：上海外国语大学[Shanghai:Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
<br />
*邬婷婷[Wu Tingting].(2017). 目的论视角下中式菜肴简介英译的翻译报告[A Translation Report on the English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Introduction from the Perspective of Purpose Theory].宁波：宁波大学[Ningbo: Ningbo University].<br />
<br />
*吴慧琦[Wu Huiqi]. (2020). 中西方饮食文化差异与菜名翻译——评《中西方饮食文化差异及翻译研究》[Chinese and Western food culture differences and the translation of dish names--Review of "Chinese and Western food culture differences and translation research"]. 食品工业[Food Industry] (09) 364-365.<br />
<br />
*张婷丽[Zhang Tingli].(2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略[The strategy of English translation of the dish names of "China on the Tip of the Tongue" guided by purpose theory].湖南：湖南师范大学[Hunan: Hunan Normal University].<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation--Taking Hunan cuisine names an Example - 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br />
<center> 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen 202020080665 法语语言文学 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Catford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
<br />
Chinese food culture has attracted much attention both at home and abroad, and Chinese cuisine is gradually going to global markets. Cultural differences make the translation of Chinese dish names a challenge for translators. Taking Hunan cuisine an example, we try to explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names from the untranslatability theory of Cat ford and loss of meaning theory of Newmark, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Untranslatability，loss of meaning，Hunan cuisine names<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
中国菜名的不可译性和意义的缺失——以湘菜菜名为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中国的饮食文化在国内外备受关注，中国菜也逐渐走向世界，文化差异使得中国菜名的译法给译者带来了挑战。试以湘菜为例，从卡特福德的不可译理论和纽马克的意义缺失理论来探究湘菜菜名的翻译方法，从而在翻译过程中规避问题，达成中国菜名的相对可译性。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
不可译性；意义缺失；湘菜菜名<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities.Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Translation, as an indispensable means of the communication among different cultures, contributes a lot to the development of human civilization. But to translate the source language into target language accurately and perfectly is hardly impossible for every translator. Debates about untranslatability are one of the most heated issues about translation. On the one hand, we should insist that translation is possible due to the similarity of human experience, linguistic and cultural universality; on the other hand, we have to admit the fact that there are some insurmountable obstacles and difficulties in translation practices owing to linguistic and cultural disparities. Among cultural differences, the cuisine culture plays a very important role.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names.The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
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The most outstanding example is Chinese cuisine culture which is different from most western countries. It is not only famous for daintiness but also the attractive dish names. The major concern of this paper is "The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names". Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people's eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks of Chinese dishes besides their delicious flavor and taste. While the sight of Chinese dishes brings pleasure, the names of dishes also catch much attention of westerners.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When people from different countries enjoy Chinese dishes, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the dish name and its origin. Since the dish name is the first impression given to a diner when he or she decides to order a dish. So it is important to convey accurate information to the patron. Since Chinese cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, translation of dish names plays an important role and is faced with a high demand determined by the complex nature of Chinese cuisine culture.(Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
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Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names.At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and fonctions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensative measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)<br />
<br />
Based on the Catford's theory of untranslatability and Newmark's theory of loss of meaning, taking Hunan cuisine an example, this paper explore the translation methods of Chinese dish names, so as to avoid the problems in the translation process and achieve the relative translatability of the dish names. At first it illustrates the linguistic and cultural untranslatability. And it then emphasizes particularly on constitutions and functions of Hunan cuisine names. Finally, according to the classification of dish names, translation techniques are suggested and some of them are just the compensatory measures to those untranslatable dish names. (Wang Lijun 2008, 10)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 01:57, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 An Overview of Untranslatability, Loss of Meaning and Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
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====1.1 Linguistic Untranslatability and Cultural Untranslatability Put Forward by J. C. Catford====<br />
Catford was the first translation theoretician who explored equivalence at different levels of language. He distinguished two kinds of untranslatability in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, that is, linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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Catford thought that linguistic untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences, for instance, the names of some institutions, clothes, foods and dishes, abstract concepts, and the like.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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According to Catford's view of untranslatability, the dichotomy mentioned above would not exist if it could be demonstrated that all instances of cultural untranslatability respond to "the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language". This impossibility is, in his opinion, a case of linguistic untranslatability.(Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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According to Catford, "Translation fails---or untranslatability occurs---when it is impossible to build functionally features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the TL text." (Catford 1965, 93)<br />
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====1.2 Loss of Meaning Put Forward by Peter Newmark====<br />
Peter Newmark analyzed the loss of meaning as follows:<br />
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First, if the text describes a situation which has elements peculiar to the environment, institutions and culture of its language area, there is an inevitable loss of meaning, since the translator's language can only be approximate to the source language. Unless there is already a recognized translation equivalent, the translator has to choose from transcribing the foreign word, translating it, substituting a similar word in his own culture, naturalizing the word with a loan translation, sometimes adding or substituting a suffix from his own language, defining it or paraphrasing, which is sometimes added in parenthesis or as a footnote to a transliteration. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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Second, an inevitable source of loss is the fact that the two languages, both in their basic character and their social varieties, have many different lexical, grammatical and sound systems, and segment many physical objects and all intellectual concepts differently. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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Third, the individual uses of language of the writer and the translator do not coincide. Everybody has lexical if not grammatical idiosyncrasies, and attaches "private" meanings to a few words. The translator normally writes in a style that comes naturally to him, desirably with a certain elegance and sensitivity unless the text precludes it. Moreover, a good writer's use of language is often remote from some of the conventional canons of good writing, and it is the writer not the canons that the translator must respect. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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Last, the translator and the text-writer have different theories of meaning and different values. The translator's theory colors his interpretation of the text. He may get greater value than the text-writer on connotation and correspondingly less on denotation. He may look for symbolism where realism was intended; for several meanings where only one was intended; for different emphasis, based on his own philosophy or even his reading of the syntax. The resulting loss of meaning is inevitable and is unrelated to the obscurity or the deficiencies of the text and the incompetence of the translator, which are additional possible sources of this loss of meaning. Therefore, absolute equivalence can never be reached. A translator can't convey all the meanings of the original in his translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 215)<br />
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====1.3 Constitution and Functions of Hunan Cuisine Names====<br />
Hunan cuisine consists of local cuisines of Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi areas. It is characterized by thick and pungent flavors. As a mirror of Chinese cuisine culture, dish names play an important role in transmitting Chinese cuisine culture to the whole world. Today, there are countless and various Chinese dish names, so it's so hard to translate them without a clear analysis of their constitutions and functions.<br />
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Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways,which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and son on; and cooking methods for cold dished, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) <br />
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Many of the Hunan cuisine are named after the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods, flavour or colour, shape and so on. Hunan cuisine can be cooked in a variety of ways， which can be divided into cooking methods for hot dishes,such as stir-fried, fried, roasted, grilled, boiled, stewed, steamed and so on; and cooking methods for cold dishes, such as frozed, mixed, marinated, smoked and so on. The flavour is the sensation caused by a substance that stimulate the taste buds, flavour can be divided into two categories: one is the natural single flavour, also called the basic flavour; another is the compound flavour made of two or more single flavour.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19) --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on.Most dish names are made of a combination of flavours and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names.Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.),but more often the colour and shape express the substance.For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
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The single flavour of Hunan cuisine is mainly salty, sweet, sour, spicy, bitter, fresh and so on; the compound flavour is mainly hot and sour, sweet and sour, salty and spicy, spicy and hot and so on. Most dish names are made of a combination of flavour and the name of the main ingredient, such as “酸辣鸡杂”、 “麻辣肚丝”. Spicy is a highly used word in Hunan cuisine names. Not many dishes are named directly with words that indicate colour (red, yellow, white, green, etc.) and shape (round, flat, pointed, square, etc.), but more often the colour and shape express the substance. For example, “金钱蛋”is named after a substance that has a colour and shape. “金钱” is borrowed from the coins in Chinese history which are round, square-hole. “菊花鱿鱼”“菊花” isn’t real chrysanthemum, but the shape of the finished dishes.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The utensils such as casseroles, stones pots, hanging pots, dry pots, flat pots, iron pots are used to serve the Hunan cuisine. So the names of kitchen utensils sometimes appear in Hunan cuisine names, the names of untensils and the main ingredients are combined to form the name of a dish, in order to show the characteristics of the dishes, such as “石锅玉兔”，“干锅鸡”，“砂锅熊掌”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
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And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion，a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at the time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)<br />
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And there are many dishes which are named by means of metaphor are connected with allusion, a person's name or a place name. The names of dishes containing the name "组庵" and the name of the main ingredient in dishes are related to Tan Yanyan. Tan Yanyan (1880-1930), a native of Chaling in Hunan, was the governor of Hunan province after the Revolution of 1911. Tan Yanyan was a famous gourmet and played a major role in the innovation and development of Hunan cuisine at that time. (Zhang Qiang 2017, 19)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Above all, the constitution of Hunan cuisine names are various and mainly have the above mentioned features. Almost all Hunan cuisine names are characterized by elegance and try to convey a kind of aesthetic sense to diners.<br />
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A dish name usually keeps people informed of the main ingredients of the dish, and sometimes uses beautiful words to add aesthetic value and finally it will stimulate the diners' appetite. Particularly, Chinese dish names have a special function that is cultural function owing to transmitting cultures.<br />
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Informative Function<br />
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The informative function means that the communicative aim of language is to provide people with information. As the fundamental function of Chinese dish names, it supplies the basic information of a dish, such as the ingredients, seasonings, cooking methods and so on. Chinese cooking methods are famous for its variety and the ingredients. People can get these information through most of Chinese dish names. So when Chinese dish names are translated into English, this function should be kept completely. (Wang Lixia 2017, 19)<br />
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Aesthetic Function<br />
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If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art.Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor,but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
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If a dish were a work of art, the dish name would be a part of the art. Besides the informative function, there is an aesthetic value. Although not all Chinese dish names possess the aesthetic value, such as those self-descriptive ones, a lot of names formed by metaphors or other special means to bring the sense of beauty and satisfy the aesthetic need of people. The beautiful names such as“碧绿双脆”， “金银烩双丸”， “天麻炖双飞”， “蝴蝶飘海”, it’s difficult to identify the original ingredient, and the basic information of the dishes are deduce by metaphor, but which attract the diners to image, to get an enjoyment. The subtle integration of aesthetics and culinary science greatly enhance the aesthetic function of these dish names.(熊力游 2004, 84)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cultural Function<br />
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Chinese dish names also function as a culture carrier. Numerous cultural words play a significant role to demonstrate the national specialties.“百鸟朝凤”, “全家福”, “龙女触珠” “桃园三结义”and many other culturally loaded terms are frequently used in dish names, which are unique to the Chinese culture. This is a best way to arouse foreigners' interests on Chinese culture.(熊力游 2004, 84)<br />
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===Chapter 2 Reasons for the Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names===<br />
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====2.1 Differences of Thinking====<br />
There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on Qi and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonisation of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)<br />
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There is a fundamental difference between the traditional Chinese concept of "unity of human and nature" and the traditional Western concept of "humanism", and the way of thinking and philosophies of each nationality differ. The food cultures of China and the West are therefore influenced by the obvious differences between them, and the same food cultures influence the naming of dishes in a certain way. Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking places emphasis on “Qi” and existence and non-existence, and in terms of cultural spirit and mode of thinking, this has led to the formation of a unity between human and nature, an emphasis on integral functions and a focus on ambiguity, which has led to the development of unique concepts in the science of food, namely the ecological concept of the correspondence between human and nature, the nutritional concept of food treatment and nourishment, and the concept of the harmonization of the five tastes. (Cao Binbin 2016, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasise the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)<br />
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Westerners hold a rational and scientific concept of diet. They emphasize the nutritional value of the diet, the amount of protein, fat, calories and vitamins contained in the food, and pay particular attention to whether the nutrient content of the food is well matched, whether the calorie supply is optimal, and whether these nutrients can be fully absorbed by the eater. For example, Westerners generally do not eat animal offal or anything that they consider to be of no nutritional value, such as liver, chicken feet, duck heads, dog meat, etc., which are absolutely delicious in China and which Westerners may never have eaten in their lives. Some of the ingredients used in Chinese dishes are not offensive to diners in China, for example animals such as snakes and frogs. For good luck, Chinese names are often borrowed from inedible objects or animals that are taboo for Westerners, such as “红烧狮子头”. Such dishes are unacceptable to Westerners and can sometimes be offensive to them. (Cao Binbin 2016, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Different Beliefs and Values====<br />
Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”，“谋事在人，成事在天”.These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天”is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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Belief and value constitute an important part in culture. Chinese and westerners are living in different social background, having their own history and religion. So, disparity in value and belief is inevitable, such as Buddhism in China. It has history of thousands years. Some vocabularies in Chinese are related with Buddhism, such as “立地成佛”， “谋事在人，成事在天”. These expressions all reflect the great influence of Buddhism on language. In western countries, people have been more influenced by Christianity. Phrases like "man proposes God disposes"; "God help those who help themselves" are typical examples. But if“谋事在人，成事在天” is translated to "man proposes, God disposes", it disobeys Chinese belief which is the Buddhism rather than the Christianity.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The value of a certain culture is a set of behavioral standards for people to make choices and solve conflicts and it is usually displayed in people's philosophic and moral concept. The concept that is thought highly by one nation may be neglected by another nation. And this phenomenon becomes a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation. <br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their concepts, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”.Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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As far as animal vocabularies are concerned, the value of Chinese and westerners are quite different. Take "dog" for example, Chinese often use them to guard door. In their conceptions, dogs have nothing to praise. So vocabularies with dogs often have derogatory connotations, such as“狗腿子”，“狐朋狗友”，“狼心狗肺”，“狗眼看人低”，“狗改不了吃屎”. Whereas, in western countries, owing to dogs' loyalty, courage and intelligence, people regard dogs as their favorite and loyal friends and give great honor to them, such as "love me, love my dog", "lucky dog" and "every dog has his day". So long as westerners know that dog meat is cooked into dishes in China, they will feel shocked and horrible. Hence although the dish name“狗肉汤”is translatable, we had better avoid translating it or we should not treat westerners to eat dog meat. If it is unavoidable, we should explain those dogs are raised for dinners.(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When translating, it is important to take into account the cultural differences, accepting psychology and eating habits of foreigners, otherwise it will be difficult to achieve the intended function and purpose of the translation. After all, although the translator "deals with individual words, he is dealing with two major cultures".(Liu Chuang 2012, 120)<br />
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====2.3 Different Customs and Living Environment====<br />
Custom refers to the way of living formed in the long-term development of human's history. It is embodied in various aspects of people's daily lives such as garment, etiquette, marriage, funeral, traditional dishes and so on, due to the different living habits and the customs of different people, which constitute a great obstacle in the cross-cultural communication and translation.(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====2.4 Lexical Non-equivalence Concerned with Cultural Difference====<br />
The lexical non-equivalence generally refers to the non-equivalence of lexical meanings. As we all know, the meaning of a word, which is involved in many aspects, such as the denotative meaning, the associative meaning and so on, is not a simple concept. Therefore, there are several kinds of untranslatable phenomena concerned with the lexical non-equivalence.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.5 Absence of Terms====<br />
Absence of terms is a frequent phenomenon leading to untranslatability. It refers to the case that in translation we fail to find counterpart in target language. In Chinese, there are many terms as “风水”, “阴阳”, “属相”and so on. These words are derived from unique Chinese culture, which are almost impossible to translate to English, since there are no such things in western countries.(Wang Lijun 2017, 24)<br />
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====2.6 Discrepancy of Semantic Association====<br />
Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have rich meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙“ in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙“ is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation-that's why Chinese people call themselves“龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)“. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”，“二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”.To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)<br />
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Terms and expressions, as embodiment of culture, have a wide variety of meanings and profound connotations. Therefore discrepancies of terms lead to translation barriers inevitably. For example, dragon in English and “龙” in Chinese represents different connotation though it is the same imaginary image. Owing to this difference, terms concerning dragon in these two languages differ greatly. To Chinese, “龙” is something sacred and has been referred to as the ancestor of the Chinese nation—that's why Chinese people call themselves “龙的传人 (descendants of the dragon)”. “龙” is used frequently in Chinese daily life in order to convey a propitious meaning, such as in dish names“龙凤呈祥”， “二龙戏珠”and “青龙过海”. To westerners, however, the dragon is a symbol of evil. Many heroes in stories struggled against dragons which were slain in most cases.(Wang Lijun 2017, 25)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take “喜鹊(pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name(喜)means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox". (Wang Lijun 2017, 28)<br />
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Take “喜鹊 (pied magpie)” for another instance. In Chinese culture, this bird is always regarded as a messenger of good news, for the first character of its Chinese name “喜” means "happiness". So the chattering of a pied magpie had the connotative meaning of "good news is coming". But in English culture, people pay more attention to the appearance of this black-and-white bird and the noises it makes. Then the connotative meaning of it in English is "a chatterbox".(Wang Lijun 2017, 28)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 Strategies of Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning of Hunan Cuisine Names===<br />
The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transfering the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc., so that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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The purpose of translation is to communicate, therefore transferring the information is very important in translation. Regardless of the method of translation, it is important to convey as much information as possible about the main ingredients, cooking methods, etc. So that foreigners can understand them and communicate with each other. Clearly conveying information about the dishes means that the English translation of Hunan cuisine names can help people from other countries understand the basic information about the dishes, the unique cooking techniques and regional characteristics of Hunan cuisine, and appreciate the colourful culinary culture of Hunan.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some contain profound historical allusions or folk legends, while others have changed their names based on raw materials, shapes and cooking methods. This makes English translation difficult and makes it difficult to fully reflect the linguistic and cultural features of the Chinese language. In this case, the English translation of Hunan cuisine names should be purpose-oriented, so that foreign friends can understand as much as possible about the basic information of Hunan cuisine. The name of the dish should first of all ensure that the customer knows the ingredients，the supplementary ingredients, the cooking method and the flavour of the dish, so the most important thing when translating the name of a dish, whether it is realistic or associative, is that it should firstly convey its denotative meaning. (Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish.The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", etc., make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)<br />
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In some cases, it is also possible to make major changes to the presentation of the translation, avoiding or diluting words in the dish that have strong symbolic meaning but are incompatible with Western culture, and keeping the basic content of the dish as far as possible in order to achieve the basic purpose and function of conveying the message of the dish. The names of some dishes are quoted from poems and idioms, and the English translation method of "literal+interpretative translation" can be used to express the specific meaning of the ingredients while retaining their distinctive national characteristics. Some of the common cooking methods used in Hunan cuisine, such as "stir-frying, roasting, boiling, stewing, deep-frying, steaming", make the translation more effective.(Wang Caiying 2009, 108)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Cooking Methods and Main Ingredient====<br />
The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as“cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”,that‘s “Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)<br />
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The name of such a dish includes both the cooking method and the main ingredient, with the cooking method preceding and the main ingredient following. The English translation uses “cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient”, such as“炒生菜", where "炒" is the practice. "生菜" is the main ingredient, which translates as Sauteed Lettuce " and “花生炖猪蹄"，where“炖" is the cooking method, peanuts and pig's feet are the main ingredients, the name of the dish can be translated as “cooking method+main ingredient+and+main ingredient”, which calls “ Stewed Pig's Trotters and Peanuts".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 23)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on "Ingredient and Main Ingredient" or "Main ingredient and Soup"====<br />
The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by with or in. e.g."冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". Yhe choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with” e.g. "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)<br />
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The names of such Hunan dishes mainly consist of main ingredients and ingredients, which form Hunan cuisine names as "ingredient+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "main ingredient+with/in+ingredients". Connected by “with or in”, for example, "冬笋腊肉" and "蟹黄海参" can be translated respectively as “Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork) with Winter Bamhoo Shoot” and “Sea Cucumber with Crab Roe”. If the ingredient is soup, use the expression "soup+main ingredient", which is translated as "main ingredient+in/with+ Soup/Sauce". The choice of in or with is determined by the actual "sauce". Use "in" if the main ingredient is immersed in the sauce, and if the sauce is separate from the main ingredient, or if it is poured over the main dish, we should use “with”, for example, "蜜汁白莲" is translated as "Lotus-seed in Honey Sauce"and "茄汁鱼片" is translated as "Sliced Fish with Tomato Sauce ".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 24)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Main Ingredients====<br />
When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, e.g. in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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When the name of a dish is "flavour+main ingredient", the English translation puts the flavour in the front and the main ingredient at the back, highlighting the taste of the dish, for example, in "麻辣牛肉", "麻辣" is the taste. "牛肉" is the main ingredient, which translates as "Spicy and Hot Beef"and "酸辣" in "酸辣鸡杂" is the flavour, "鸡杂" is the main ingredient and it can be translated as "Hot and Sour Chicken Giblets".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.4 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings and Main Ingredients====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine name in the form of "seasoning+main ingredient" can use the structure of "main ingredient+with+seasoning", such as "芥末鸡条" can be translated as “Chicken Strips with Mustard”, a literal translation can also be used in the original structure, such as “孜然牛肉” can be translated as "Cumin Beef".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.5 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names Based on Seasonings, Cooking Methods and Main Ingredients====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", e.g. "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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Chinese Hunan cuisine names has the structure of "seasoning+cooking method+main ingredient", which can be translated in English as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+main ingredient+ with+seasoning", for example, "豆瓣酱烧肥鱼" can be translated as "Braised Fish with Thick Broad-bean Sauce" and "豆豉蒸排骨" as "Steamed Pork Chops with Lobster Sauce".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.6 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Colour and Shape of the Finished Dish====<br />
The names of such dishes are generally translated using the literal and free translation method. For example, "芙蓉鸡片" can be translated as "Fried Sliced Chicken with Egg White" and "菊花鱿鱼"as "Fried Chrysanthemum-shaped Squid".(Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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====3.7 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names According to the Flavour and the Shape of the Raw Material after it has been cut====<br />
The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", e.g. "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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The English translation of Hunan cuisine names can be in the form of "flavour+shape+main ingredient", for example, "麻辣" in "麻辣羊肚丝" denotes the flavour. "羊肚" is the main ingredient, and the goat tripe is shredded, which can be translated as "Spicy and Hot shredded Goat Tripe". (Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.8 English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Name According to the Cooking Method and the Main Ingredient and its modified Shape====<br />
Chinese Hunan cuisine names "--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)cooking method+main ingredient+shape" can be translated as "cooking method (past participle of the verb)+shape+main ingredient", such as "干煸牛肉丝". "干煸" is the cooking method, "牛肉" is the main ingredient and "丝" is the shape of the modified ingredient, it can be translated as "Dry-fried Shredded Beef".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 29)<br />
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====3.9 English Translations of Hunan Cuisine Names from "Name of Person or Place + Main Ingredient" to "Name of Person or Place+Cooking Method + Main Ingredient"====<br />
In addition to the above principles, the names of such dishes should also be transliterated from the names of people and places, which is good for promoting the Chinese language and culture. The translation of Hunan cuisine names as "person's name+main ingredient" can be made directly. For example, in "组庵豆腐", "组庵" is the name of a person and "豆腐" is the main ingredient, which is transliterated as "Zu'an Tofuo".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+，+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", e.g. "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)<br />
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The name of the dish "place name+main ingredient" can be translated as "main ingredient+place name+Style" with the main ingredient separated from the place name by a comma. For example, "湖南" in "湖南腊肉" is the name of the place, and "腊肉" is the main ingredient, which is translated as " Preserved Pork (Smoked Pork), Hunan Style", the name of a Hunan dish in the form of "place name+main ingredient" can also be translated into the form of "place name+main ingredient", for example, "东安鸡" can be translated as "Dong' an Chicken".(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The name of a dish can be translated in the form of "cooking method+main ingredient+，+person (place name)+style", e.g. "毛氏红烧肉", which can be translated as "Braised Pork, Mao's Family Style. "(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)<br />
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====3.10 An English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names as "Utensil + Main Ingredient"====<br />
Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, e.g. “铁板牛肉”can be translated as Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30) <br />
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Containers such as iron plates, dry pans, casseroles, etc. are also used in combination with the main ingredient to name the Chinese Hunan cuisine names, which can be translated as “utensils+main ingredient”，e.g. “干锅茶树菇” is translated as Dry Pot (Griddle Cooked) Tea Tree Mushrooms, it can also be translated as“main ingredient+in/on+main ingredient”, for example, “铁板牛肉”can be translated as “Beef Steak Served on Sizzling Iron Plate”.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 30)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.11 The English Translation of Hunan Cuisine Names that Do Not Reflect Information on Cooking Methods, Main Ingredients, Tastes, etc.====<br />
Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as Quan Jia Fu (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion) (Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)<br />
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Some Hunan cuisine names do not reflect basic information such as cooking method, main ingredients, taste, etc. These names usually combine the colour, aroma, cooking method and stylistic features of the dish to give it a pleasant name. For example, “全家福” could be translated as “Quan Jia Fu” (A tonic recipe of chicken breast fried with sea cucumber peeled shrimp and squid, carrying the implied meaning of a happy family reunion.)(Zhang Qiang 2017, 31)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Chinese dish names are rich in connotation, vividly reflecting China's cuisine culture. Their English translations are an effective means to inform foreigners of Chinese culture. Therefore, it is of great importance to make a study on translations of these dish names. The current studies in this field have given an analysis to Chinese dish names' features, functions as well as the principles for their translation. (Wang Lijun 2017, 23)<br />
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This paper has made a tentative study of Chinese dish names from the angle of untranslatability and loss of meaning. The study covers the analysis of the untranslatability and loss of meaning caused by the differences between Chinese and English, from linguistic and cultural perspectives, taking Hunan cuisine names an example, the introduction of the constitution and function of dish names. Then since Chinese dish names play an important role in Chinese culture, according to untranslatabiltiy caused by culture differences between Chinese and English, the paper analyzes the untranslatable phenomena existing in the English translation of Chinese dish names from the aspects of thinking, beliefs and values, customs, and lexical non-equivalence.(Zhang Qiang 2017, 26) <br />
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Although there are many translated versions of various Chinese dishes nowadays, and some of them have been accepted by the public, it is undeniable that there are cultural obstacles which cannot be translated. If translators don't know untranslatabiltiy of dish names, they cannot translate them properly, since they couldn't avoid the obstacles and adopt some compensatory measures. strangeness in front of cultural differences.<br />
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A translation should on the one hand keep as much as possible the original flavor and on the other hand try to make it accessible to the target language readers.<br />
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===References===<br />
[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square].24-25.<br />
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[1]Cao Binbin. 曹彬彬.(2016). 从翻译的不可译性看中式菜名英. [English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names from the Perspective of Translation Untranslatability]. 英语广场. [English Square]24-25.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[2]J. C. Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation . London: Oxford University.93-95<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English].120-121.<br />
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[3]Liu Chuang. 刘闯.(2012). 浅析中餐菜名英译的不可译性及解决. [An analysis of the untranslatability of the English translation of Chinese cuisine names and its solution]. 校园英语. [Campus English]120-121.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press] 200-220<br />
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[4]Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2004). 西方翻译简史(增订版). [ A Brief History of Western Translation (Updated Edition)]. 商务印书馆. [The Commercial Press]200-220.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 108-109.<br />
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[5]Wang Caiying.王才英.(2009). 试论中国菜名的相对不可译及对策. [Experimental discussion on the relative untranslatability of Chinese dish names and Strategies].长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]108-109.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]. 10-13<br />
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[6]Wang Lijun. 王丽君.(2008). 中文菜名的不可译性研究. [On Untranslatability of Chinese Dish Names]. 吉林大学学报. [Journal of Jilin University]10-13.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[7]Wang Lixia. 王丽霞.(2017).《湘菜六味—湘菜缘分》汉译英实践报告.[A Report on the C-E Translation of the 3rd Chapter of Xiangcailiuwei].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]. 84-86.<br />
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[8]Xiong Liyou. 熊力游. (2004). 中华菜名功能与翻译处理. [Functions and Translation processing of Chinese Cuisine names]. 长沙大学学报. [Journal of Changsha University]84-86.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]. 18-33<br />
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[9]Zhang Qiang. 张强. (2017). 湘菜菜名词语与对外汉语教学.[Name of Hunan Cuisine in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language].湖南师范大学.[Hunan Normal University]18-33.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 03:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example - 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br />
<center> 邬香 Wu Xiang 202020080651.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br />
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As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication, this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of Chinese dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations and promote cultural exchange and transmission.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化和归化视角下中国菜名英译研究——以湘菜为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies . Therefore,in this chapter I will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)<br />
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中国饮食文化历经数千年的沉淀和传承后，在国际舞台上崭露头角，逐渐得到外国人的青睐和认可。当今社会世界各国、各民族文化交流日益频繁，翻译作为一种跨文化交际活动，不仅指语言转换的过程，而且是文化转换和传播的过程。归化和异化策略能最大程度保留原文中的文化元素，解决目前中国菜名翻译过程中存在的一些问题。湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有独特的特点和丰富的文化底蕴，适合采用归化和异化英译。中国许多学者对中国菜名翻译的研究多着眼于具体的翻译方法和技巧，很少从异化和归化的翻译策略高度来考虑。然而首先明确采用怎样的翻译策略，继而才能选用合适的翻译方法和技巧，因为前者的实施体现在特定翻译技巧的运用，同时后者的运用需依据一定的翻译策略。因此，本文将以湘菜菜品名为语料，探讨翻译策略在传统中国菜名英译中的运用。(熊兵，2014,84）<br />
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After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance, Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and has gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. Nowadays cultural exchanges among countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and transmission. Domestication and foreignization strategies can preserve the cultural elements of the original text to the greatest extent and solve some problems existing in the translation of Chinese dish names. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural background, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many Chinese scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of Chinese dish names.They rarely consider the translation from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. However,it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the expression of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, and the application of the latter needs to be based on certain translation strategies. Therefore, this paper will discuss the application of translation strategies domestication and foreignization in the translation of traditional Chinese dishes using the name of Hunan cuisine as the corpus based on the corpus of Hunan dishes. (Xiong Bing 2014,84)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1. Exiting Problems in English Translation of Chinese Dish Names===<br />
Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Next I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)<br />
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Chinese food culture is extensive and profound with long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications among China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. Below I will analyze them in detail with examples.(Xia Ying 2016, 259)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国饮食文化博大精深，源远流长。中餐翻译在中外文化交流中的重要性不言而喻。然而，目前中国菜名英译存在不少问题，诸如使用直接生硬表达法、缺乏统一翻译标准、忽视菜肴文化内涵等。这些问题不仅引起外国人的困惑，国内英语学习者亦云里雾里。下面我将结合实例具体分析。(夏瑛 2016, 259)<br />
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====1.1 The Use of Direct and Rigid Expressions====<br />
China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people funny. For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)<br />
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China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods vary from region to region. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can’t express the rich connotations of these dishes and even make people laugh. For example, if "Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud"(叫花鸡) is translated into "beggar's chicken"(叫花子的鸡), it doesn’t reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. But he didn’t have cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that "木须肉" is translated as "wood mustache meat"（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and doesn’t reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is more appropriate and reasonable to translate it into "stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus". (Zhang Yang 2016, 48)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国地大物博，全国各地区的饮食习惯与烹饪方法各不相同，其中一些菜肴以神话、传说及典故命名，还有一些佳肴烹饪方法复杂，食材多种多样。直接生硬的表达法不能很好表达这些菜肴的丰富内涵，甚至会让人啼笑皆非。比如，”叫花鸡”(Jiaohua Chicken，a whole chicken roasted in caked mud)若译成”Beggar’s Chicken”则完全没有体现这道菜的由来及做法。相传明末清初时，常熟一个乞丐偶然间得到一只鸡，苦于没有炊具和调料，只能将鸡处理后放入泥土中煨烤，鸡熟后敲掉泥壳，香气四溢，成为一道美味佳肴。又如，“木须肉”被译为”Wood mustache meat”（木头胡子肉），这种译法让人不知所云，更没有体现这道菜的主要原料。笔者认为将其译为”Stir-fried pork with eggs and black fungus”比较恰当合理。(张扬 2016, 48)<br />
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====1.2 The Lack of Unified Translation Standards====<br />
At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish nayanmes, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese food culture. For example, there are several different translation versions of "麻婆豆腐" in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of "Mapo Tofu" and have already accepted it, so no explanation can also be. The first translation is more vivid and make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate "宫保鸡丁", including "Kung Pao chicken", "fried diced chicken in Sichuan style" or "sauteed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts". So many translation versions not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese food culture. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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目前，国际上没有关于中国菜名翻译的统一的标准，这导致在图书市场和餐厅内出现多个翻译版本，给外国人就餐带来不便与麻烦，严重影响了中国饮食文化的传播。例如，国内“麻婆豆腐”有以下几种不同的翻译：Bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo tofu; Tofu made by woman with freckles.笔者认为，最后一种译法不是很贴切，容易引起反感。外国人已熟知并接受”Mapo tofu”的译法，故不解释亦可。第一种译法较为形象，体现了菜肴的做法和原料，让人垂涎欲滴。“宫保鸡丁”五花八门的译法包括”Kung Pao Chicken”, “Fried diced chicken in Sichuan style” 或”Sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts”. 如此多的译名不仅会引起读者思维上的混乱，而且没有很好地体现中国菜名的特点与文化内涵。由此可见，统一菜名的翻译是正确领略中国饮食文化亟待解决的问题之一。 (林红 1991, 41)<br />
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====1.3 The Neglect of Cultural Connotations of Dishes====<br />
The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western catering cultures, which in the final analysis stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, and there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the Phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners do not understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding. (Wang Junjian 2017，107)<br />
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The differences between Chinese and Western cultures lead to the differences between Chinese and Western food cultures, which stems from the different attitudes towards rationality and sensibility. Chinese people have strong perceptual thinking, so they pursue beauty and artistry. Chinese dishes are full of color, fragrance and other cultural connotations. Westerners pay more attention to rationality, truth and science. The names of Western dishes are easy to understand, and the raw materials and nutrients are relatively clear. For example, onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤) is used in Western food, while "stewed snake and chicken"(龙凤呈祥) in Chinese food is the soup stewed with snake and chicken. Snake is regarded as a small dragon (Jiao 蛟) in China, there is a folk saying that pheasant flies on the branch and becomes a phoenix(野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰). Therefore, the snake is compared to the dragon, and the chicken to the phoenix, which is used to bless and praise things and others. The main ingredient of "more than every year"(年年有余) is fish. "Yu"(余) in Chinese refers to surplus, which is homophonic with "fish”(鱼), which expresses people's good wishes for a prosperous family and surplus every year. If foreigners don’t understand the Chinese culture implied in these dishes, they will find this kind of translation very strange. Therefore, cultural factors must be taken into account in translating Chinese dishes to avoid misunderstanding.(Wang Junjian 2017，107)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中西文化的差异导致中西饮食文化的不同，而这种差异归根结底源于双方对待理性和感性的不同态度。中国人感性思维较强，故而追求美和艺术性，中餐讲究色香味俱全，通常含有祝福、美好等文化内涵。西方人则更注重理性、真理和科学，西餐菜名通俗易懂，原料和营养成分较为清楚。比如，西餐中的Onion soup in French style(法式洋葱汤),而中餐中的”龙凤呈祥”（Stewed snake and chicken）是用蛇和鸡炖的汤。蛇在中国视为小龙（蛟），且民间有“野鸡飞上枝头变凤凰”的俗语。故把蛇比作龙，鸡比作凤凰，用作对事物和他人的祝福和赞美。”年年有余”（More than every year）的主要食材是鱼，“余”在汉语中指剩余，与“鱼”谐音，表达人们对家业发达、年年有余的美好愿望。如果外国人不了解这些菜隐含的中国文化，则会觉得这种翻译很奇怪。因此，在翻译中国菜名时必须考虑文化因素，避免造成误解。(王君健 2017,107)<br />
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To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignore the cultural connotations of dish names, and use inappropriate translation methods. I will try to solve these problems by adopting translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels. Next, I will introduce the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)<br />
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To a large extent, the above problems are caused by the fact that people pay attention to the intuitive feelings in the process of translation, ignoring the cultural background contained in dish names, and using inappropriate translation methods. The paper tries to solve these problems by adopting domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels, then introduces the two translation strategies and analyzes how to use them to improve the quality of translation in the process of translating Hunan cuisine into English. (Xia Ying 2016, 259+273)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 13:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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以上问题很大程度上是因为人们在翻译过程中注重直观的感受，忽略菜名蕴含的文化底蕴，使用不恰当的翻译方法造成的。笔者试图从语言和文化层面采用归化和异化翻译策略来解决这些问题。接下来将介绍着这两种翻译策略并分析在湘菜英译过程中如何运用它们来提高翻译质量。(夏瑛 2016, 259+273)<br />
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===2. Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization ===<br />
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====2.1 Definitions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book Translator's Invisibility according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expressions that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the linguistic characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions. It requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. It means that we should take the source culture as the destination. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the differences of national cultures, preserve and reflect characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers.（Su Songlonghua 2011）<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies in the process of translation. These two terms were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his book “Translator's Invisibility” according to the theory of German philosopher Schleiermacher. (Wang Shaofei 2006,30) Domestication refers to a translation strategy that localizes the source language, takes the target language or target language readers as the destination, and adopts the expression that the readers are used to convey the content of the original text. Domestication requires the translator to approach the target language readers. It can help readers better understand the translation and enhance its readability and appreciation of translation. Foreignization in the process of translation considers the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs foreign language expressions, requires translators to approach the author and adopt the corresponding source language expressions to convey the content of the original text. The purpose of using foreignization is to consider the difference of national cultures, to preserve and reflect the characteristics of foreign cultures and their language styles, and to retain the exotic sentiment for the target readers. (Baidu Encyclopedia, Susong Longhua ,2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“归化”和“异化”是翻译过程中两种不同的翻译策略。这两个术语最初是由劳伦斯韦努蒂( Lawrence Venuti) 根据德国哲学家施莱尔马赫( Schleiermarcher) 的理论在他的著作《译者的隐身》中提出的。(王少飞，2006, 30) 归化指把源语本土化，以目标语或译文读者为归宿，采取目标语读者所习惯的表达方式来传达原文的内容的一种翻译策略。归化翻译要求译者向目的语的读者靠拢。归化翻译有助于读者更好地理解译文，增强译文的可读性和欣赏性。异化在翻译上迁就外来文化的语言特点，吸纳外语表达方式，要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者所使用的源语表达方式，来传达原文的内容，即以源语文化为归宿。使用异化策略的目的在于考虑民族文化的差异性、保存和反映异域民族特征和语言风格特色，为译文读者保留异国情调。（百度百科,宿松龙华，2011）<br />
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====2.2 Two Levels of Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level adopting the translation strategy of foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Domestication, because of its reader-oriented characteristics, can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt the foreignization strategy, because there are too large cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove communication barriers. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication strategies at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, the use of a combination of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths,avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)<br />
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Foreignization and domestication should be investigated from the level of language form and cultural content. (Zhang Zhizhong 2005,46) On the one hand, at the linguistic level, adopting foreignization is beneficial to enrich the expression of the target language, but only in a few cases the purpose of translation is to show the language form of the source language. Because of its reader-oriented characteristics, domestication can ensure that the translation is easy to understand, and it is favored by readers. Therefore, at the language level domestication is the mainstay and foreignization is the supplement. On the other hand, on the cultural level foreignization can retain the cultural elements and connotations contained in the source language as much as possible, which helps to spread foreign cultures, and its advantages are greater than domestication. However, it is impossible to completely adopt foreignization, because there are too many cultural differences in cross-cultural communication, and it is necessary to use domestication to remove the obstacles of communication. Therefore, at the cultural level the principle of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement is adopted. In addition, using domestication at the language level can clearly express the meaning of the original text, which helps to better reflect the cultural elements expressed by the use of foreignization at the cultural level. In short, when the source language has distinctive national characteristics, combining domestication and foreignization can maximize strengths, avoid weaknesses and promote cultural transmission.(Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 87)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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谈论异化和归化，应从语言形式和文化内容层面考察。（张智中，2005,46）一方面，在语言层面上，采取异化翻译策略有利于丰富目的语的表达方式，但是只有在少数情况下翻译的目的是展现源语的语言形式。而归化由于读者导向性的特点能保证译文通俗易懂，受到广大读者的青睐。故而在语言层面提倡主要采用归化策略，异化策略辅助的原则。另一方面，在文化层面上，异化能尽可能保留源语中蕴藏的文化元素和内涵，有助于传播异国文化，其优势大于归化。但是，完全采用异化策略是不可能的，因为在跨文化交际中存在文化差异过大的情况，需要采用归化来扫除交流障碍。因此，在文化层面上采用异化为主，归化为辅的原则。此外，在语言层面上采取归化策略能清楚的表达原文意思，有助于更好地体现在文化层面采用异化策略所表达的文化元素。总之，当源语具有鲜明的民族特色时，采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能够扬长避短，促进文化传播。(沈桑爽，王淑琼，2017，87）<br />
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Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and applications. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the author. On the one hand, from the perspective of readers we should try our best to use their habitual expressions and consider their way of thinking and understanding ability to make sure that they can understand the translation. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retaining the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)<br />
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Theoretically speaking, foreignization and domestication are two opposite translation strategies. However, they are closely related and interact with each other in specific translation practices and application. When domestication and foreignization are applied in the translation of Chinese dish names, the translator should deal with the relationship between the readers and the authors. On the one hand, we should consider their way of thinking and understanding ability as far as possible from the reader's point of view, so that they can understand the translation content. On the other hand, we should pay attention to retain the essence of Chinese traditional culture contained in Chinese dish names, so as not to blindly please readers without knowing to change. This is the basic requirement of a qualified translator of Chinese dish names. (Su Songlonghua 2011)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从理论上看异化和归化这两种翻译策略是对立的，然而在具体的翻译实践和应用中二者有紧密的联系，且相互作用。在中国菜名翻译中应用归化和异化翻译策略时，译者应处理好读者与作者之间的关系。一方面，应从读者的角度出发尽可能用其惯用的表达方式，考虑他们的思维方式和理解能力，以达到他们能明白翻译内容的目的。另一方面，应注意保留中国菜名中所蕴含的中国传统文化精髓，做到既不一味取悦读者，也不不知变通（一成不变），这是一位合格的中国菜名翻译者的基本素养。( 百度百科 宿松龙华 2011)<br />
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===3. Application of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine===<br />
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====3.1 Composition and Nomenclature of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes, which describe their mood. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture,from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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As one of the eight major Chinese cuisines, Hunan cuisine has the unique characteristics of color, flavor and taste of Chinese dishes, and its naming also shows different styles. Hunan cuisine can be generally divided into realistic dishes and freehand dishes. The first type of dishes directly reflects the cooking elements. The second one usually uses rhetorical skills to endow dishes with certain cultural connotations according to their own composition. If foreigners don't understand Chinese culture, from literal translation they don't know the specific methods and raw materials of this kind of dishes, so it is difficult to understand their meanings. (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜作为中国八大菜系之一，具有中国菜肴独有的色香味俱全的特点，其命名亦显示不同的风格。湘菜一般可分为写实型菜肴和写意型菜肴，写实型菜肴直接体现烹饪要素。写意型佳肴则通常使用修辞手法，根据其本身的组成赋予菜肴一定的文化内涵。如果外国人不了解中国的文化，单从字面翻译他们不知道这类菜肴具体做法和原料，难以理解其具体含义。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.1 Realistic Dishes=====<br />
Realistic dishes are often named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients embody fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)<br />
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Realistic dishes are generally named according to the combination of cooking elements. The cooking elements of Hunan cuisine mainly include raw materials(原料), seasonings(调料), knife techniques(刀法), taste(口味) and cooking methods(烹饪方法). Common main ingredients include fish, meat, chicken, etc.; seasonings involve star anise(八角), cinnamon(桂皮), green onion(葱), ginger(姜), garlic(蒜); knife techniques are various, such as slicing(切片), shredding(切丝), cutting into wicker shapes(切柳) ; the taste is famous for its sour and spicy(酸辣), fresh and tender(鲜嫩), crisp and fragrant(酥脆) taste; the cooking methods are mainly sauted(爆), simmered(煨), stewed(炖), fried(炒), braised(烩) and steamed(蒸). The common combination methods include following three types: cooking materials + methods + knife method, such as sauted shredded pork with green pepper(青椒肉丝); seasoning + raw materials, such as bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper(姜辣牛蛙), hot and sour radish strips(酸辣萝卜条); taste + cooking method + raw materials, such as smoked fish in five flavors(五香熏鱼). (Chen Wei 2007, 108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写实型菜一般根据其菜肴烹饪要素的组合命名，湘菜的烹饪要素主要包括原料、调料、刀法、口味和烹饪方法。常见的主料包括鱼、肉、鸡等；调料有八角、桂皮、葱、姜、蒜；种类繁多的刀法如，切片、切丝、切柳等；口味以酸辣、鲜嫩、酥脆、香熏著称；烹饪方法以爆、煨、炖、炒、烩、蒸为主。常见的组合方式包括以下三种：烹饪原料+方法+刀法，如青椒肉丝（Sauteed Shredded Pork with Green Pepper）；调料+原料，如姜辣牛蛙（Bullfrog with ginger sauce and pepper ）、酸辣萝卜条（Hot and sour radish strips）；口味+烹饪方法+原料，如五香熏鱼（Smoked fish in five flavors)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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=====3.1.2 Freehand Dishes=====<br />
There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural backgrounds and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)<br />
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There are two types of freehand dishes. The first one is named according to the raw materials, colors, shapes or origin places of the dishes, which not only contains rich historical and cultural background and local flavors, but also expresses good wishes for good luck and has Chinese characteristics. These dishes are often named after allusions, legends or use metaphors, such as steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat / sugar in it)(姊妹团子), hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup(蝴蝶飘海). The second one refers to the names of people and place names related to dishes, which has distinctive local characteristics, such as Mao's braised pork(毛氏红烧肉), braised chestnut with green cabbage(板栗烧菜心), Changde rice noodles(常德米粉) and Lixian County stewed pork gut(澧县肠子). (Chen Wei 2007，108)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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写意型菜包括两种类型。第一种根据菜肴的原料、色形或产地取名，使其不仅蕴含丰富的历史文化背景和地方风味，也表达了吉祥美好的祝愿，更具有中国特色。这些菜常以典故、传说命名或使用隐喻等修辞手法，如姊妹团子（Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball (with meat/sugar in it)）、蝴蝶飘海(Hotpot of snakeheaded fish<br />
slices as butterflies out of the soup)。第二种引用与菜肴相关的人名、地名命名，具有鲜明的地方特色，如毛氏红烧肉（Mao's braised pork）、板栗烧菜心（Braised chestnut with green cabbage）、常德米粉(Changde rice noodles)，澧县肠子(Lixian county stewed pork gut)。(陈蔚 2007，108)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)<br />
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According to the composition and nomenclature of Hunan cuisine and the high acceptability and comprehensibility of domestication and foreignization, translation strategies of domestication-based and foreignization-assisted translation of realistic Chinese dish names reproduces the original style well. The strategies of adopting foreignization as the main and domestication as the supplement for the English translation of freehand dish names can better convey the interesting characteristics of Chinese cuisine and the broad and profound cultural heritage. In the following I will use exemplification to analyze it from different perspectives. (Jiang Jun 2017, 203)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据湘菜构成及命名方法和归化和异化的可接受度高和可理解性强的特点，翻译写实型中国菜名时采用归化为主、异化为辅的翻译策略很好地再现原作的风格，而针对写意型菜名英译采用异化为主、归化为辅的策略能较好地传达中餐妙趣横生的特征及博大精深的文化底蕴。下面我将从不同的角度使用例证法具体分析。 (姜君 2017, 203)<br />
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====3.2 At the Language Level Domestication is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions in English to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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Domestication at the language level means that the English translation of Hunan dishes should use common and appropriate expressions to convey the meaning of Chinese dish names at different levels of linguistics such as vocabulary, semantics, and grammar, so as to ensure the acceptability of English translation of dish names for foreigners. (Shen Sangshuang，Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言层面的归化指湘菜的英译要在词汇、语义、语法等语言学的不同层面上，使用英语中常见、贴切的表达方式传达中国菜名的含义，以确保英译菜名在外国人中的接受度。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Domestication at Lexical Level=====<br />
“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it cannot be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens that have not mate. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the strategy of domestication is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The “fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish does not refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)<br />
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“童子鸡”can be translated as “Tender chicken”(嫩滑的鸡肉), but it can’t be translated as “chicken without sexual life”(没有性生活的鸡). According to this literal translation, “童子鸡” refers to chickens without mating. However, this dish originally emphasized that the chicken is tender and tastes very good, not the age of the chicken. Therefore, when translating “童子鸡”, the domestication strategy is used at the lexical level. The word “Tender” is used to express the concept of “童子”, which means that the chicken is not mature enough. It expresses the essence of this dish vividly and avoids misunderstanding. This method is also applicable to the English translation of “鱼香肉丝”. “Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce”(蒜蓉猪肉丝或鱼香肉丝) refers to shredded pork mixed with minced garlic. The“fish fragrance”(鱼香) of this dish doesn’t refer to the fragrance of fish meat, but a complex flavor composed of various seasonings such as pickled pepper, sugar and vinegar. The above-mentioned translation not only retains the original meaning of Chinese, but also arouses foreigners' associations with the smell of fish. (Lin Hong 1991, 41)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“童子鸡”可译为Tender chicken(嫩滑的鸡肉)，但不能译成“chicken without sexual life”。按照这种字面翻译，“童子鸡”指的是没有交配的小鸡。然而，这道菜原本强调的是鸡肉很嫩，口感十分好，而非鸡的年龄。因此翻译“童子鸡”时在词汇层面使用归化策略，用tender表示“童子”这个概念，指鸡尚未发育成熟，可传神地表达这道菜的本质，避免误解。这种方法同样适用于“鱼香肉丝”的英译。“鱼香肉丝”（Shredded pork with garlic sauce or Fish-flavored shredded pork in hot sauce）指混合着蒜末的肉丝。这道菜的“鱼香”并非指鱼肉的香味，而是一种用泡椒、糖、醋等多种调料组成的复合味道。上述译法即保留了中文的原意，又能引起外国人对鱼香味的联想。(林红 1991, 41)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as wonton(馄饨), tofu(豆腐), jiaozi(饺子) and Shaomai(烧卖). These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, the use of pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese cooking culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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In addition, pinyin can be used in English translation of dishes with Chinese characteristics which have been included in major foreign English dictionaries, such as “Wonton”(馄饨), “Tofu”(豆腐), “Jiaozi”(饺子), “Shaomai”(烧卖) and so on. These dishes are traditional Chinese food which has been widely accepted by foreigners. Moreover, using pinyin can promote Chinese and Chinese food culture. (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，具有中国特色且被国外主要英文字典收录的，使用汉语方言拼音或音译拼写的菜名，英译时可使用拼音，如“馄饨”（Wonton）、“豆腐”（Tofu）、“饺子”（Jiaozi）、“烧卖”(Shaomai)等。这些菜肴都是已被外国人普遍接受的中国传统食品，使用拼音能推广汉语和中国饮食文化。(沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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=====3.2.2 Domestication at Semantic Level=====<br />
Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean”(金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲).Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch” (全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup” (蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)<br />
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Domestication at semantic level is conducive to convey the meaning of dish names simply and clearly. For example, “一卵孵双凤” can be translated as “two phoenix were hatched from an egg (two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon)”. From the above translation you can clearly understand the main ingredients and cooking methods of this dish, so as not to be confused by its name. (Zhang Yang 2016, 48) In another example, “金鱼戏莲” is made with squid as the main ingredient. The squid rolls resemble goldfish, playing among the lotus clusters composed of eggs, shrimps and green beans. The name of the dish comes from it. If this dish is directly translated as “goldfish plays with lotus” with the use of foreignization, it is difficult for people to figure out what it means. Therefore, “Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean to mean” (金鱼戏莲) vividly expresses the essence of this dish, and a vivid and interesting picture can be constructed in the reader's mind through the representation of the image of “floating lotus”(浮莲). Similar examples include “stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch”(全家福), “hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup”(蝴蝶飘海) and “steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar”(五元神仙鸡). (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 120)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语义上的归化有利于简单明了地传达菜名的含义。例如，“一卵孵双凤”可译为Two phoenix were hatched from an egg(two chickens, winter bamboo shoots and mushrooms steamed in watermelon).从上述翻译可以十分清楚地了解这道菜的主要食材和制作方法，从而不会再被菜名弄得一头雾水。 （张扬 2016，48）又如，“金鱼戏莲”以鱿鱼为主料制作而成，鱿鱼卷似金鱼，嬉戏于由鸡蛋、虾仁和青豆组成的群莲中，菜名由此而来。如果采用异化策略直接译为Goldfish plays with lotus,外国人很难弄明白这指的是什么。故用Oil-fried squid files and steamed shrimp meat, albumen and lima bean表示“金鱼戏莲”,既十分形象地表达了这道菜的本质，又通过“浮莲”意象的再现，能在读者脑海里构建一幅生动有趣的画面。类似的例子还包括“全家福”（Stewed assorted meats/hotchpotch）、“五元神仙鸡”（Steamed whole hen with litchi, longan, jujube, lotus and medlar）、“蝴蝶飘海”（Hotpot of snakeheaded fish slices as butterflies out of the soup）。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 120)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Domestication at Grammatical Level=====<br />
The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)<br />
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The domestication of Hunan cuisine at the grammatical level is mainly reflected in the use of prepositions and verb past participles in English translation of dish names. There are various cooking methods for Hunan cuisine, including simmer, stew, steam, fry, smoke, and the past participle is usually used in the translation. Such as “Dongting spicy salted duck” (洞庭酱板鸭), “Dongting barbecued mandarin fish”(网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼), and “fried winter bamboo shoots”(油辣冬笋尖).Dishes with main ingredients and supplemented by ingredients, seasonings, and soups are generally translated by prepositions, such as “preserved egg with hot pepper”(尖椒皮蛋),“fragments of garlic bolt without using knife”(手撕蒜苗), “Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear” (永州血鸭) and “braised pig knuckle in brown sauce” (走油猪腿). (Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong 2017, 88)--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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湘菜在语法层面的归化主要体现在英译菜名时介词和动词过去分词的使用方面。湘菜多种多样的烹调方法，包括煨simmer、炖stew、蒸steam、炒fry、熏smoke，在译文中通常用过去分词。如“洞庭酱板鸭”（Dongting spicy salted duck ）、“网油叉烧洞庭桂鱼”（Dongting barbecued mandarin fish）、“油辣冬笋尖”（Fried winter bamboo shoots）。而以主料为主，配料、调料、汤汁为辅的菜肴一般会使用介词翻译，如“尖椒皮蛋”（Preserved Egg with Hot Pepper）、“手撕蒜苗”（Fragments of garlic bolt without using knife）、“永州血鸭”（Yongzhou fried duck pieces together with its blood and balsam pear）、“走油猪蹄”（Braised pig knuckle in brown sauce）。 (沈桑爽，王淑琼 2017, 88)<br />
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====3.3 At the Cultural Level Foreignization is the Mainstay and Domestication is the Supplement====<br />
As we all know, the exchange of food culture in cross-cultural communication is closely connected with daily life. Chinese dishes are both delicacy and art. They have profound cultural heritage and aesthetic value. There are many dishes named after allusions, legends and dishes with names of people and places in Hunan cuisine. Only when people understand their cultural background can they be translated into English more successfully. At the cultural level the translation strategies of foreignization as the mainstay and domestication as the supplement helps to inform customers of the taste, cooking method and ingredients of the dishes to the greatest extent, and accurately convey the cultural elements of the dishes. In my opinion, to use the foreignization translation strategy to translate Chinese food must first understand the characteristics of the naming of Western food. According to the famous French chef Auguste Escoffier, Western dishes are usually named after people, places, gods, historical events, and main ingredients. Comparing the naming and composition characteristics of Hunan cuisine and Western cuisine, it can be seen that when translating freehand Chinese cuisine names, the taste, ingredients, cooking methods and necessary knowledge background of the dishes must be reflected. So understanding the characteristics of Western dishes names is beneficial to the translation of Chinese freehand dish names. (Zhou Yonghong 2008, 101)<br />
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众所周知，跨文化交际中饮食文化的交流与日常生活紧密相连。中国菜品既是佳肴又是艺术品，其具有深厚的文化底蕴和审美价值。湘菜中有许多以典故、传说命名的菜肴以及带人名和地名的菜肴，人们了解其文化背景，才能较成功地将其译为英语。文化层面采取异化为主，归化为辅的翻译策略有助于最大程度告知顾客菜肴的口味、烹饪法和食材，精准传递菜品的文化元素。我认为，使用异化的翻译策略翻译中餐首先要了解西餐的命名的特点。法国名厨Auguste Escoffier 的认为，西餐菜肴通常用人名、地名、神灵、历史事件以及主要原料等命名。对比湘菜和西餐命名和构成特点，可知翻译写意型中餐菜名时需要体现菜名的口味、食材、烹饪方法以及必要的知识背景。由此可见，了解西餐菜名的特点有利于翻译中国写意型菜名的翻译。(周永红 2008, 101)<br />
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=====3.3.1 Dishes Named after Allusions and Legends=====<br />
以典故、传说命名的菜肴<br />
There are many dishes named after allusions and legends in Chinese and Western cuisine. These dishes have historical and cultural origins and are not suitable for literal translation. For example, the famous French dish Veronique（薇洛妮克）is named after the mythical goddess. The white juice symbolizes her beautiful appearance, and the white grapes next to it symbolize her tears.“姊妹团子” is a local snack in Hunan Province. It is made by grinding the finest glutinous rice into a fine powder, and the inset is a meat filling made of raw materials such as fresh meat, mushrooms, monosodium glutamate and sesame oil. The shape is a long cone with a pointed top and a flat bottom. After being steamed, it looks like a small white pagoda. The origin of this dish is as follows: in the early 1920s the young and beautiful Jiang sisters set up a stall selling glutinous rice dumplings in the polder of the Fire Palace in Changsha. The dumplings they made were delicious and beautiful, and people were full of praise for it. The translation “Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)” points out that the main raw material of this dish is rice ball, the auxiliary materials are meat and sugar, and the cooking method is steam, which makes it clear at a glance (operations12, 2008)<br />
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中餐和西餐中有不少以典故、传说命名的菜肴。这些菜有历史文化渊源，不适合采用直译的方法。例如，法国名菜Veronique（薇洛妮克）以神话女神命名，白汁与象征着她的美丽容貌，配在旁边的白色提子象征着她的眼泪。“姊妹团子”是湖南省地方特色小吃。其制作时用上等糯米磨成细粉，内陷是由鲜肉、香菇、味精、芝麻油等原料构成的肉馅。外形是尖顶平底长型锥体，蒸熟后像一座白色的小宝塔。这道菜肴的由来如下：本世纪20年代初在长沙火宫殿的圩场上年轻漂亮的姜氏姐妹摆了一个卖团子的摊子，她们制作的团子既好吃又好看，人们对此赞不绝口。译文“Steamed glutinous rice ball (with meat/sugar in it)”指出此菜主要原料是rice ball、辅料为meat和sugar,烹饪方法为steam,让人一目了然。(百度百科operations12, 2008)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”is a dish named after an allusion. It is said that a woman surnamed Zhang(张氏) opened a restaurant in Xiangxi (湘西，the west of Hunan province), but her business was not very good due to the large area and sparse population. To make matters worse, her ducks raised in the house are fierce and domineering, ruining the crops every day, not laying eggs properly and causing Zhang to hold the bamboo poles and rush and scold them every day: “You damn ducks, you are like bandits!” She was so angry with these ducks to kill all of them. Because these wild ducks are delicious and Zhang's cooking skills are good, the ducks she burns are soft and tender, and they are delicious, attracting people to smell the fragrance and attracting a large number of guests. Someone asked what this dish was called. Because of the ducks Zhang was extremely angry at that time, and she casually replied: “What kind of dish? Wild ducks!” Since then this dish has become famous. (百度百科) If we use the translation strategy of domestication to translate this dish as “Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”, it is incredible. Translating “湘西土匪鸭” into “Xiangxi wild ducks” not only allows guests to understand the special ingredients of the dish, but it embodies the legendary story of Xiangxi. (Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping 2016, 121-122)<br />
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“湘西土匪鸭”是以典故命名的菜肴。传说湘西以前一个姓张的妇人开了一家餐馆，由于地广人稀，生意不太好。更糟糕的是，家中饲养的鸭子凶悍霸道，天天糟蹋庄稼，不好好下蛋，害得张氏天天拿着竹竿又赶又骂:“你们这些该死的鸭子，简直像土匪!。她一气之下把这些鸭子全杀了。由于这些爱撒野的鸭子肉质鲜美，且张氏厨艺很好，她烧的鸭子酥软嫩滑，鲜香绝伦，引得食客闻香而至,吸引大量的客人。有人问这叫什么菜，张氏气极，随口答：“什么菜/土匪鸭!”从此这道菜名声大震。(百度百科)若使用归化的翻译策略将这道菜译为“Brigand in Xiangxi ducks”让人匪夷所思。把“湘西土匪鸭”译成“Xiangxi wild duck”不仅能让客人了解菜的特殊食材，而且体现了湘西这个传奇的故事。 (张艳萍, 张伟平 2016, 121-122)<br />
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=====3.3.2 Dish Names with Place Names and People's Names=====<br />
带地名和人名的菜名<br />
There are usually two translation methods for the name of a dish with a person's name and a place name in the name of a western dish: dish name + place + style; place /person’s name + dish name. For example, Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果) uses the second translation method, indicating the origin and ingredients of the dish name. This is a classic dessert in Spanish restaurants. All kinds of fruits are cut into small pieces and then mixed with sugar water or juice. It's a little like Chinese fruit with sugar. The name of this dish is related to the Great Alexander of the Macedonian Empire in the fourth century BC. At the age of 30 Alexander established the largest empire in the history of the time and promoted the integration of races, cultures and languages throughout the empire. In the 18th century the French called things that combined various elements "Macedonia". Therefore, this candied fruit chowder is named "Fruit Macedonia".“攸县香干”is a famous characteristic traditional soy product in Hunan Province, which originated in Youxian County, Hunan Province(湖南省攸县). This dish tastes smooth and tender. Tofu is easy to taste and has an aftertaste after eating. It is a home-cooked dish which is suitable for all ages. The translation "Dried tofu, Youxian style" uses the foreignization translation strategy to point out from the cultural level that the raw material of the dishes is dried tofu, and it reflects the local characteristics of Youxian County. (zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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西式菜名中带人名和地名的菜名通常有两种翻译方法：菜名+地名+style ; 地名/人名+菜名。例如，Macedonia de fruta(马其顿水果)的译文使用了第二种翻译方法，指明菜名的产地和原料. 这是西班牙餐馆中一道经典的饭后甜点。各种水果切成小丁后，伴上糖水或果汁，有点像咱们中国的糖渍水果。这道菜名和公元前四世纪的马其顿帝国的亚历山大大帝有关。亚历山大大帝在30岁时就建立了当时史上最大的帝国，并促进帝国内各地的种族、文化、语言等的大融合。到了18世纪，法国人就把融合了各种各样元素的事物称之为“马其顿”。因此，这道糖渍水果大杂烩就取名为“水果马其顿”了。“攸县香干”是湖南省著名的特色传统豆制品，起源于湖南省攸县境内。这道菜口感滑嫩、韧性足、口味纯、细而不腻，有点劲道。豆腐很容易入味，吃完后有回味，是一道老少适宜的家常菜。译文“Dried tofu ，Youxian style”采用异化的翻译策略从文化层面指出了菜的原料是烘干的豆腐，而且体现攸县的地方特色。 (百度百科 zzpingic1130, 2010)<br />
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“玉麟香腰”was created by the chef of Peng Yulin(彭玉麟), a famous official in Hengyang(衡阳,a city of Hunan province) in the Qing Dynasty, and the name of the dish came from this. The main ingredient is pork loin. There are a variety of snacks in a bowl. The dishes are divided into seven layers, stacked one after another and shaped like a pagoda(宝塔). It's also known as “pagoda fragrant waist”(宝塔香腰). If this dish is translated as "sweet pig kidney", it is difficult to explain its cultural heritage, and it does not show the beauty of this dish's visual “step by step”(步步高升) like a pagoda. “玉麟香腰”can be translated into English as “Yulin’s best homely dish”. According to legend, when Peng Yulin returned home to banquet his fellow villagers, he used “玉麟香腰” as the first dish. “Peng Yulin's best family banquet dishes”(彭玉麟最好的家宴菜) can ingeniously explain the origin of this dish and undoubtedly explain why this dish is also called “touwan”(头碗，the first dish). The English translation of the name of the dish implies “top”(顶级，最好). It seems to mean “to reach the highest level”(登塔至级). Translation of “Yulin’s best homely dish” not only conforms to the psychological world of diners, but also fully considers the audience’s cognitive needs and aesthetic expectations. （Zhang Yanping，Zhang Weiping，2016,121-122）<br />
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“玉麟香腰”是清代衡阳名官彭玉麟家厨创作而成，菜名由此而来。其主要食材是猪腰，一个碗里有多种小吃，菜分七层，层层堆砌，形状象宝塔，又名“宝塔香腰”。若将此菜译为“Sweet pig kidney”则很难解释它的文化底蕴，亦没有呈现这道菜视觉上“步步高升”如宝塔的美感。，“玉麟香腰”可以英译成 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish，因相传彭玉麟回乡宴请父老乡亲时，为表示丰盛，第一道菜就用的是“玉麟香腰”。“彭玉麟最好的家宴菜”能巧妙地解释了此菜的起源，无疑说明了此菜又称为“头碗”的缘由，且菜名英译中“最好”有蕴含“顶级”，似“登塔至级”之意：菜英译名 Yulin’s Best Homely Dish 不仅顺应了食客的心理世界，也充分考虑到受众的认知需要与审美期待。（张艳萍，张伟平，2016,121-122）<br />
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====3.4 Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Hunan Cuisine====<br />
Translation strategies that adopt the combination of domestication and foreignization can ensure the clarity of English translation of Hunan cuisine and retain its cultural connotation, but there are still shortcomings, which are mainly reflected in the following three aspects. Firstly, foreignization requires translators to move closer to readers and try their best to use their familiar and accustomed expressions, but sometimes it is difficult to find corresponding words in the target language, especially when we translate the culturally loaded words. For example, the dishes which represent happiness and lucky in Chinese include “四喜丸子”, “百鸟朝凤” and “全家福”. When we translate these dishes from Chinese into English, we don't know which words should be used to convey auspicious and beautiful meanings on the basis of accurately expressing the meaning of them. Secondly, due to the limitation of menu capacity, the meaning of Chinese dishes named after allusions, legends, and myths can’t be fully expressed. If it is literally translated or transliterated, the guests may be very confused. The choice of transliteration and annotation is too much content, which violates the principle of concise menus. For example, if we translate“佛跳墙” into “Fotiaoqiang” or “Buddha jumping the wall”, it does not reflect the essence of this dish. “Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth” is more appropriate, but not concise enough. Thirdly, due to the variety of cooking methods and seasonings in China, when translating Hunan cuisine into English the use of domestication is beneficial to people who understand Chinese food culture, but for most foreigners who do not know or are not familiar with these cooking methods and seasonings this type of translation will increase the difficulty of understanding.(Fan Jiwen 2016, 13-14) For example,“干锅烧明虾” and “红烧肉” both have the word “burn”(烧), but the translations are completely different. They should be translated as follows: “Fried prawns with pepper sauce” and “braised pork with brown sauce”. The cooking method of the first dish is “fried”(煎), and the second dish is “stewed”（炖）.（Zhang Yang，2016,48）<br />
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采用归化和异化结合的翻译策略能最大限度地保证湘菜译文清晰明了，保留其蕴含的文化内涵，但仍有不足，主要体现在以下三个方面。第一，异化要求译者向读者靠拢，尽可能用他们熟悉和习惯的表达方式，但有时候很难在目的语中找到对应的词语，尤其是文化负载词的翻译。比如汉语中表示吉祥的菜包括“四喜丸子”、“百鸟朝凤”、“全家福”，翻译时在准确表达菜名含义的基础上不知道该用什么词来传达吉祥美好的意思。第二，由于菜单容量的限制，以典故、传说、神话等命名的中国菜肴的含义不能完全表达。如果直译或者音译，客人可能会十分困惑。选择音译加注解的方式则内容太多，违背菜单简洁的原则。例如，“佛跳墙”如果译成“Fotiaoqiang”or “Buddha jumping the wall”未体现这道菜的本质。“Fotiaoqiang-steamed abalone with shark’s fin and fish maw in broth”比较贴切，但不够精简。第三，由于中国的烹饪方法和调料多种多样，英译时使用归化的翻译策略对于了解中国饮食文化的人来说是有利的，但是对于大部分不知道或者不熟悉这些烹饪方法和调料的外国人来说，这类的译文会增加他们的理解难度。(范继文 2016, 13-14) 比如， “干锅烧明虾”与“红烧肉”都有“烧”字，但是译法却是完全相同的，应该分别翻译如下：“Fried Prawns with Pepper Sauce”与“Braised Pork with Brown Sauce”。第一道菜的烹饪方法是“煎”，第二道菜则是“炖”。（张扬，2016,48）<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Although foreignization and domestication are theoretically opposite, they are complementary and indispensable in the process of English translation of Chinese dish names. Taking translation strategies of domestication and foreignization from the linguistic and cultural levels can not only be faithful to the original, but also embody the rich cultural connotations and Chinese elements contained in the dish names. Therefore, the English translation of Chinese dish names is an indispensable part of cross-cultural communication and an important link in spreading Chinese traditional culture. I hope this chapter can provide some valuable reference for future research on the English translation of Chinese dish names. (Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu 2009, 58)<br />
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尽管异化与归化在理论上是对立的，但在中国菜名英译过程中二者的作用是相辅相成，缺一不可的。针对写实型和写意型的菜肴从语言和文化层面采取异化和归化的翻译策略不仅能够尽可能地忠于原文，还可以体现菜名中蕴含的丰富文化内涵和中国元素。由此可见，中国菜名的英译是跨文化交际中不可或缺的一部分，是传播中国传统文化的重要环节。希望本文能为未来中国菜名英译研究提供一些有价值的参考。 (王瑛瑛， 张瑜 2009, 58)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Wei. 陈蔚. (2007). “从中式菜名的英译看异化与归化策略的运用” [ Application of Foreignization and Domestication in the Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “黄石理工学院学报” [Journal of Huangshi Institute of Technology] (1):107-108.<br />
*Fan Jiwen. 范继文. (2016). “归化异化理论视角下的中式菜名英译研究——以川菜菜名翻译为例” [A study on the English translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization-Taking Chuan Cuisine as an Example]. Tianjin: 天津财经大学 [Tianjin University of Finance and Economics].<br />
*Lin Hong. 林红. (1991). “浅析中国菜名的英译问题” [A Study on the Problems of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “四川烹饪高等专科学校学报” [Journal of Sichuan Culinary College] (2):41-42.<br />
*Jiang Jun. 姜君. (2017). “浅析异化与归化视角下的中餐菜名英译” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言文化” [Language and culture](3):203.<br />
*Operations (2008.3.10). 姊妹团子. [Steamed Glutinous Rice Ball]. "Baidu Encyclopedia". https://baike.baidu.com/item/姊妹团子.<br />
*Su Songlonghua. 宿松龙华. (2011.1.13). 归化异化. [Domestication and Foreignization]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/归化异化.<br />
*Shen Sangshuang, Wang Shuqiong. 沈桑爽，王淑琼. (2017). “传统杭帮菜名称英译的归化与异化翻译策略研究” [A Study on the Translation Strategies of Domestication and Foreignization in the English Translation of the Names of Traditional Hangbang Dishes]. “安徽文学” [Anhui Literature] (8):87-88+104.<br />
*Wang Junjian. 王君健. (2017). “中国菜名翻译现状与思考” [Translation Status and Thoughts of Chinese Dish Names]. “海外英语” [Overseas English] (11):107-108.<br />
*Wang Shaofei. 王少飞. (2006). “文学翻译的异化与优化” [Foreignization and Optimization of Literary Translation]. Beijing: 对外经济贸易大学 [Foreign Economic and Trade University].<br />
*Wang Yingying, Zhang Yu. 王瑛瑛，张瑜. “异化与归化策略在中国菜名翻译中的应用” [The Application of Foreignization and Domestication Strategies in the Translation of Chinese Dishes]. “商洛学院学报” [Journal of Shangluo University] (3):54-58.<br />
*Xiong Bing. 熊兵. (2014). “翻译研究中的概念混淆——以‘翻译策略’、‘翻译方法’和‘翻译技巧’为例” [Conceptual Confusion in Translation Studies: a Case Study of "Translation Strategies", "Translation Methods" and "Translation Skills"]. “中国翻译” [China Translators Journal] (3):82-88.<br />
*Xia Ying. 夏瑛. (2016). “浅谈中国菜名英译中存在的一些问题及对策研究” [A Study on the Problems and Measures in the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names]. “科技视界” [The Vision of Science and Technology] (26):259+273.<br />
*Zhang Yang. 张扬. (2016). “中餐菜名的英译研究——以湘菜菜名为个案” [A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes: Taking Hunan Cuisine as an Example]. “英语广场” [English Square] (6):47-48.<br />
*Zhou Yonghong. 周永红. (2008). “接受美学视阈下的湘菜翻译探讨” [A Study on the Translation of Hunan Cuisine from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. “贵州工业大学学报” [Journal of Guizhou University of Technology] (1):101-102+105.<br />
*Zhang Yanping, Zhang Weiping. 张艳萍，张伟平. (2016). “基于语料库的湘菜菜名英译研究” [A Corpus-based Study on the English Translation of Hunan Dishes]. “南华大学学报” [Journal of Nanhua University] (1):119-122.<br />
*Zzpingic1130 (2010.8.7). 攸县香干. [Dried Tofu, Youxian Style]. “Baidu Encyclopedia”. https://baike.baidu.com/item/攸县香干.<br />
*Zhang Zhizhong. 张志中. (2005). “兼容并蓄 双层操作——异化归化之我见” [Inclusive and Double Operation -- My View on Foreignization and Domestication]. “语言与翻译” [Language and translation] (2):44-48.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115466History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T08:46:59Z<p>Zhangqi: /* References */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
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Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
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Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
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==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
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===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
<br />
First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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3.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
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*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
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*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
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*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
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“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
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The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
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The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
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Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
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Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
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Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
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Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
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Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
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Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
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The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
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Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
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Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
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The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
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Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
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Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
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Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
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Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
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One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
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Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
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Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
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Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
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In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
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2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
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Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
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Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
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The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
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There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
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Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
<br />
Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
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[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
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[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
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[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
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(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
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Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
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Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
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Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
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Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
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Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
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Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
<br />
Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
<br />
The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
<br />
The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
[4] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 1981. 快乐王子. 上海：少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] 巴金. 2003. 巴金译文选集. 北京: 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
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[6] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 2010. 快乐王子. 上海: 上海译文出版社<br />
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[7] 方梦之. 2004. 译学辞典. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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[8] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学概述.外国语(上海外国语学院学报), (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学基本理论构想.中国翻译, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
<br />
[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115461History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T08:43:10Z<p>Zhangqi: /* References */</p>
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<br />
=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
<br />
The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
<br />
To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
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*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
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*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
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*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
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*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
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==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
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Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
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鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
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===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
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Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
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First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
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Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
<br />
2.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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3.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
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SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
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TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
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Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
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The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
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Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
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“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
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If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
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The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
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If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
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The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
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Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
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Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
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===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
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Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
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Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
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The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
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If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
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The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
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===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
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To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
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猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
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To shed crocodile tears<br />
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Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
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Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
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猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
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To shed crocodile tears<br />
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Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
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瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
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Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
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The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
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瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
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Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
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===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
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Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
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云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
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The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
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Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
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云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
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If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
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The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
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卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
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The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
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The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
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To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
<br />
(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
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===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
<br />
Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
<br />
This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
<br />
Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
<br />
This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
<br />
Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
<br />
Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
<br />
One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
<br />
First, we will look at the original text:<br />
<br />
Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
<br />
The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
[4] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 1981. 快乐王子. 上海：少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] 巴金. 2003. 巴金译文选集. 北京: 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 2010. 快乐王子. 上海: 上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] 方梦之. 2004. 译学辞典. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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[8] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学概述.外国语(上海外国语学院学报), (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学基本理论构想.中国翻译, (04):19-24.<br />
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[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
<br />
[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqihttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115374History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T07:40:44Z<p>Zhangqi: /* Conclusion */</p>
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
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First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
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Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
3.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2 Lu Xun<br />
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In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
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From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
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*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
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*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
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*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
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*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
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When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
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As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
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As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
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Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
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This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
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This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
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Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
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Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
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Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
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In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
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Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
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In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
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Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
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Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
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The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
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Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
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“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
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“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
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If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
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<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
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[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
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[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
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[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
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(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
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Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
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Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
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Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
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Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
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Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
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Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
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Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
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Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product. <br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which suppresses alliteration and is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
<br />
For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
<br />
Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
<br />
In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
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Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
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通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
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====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
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The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
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It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
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On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
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Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
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[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.</div>Zhangqi